Ma) Class_B chepPes v= The class B ChoPpe, ___:OPerates In. the Second Guadsant of .Yo~ io ‘Plane. The ledd vehagezs Positive & load. ___.Cuarent ts negative. The load .Curssend_ Flows out of #e load. Since the Cuspeny ___Sewes Prem lead te Source, energy for: —__iFrem lead te_Seusce, This Situation 7s —,QNSe Caled as Investing oPeration. Such. —— ,Sttuation occurs during tke braking OF - de motor. The Qnesxgy. Aksociaied With the |Back emf of tne motes is fed bate to th ——{Sousce, Hence _Cursrent becomes negative, : a ee #25 Class ¢ “Chop Per:- The Class @ LCA Pe >. ——{_OPerntes in too Quadrantd!, ei al —_|Combinatron OF Class: A'S Class RR __{ChoPPes 4 oOPerares - ani lO LeHert thier a tel) Gs IWnvestes. in tne first Quadrant, i fpmeoad mosoring taxes Place ishile tn +e. Qeest Auadrans regenerative braxing taxes - —Pioc®. Curzent mov be negetive ax Post L it ese ‘ yin_weststive load —=?| then 1-8 Semi conven ter _ ‘S Under vegistive ae Poretares O22 Forward biased Inthe Positive half Cycle oF ane Power sll —staS, TR ‘triggered a+ fixin angle. %- —____{Cuszen+ flows: cthe ough the load the Louveferm of OurPut voliove is Same Ox of SuPPiy¥ Vo aye, a . a = iepl emese decnniques he OuPul vanage! Cantal | Purse eee a ee : SS —_ S| Frequency Modulation, —2>| Cm Current [Tmit Control —* [Vorra4e- control for ‘inves +e) — | Prove dis Placement Contso | > _Veltape Contra) a‘k_[Snubber Crtuit Sirs design —=4 The ee can be Protected De aise Rec netuint is Connected in Porc Cizcuit. The vesistance oF his Cratwit f, |OF Few hundred. Ohms. Whenever there | 0. loxge SPixe /oxr Vo (4or.qe Jon Sie __, Across. “the thuricior, THIS Gbsoxbed b _ {the gnubbex circuit. It acts OA alow ipa Seer Son thie. Vo [+04e +runs ie __{Thus the ahrxissor ‘RR Pro tected gains Vo \taye treansients. | ge a at ~ Bret < ove [ Scanned by s¥Snner Go~__ CNClo Conver ex ; 7 —> A device Whith Converts inPur Power _ak.One Sone to. OUtPuUt Power or a _diffesent Trequency wWitn one Stay e: - ‘Convession 1% called a Cyclo Converter, \4 Ts basically One Stage . Frequency Change, \CMcloconvertersS ave of two +y¥Pes. /SteP down Cyclo converter. Set! * = ® SreP uP Cylln Convene! =? SIN _Cuclo Converteys THis Oko Paisue ~ Le. ob enier SG toi. ney ilad ian. 21 APPlicastions OF Cele comeicears 2 a: ast Adjustable SPeedsvin Ac motor. 2) Ac te Ac. vo eer 4) yi Main mo+ors = | ving welling mine hois4s % INS: “one COSMNG sos | “Me avs Cement Kilns, : it load. The P Convextex 1S Coole of SuPPlying, {Positive Volage Gcxoss tne_load & N-Conver te’ i CaPable of Supplying negative voltage Acvoss —_ | 4he load. The load “Cuzren+ Can either be +e 02 —_|=ve, “hus Ane cyclo Converter oPexates in om tre {4 Auadrants OF Vp- io Plane. ‘The outPut Grecuency — lie contmned. The ouspus frequency i tess than tn Put Frequency.[Pa SS [mia Poins [suep uP _ If to1d Curlo Cenveriers = 2 When tre Frequency of out Pus ic highez_ thy dine Feequency of tnPut th On te Cucte fons exten \sLased - Mid Points Sel uP Cwre Convey ber inme sve ho cucie, Tr Conducts tom pty ey —_|hense tne outfit voliage is sitive The Onn Voltage udaveFores nas a: Teeoweney of fe ae Pa Effect of Quritchi in Feuer On : Channel c armas beeaats hie SPectsum) - As the Suritthing Ssequency is incvedsed me hovmonié 9S Pectrun Shits to. higher range o & Freauencies. ae ME is the Tasio_ of Caaziex Fogautncy a9. recut neiases _ =Pace NO - + UniPolae Be ———__ bus = ad LIne ynifolor Pw inverter, the “Plurity tot _ Pwr. Voltaye zemaing Positive | OT 2030 clus ih the Positive hall cycle Period, ease phe Basse ied _+o_ Generate tuniPalas Outbut Py mad i HDEECANEtay S iba o ios 4 1» a 2) & 2 ¥ & 4 oan] FOr indwetton moioz daives.. = Full bridge tofology of iv bridge inverters | yesistive load , St het Ve! | > Wt. ° : _ wt | | Advantages Of PWM Conbol:- . | Cortze| “OF outPut Voltage. Loithin inverter _. self. a : ee Variation. oF OutPus Treauency. i el |Cantxo\ of hazmonics in output by Comrolling OF Purses Per half cucie, : Contyol Of Voltaye frequency satio cohichis obit ree Disadvantages OF Pwr conten: LComPiexity OF the oe — — Tere axe yoituye sPikes - There Ts wadiolreauency interference High Swi (hing loss duete ‘ign Pwr TrenanceHook ontyoiel Coy consists oF ha\® number of __1SCRs -& half number oF — ____{ diodes - — —> ,OPerares in. only one Quadrant —>| OurPut voltage is ‘ouwoys | Positive. a \nterpat Sree wheeling Octio {is Present. > | Powea Factor is better, - 002. Inversion is not Possible +> Inversion fs Pessibie. - VERTED > Consisas. Of atthe ScRs OS Controlled. devices, : ‘Can. _oPerate j nn 1 40 Quadyants. — Oust Pus Voltage Can be Negative fox induttive loads, ° external Tree wheeling action ts Present, v Dual_conyerier : oe a oa oS oo +A. Prose uu_cerves. +ey OPerates jn : Nene s fi wctive load. LF two! : = [iio Akos TRC Sree eel ee | Connected * back +0 back then it is, Possible | fo Qe+ Four Quadrant OPercdion. S | converters. Ore’_xnown OS dual Conver tess _ hey. OPerate in au Sour quadrants, The P-_. _ -convertex hos the OutPut Voi $, i+. OPexates — ot in_xectiFitarion. “Eat ofeyates «£90 “The _N fenvertex wuts! Wek / a eee ea _jiné the Lun vession & Mor OP Peas — ee as (oad. they oPexate On. ‘Tnductive ——| pee eae a ee — Vo Ca = \ Flow, 7 | Yor ovr fo___ISince one Conversrex OPerates in. rectifying tl mode, Other Convestor OPexctes in. Tnversi _____|mode_theix_ a Values must be a Lin Sige, __Verlar) = —Sis See iT _ a the. igi eaneeeses S Can be oPesoted _ —— hilt or edt Oust Corgplating — Cuspent_| Mat2ixX Conver tex. ‘T+ uses: tre - masyix of | Switches So that Gny of the. inPut Prose voitage __,Can be Connected to any of the OutPut load Phase. [There is excchy one Switch fox Coach oF +e ___. | Possivle- connection between SuPPly Sy, load. AS Shown. Sex, Sy , Sax Ave .Suaitches to any of ithe TnPut Phase load 7. Simi taxly the Switthes iSpy, Sve § Seay. connect any of tne in Put to ___| load Prose Y. Switches’ Spe, Sye & Sap Connect ony oF the InPut+4to load Phose b. The inPut/¢ __-_ (Bier ix used to. eliminate haxmenic Curses _ ___\in tre _inPut Side. The Swoitthes have Q%= £12 Combinations . But only Fare Used, The maximw — ae _honsfosmetion vatio TS O°8bb. L :2 Ak, Svpw iM = the Svm_ . x OS unit yatner tron 2B different Prases. The lOutPut wove forms axe © in investex in 8 unique States . Dinital creat love used 4o imPlemens Sv M _ @mnese technique, Control 1s Such that the PwM lead line Ve lage Lin venage Ceual to a Given pefexence load! Ii Nolrage. “The States. Sot te veten -Oxe_Ceierted leach Sompling Period. The Penind of *he States & tneiy time Periods Are OccomPlished With fre he —Nevoge tre gen oes SS Phase Here vm ig mem ‘tude of _vettos To ing ons oF oe Pexabicste a7 |The inverters in Which in Pye Cursent rs Constant x2 Known oS Cursent Source tnver ters, The oOutPut Cumentis Also Constant bur ne S OutPut_voltage—dePend son tae bend —_-_ > inPut_cusent JS Constant hence ro no Possibility of Shoxt Civeuit. ee CSI Can hondle veactive_or “regenerative leas, vorthout freewheeling _ diode. The Va ximum Curvent of the “Power devices is : fixed, Disodvan toes oF CQpsny se 7 | I+ needs lowe inductance +o Qenerate Constant ___ - ~CUxvent . es Since curvent ic limited, Drnamic aes Ponce. is stow: l ike: we 1tChi se Pines, Prue Que -veaued 4p Surbress these SPikes : : - Zdevire conduct in | interval..+78 devices Conduct int intervell. > |line voltage is Quasi square T>line voltaye is Six step coaveform wove boitn + % wit, tvs 9 +4 __ =? |cx0ss conduttion is Tensei Jocume Coauurionnes cue | __=—7 |Devices. ave better Udilized..-P?-Devices are undey pti lized. — —Y| out Put Power is higner 7? OutPut Power is less | because OF higher vaitaye | because of lower ~ttage cee ine_GQms) = “Sa “Vine Cems) > V5 7 an 3 =__a | APP ications of Pe __ => lunintermpribie Fower Supplies & Stand by Sse} Pe cee hangers Cte; Critical leads Such as ComPuters, medica! CQuipments ¢ Power con+zol in resistance ‘Oetcingy—induction hetin ee . Seed Control. ofr Motors. tohich Ore used ia traction Solid “Cioa 2 Power ComPensatars.bynvichormer tae. a a HiQh Voliage Supplies Fox cletsoStatic PeriPitator « i. Qenerstors: —_|& %-vaox ___ >| Power _ Suteites_ for commuuiestinn Svsiems, 4e1eP hand {has hign Voltage Fiuctunsi ftuct uations —7 | Power Control is Ochieved +? ___|b4_Yorting the on & off fo aime Lxchanges , Cateilite Qvctems e+e. OnlorF Co oe =? | Fun Surety Voltage Ts cpptial ” Supply voliage ated —piress tne_load fora Few [oP plied to toad in every cue icucies mF inPus. of inkuy : Thyzistox Co g h = Ss a 4 voltage is Applied ' PSP caged tial to te toad hence FO, hence Out Pus pve! there ave less veltage — 7 Power contro! is thi@ved by Centaoiing +¢ Metion “Pestod _al [high votues of cunrend. But ane drive peauiremeny i al =7 (The. insulated _ oo _pipolar 1 Seer | device in Power etectvonics.It is Obtained by fee tone 1S the rate DS Combining the YroPerties of RBsT i mosrer, We Know that BST has lowe? On State losses for _ OF BIT lisne comPlicated. The drive of Moseer LTS Vey Simp bus it has higher onState losses. The Sate Ciacuis of mostet § the Conector emitter |Ciacuit oF BST ove combined toyetex to Foor LO new device. This device Is Caned Tot. Thus [IGET_hos the Advantages Of both, RIT S Mosret.. heget Ve ee ee |Current Si1ows Txpm Couetior to Omitter Loheneve® __| Voltage bekoeen Gate § emitier jc OPPlied. ,kl Buck 2equletoe.. 5] 1n_buck regulator the Overy? Our Pub VoLage Is tess than the SuPPIY voliaye. The. buck. reauIq [is similar do 4 Q1ePdown ChoPPerx «. The Inductan 1 §& Cafecitor C07e the Siltexing ComPorents [Due to Freewheeling diode, 6 %C the OutPut volt gq Cysren? Qe main ain ed Continous & 7iPPle Fre ac A, 8 TI oe = oT ar a Sa — T Se = Comers [| = eens Aaa aS 7 tt = > el = Tmin : we = oO ee be Scanned by Scanner Go~ Boost Requiatoy i [The Boost sequlator Provides Ther. OurPur voltage | than inPut Voltage... The. boost vequittor is like te ___ | Step ue ChoPPer . It has MosFET ox a Stotth. Wher ithe Gottch_ Is tuned on, it conducts from 0 to ST LHence. Curzent Slows thIOUBh Inductance, Eneagy 1S Stovéd by inductance: during this Period. The output _ Voltage & Curvent ave maintained by Vitter CaPacitor, i [The OutPut Cussent ic continous & pippie Pree due = _jto tne CoPacttor sk Ut 5 ee — yam. b> +Eoe Buck Boost Regulators. ET Polarity. oF Buck boost requidtor is OPPos it. trot of InPus. Voitage. Hence this 1s Also Cote |OS investing zequiater., The OutPut voltage of mis sequiainr._can be _{aecter. than Oz 15S thy the Put Voltage, Hence the__name Qiven ic buck boost. regulators. LC & Di Oze fiiterin _|¢omPonents &~T) i& the -+ransistox Siwitce | VOTIAHE cress Le. a To oe —_ je | et“Power _MosEET i bac J 7, The. metal Oxide _ Semiconductor Field esfect ___ |dtansistorS ave majoalty Carrier devices, The MosFeT hos 2 derminals, Yote dain S Source. iden Moseer is tusned_on, the. _Cuxzend __|Ftows From drain to Souce. The voltave is _laPPlied between Qore Source to turn on me \MosFéT. Very Smalcusrent Flows from Gate t +0 Source, Oni Vottage is to be aPPlied Fo turn ON 4ne _MosfeT. The. Sate has Furr [aa ol Ovex +ne Conduction of the Mesrey, a -R fning_$ o Re =e Hing CK.solu 8 not Stabe . fod => =>! Firing angie can Vory—.7 ; Soom 50° 90% From_ot te 180° | Cost is tess =P cost TS moze. 7 {Consisss of half no of ScQ Eee ne oe ees | =, OPerctes_in_ one Quadrant - Out Put —— _| Fun comelied Convertey =? | ik be ____|Prsitive ; ve For ‘inductive loads => Interna) Sree voneeling. bh Oxrexncl Free theo lint (Action ts Presens Action i. Presend. onl wae Pr i x ee pear eean Ts not Pascibled? inversion 1. Pose =z Consists of half no of +> Consist al) ScR as —{SCR.4 hulf ne of diodes. Icontrolled device. = eaates \n_onlY_| Quudum +? oPesates ta 2 Tubdaant 2 eee = -Pltion is Preseng) 7 {Power factor is beter " vol +Ouwo S Positive, pve due to inductive loads N+ennal free pypeelt 7 external Freewheeling —-~-—.fOLtion Ts Preseny t Jocts =p Power Lactny is Pooe- Inversion is nor Possivle, +> invexcion Ts. Passiple- OPeratesin | Iadeuns P OPerates in 2 Wadeatl Out Put voitowe 7s alwoyet> OUt Pud_Volrage cont Positive - r¥€ due to inductive load:—? 7 _- . ioe a a se j ach device Conducts. fox or Euth ‘device Conducts fos \B0° 120°, ZS devices Condua in | interrart> 2 devices conduct in| inteaval line VolHage is. fuasi Squase “|? line voitaye is 6 54€ P cove Wave with dvs, tform wir th yt - [Coos Conduction Ts Possible}? CBOSS Conduction is no+ Possible, => [Devices Owe beter utitized. 77 devices are Under utr fred, => Out Put Power is hignes 77 Out Put Power is low because OF higher Vouoye |due to low Vo ltog © \ev —> Each device Conducs hor t Each device Conducts 2} ~ a a tee folie A Mic i —? > 2 = ~ _ higher valroume levels, lgo° for_lao’. 2 devices Condutt tn Linter m4? 2 devices condutt 0 1, intenva! fine vo Haye Ts. Quasi squae |” tine Voltage is 6 steP wavefon lwitr t% § + 3. Cross conduction Possible, 2 Cwose Conduction no+ Possible. Devices axe better _ Pp devices ove Undes Uti i2Qv. Vdd OutPut voltage highducio | Out Put voteye low due fo Lae levele” {oth dence Conduts Fox 1go° Peach device prey 120°. 2 device Conduct in | interval fe & device Conduct in | inter —> |line Votaye i Quosi Sauare. line. voliage tis 6 Stef Have woe Win t%. FT with nite & 4 = => [cross Conduction ib. Possible-> Goaiees S5Sui Hon no + ‘Pos 7. => lout Put Power is hil devices One better utilizedt? Devices ove under utilised. outPud Powea is low dueto high Vou age level S$. :| Camo! af votiage frequency veltio which i< Cui abe for induntien ynoter drive, “2 contri of hacemonics ne ee eee PUse_Per hall cucie 7 [=r] tonixel eent0ut vo1inge atin Imexiey seb] Disodvontayes of Pim pees elu There Gxe Volta%e SPiKes ComPlexity OF “fhe -Cixrute ss 5 ‘These aze _votinge SPixes. Fegae is talingseauence Interference ———_| [Duta _Converiea*- A Single Prone Ful) Convesses —joPemtes in 2 Wuodrante for Wductive loud. Hf —twe_Suth Single Phase Ful Converters axe Conn — Pat fe ba eis rane Get 4 9 lyon eteration. Such oferoie in OM 4 Wadsants of __|are_V%o -ie Plane. The P= conver4 | lourPut Vor 2 ite oF tex hos the — {The N converter ofexates in. Anveasian mode S_ (pare. J Control of voltage Seequenty ratio _Lohith is Suita _\fer induction motor drives. | Voxiation in Output frequency ComPlexity of civruta, hiQh TtChi hi wm nner tec n. Such Converteas oe known Ox dual - e2ateS In aectif tcatian mod? hoy OutPut Yor. We two Out Gur oN ty SuRtor adtre loo. They. OPerote On inductive jload. Hence reir Vomes Ove Given Ad, : Vaitav) = 2Vm Cosn,. | TT Yoo Cov) > Vm Coss, 7 ~ oeSingle-Phase Full Bridge Inverter with R-L Load A single-phase full bridge inverter is a power electronic circuit that converts a DC input voltage into a single-phase AC output voltage. It is widely used in various applications such as solar power systems, electric vehicles, and uninterruptible power supplies (UPS). Here's a breakdown of its working principle, circuit diagram, and waveforms for an R-L load: Working Principle: 1. The inverter consists of four electronic switches (usually MOSFETs or IGBTs) arranged in a bridge configuration. These switches are operated in complementary pairs, meaning when one pair is turned ON, the other pair is turned OFF. 2. During the positive half cycle, switches $1 and S4 are turned ON, while S2 and S3 are turned OFF. This allows the DC input voltage to appear across the load, resulting in a positive output voltage. 3. During the negative half cycle, switches S1 and S4 are turned OFF, while S2 and $3 are turned ON. The polarity of the voltage across the load reverses, resulting in a negative output voltage. 4. The switching frequency of the inverter determines the output AC frequency. By adjusting the switching frequency, we can control the output voltage and frequency. Circuit Diagram: Waveforms: « Input Voltage (VDC): This is the DC voltage applied to the inverter input. « Gate Pulses: These are the control signals that turn the electronic switches ON and OFF. « Output Voltage (Vout): This is the AC voltage generated by the inverter. It is a square wave with positive and negative peaks equal to the DC input voltage. « Load Current (IL): This is the current flowing through the R-L load. It is a non- sinusoidal waveform due to the inductive nature of the load. Key Points: « The R-L load introduces a lagging power factor due to the inductive component. This means the current lags behind the voltage, resulting in increased power losses and reduced efficiency. « To improve the power factor and efficiency, additional circuitry such as snubber circuits or active harmonic filters can be employed. « The design of the inverter needs to consider the switching frequency, switching devices, and control circuit to achieve the desired output voltage, frequency, and power handling capability. | hope this explanation clarifies the working of a single-phase full bridge inverter with an R-L load. If you have any further questions, feel free to ask!3-Phase Half-Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL Load in Continuous Conduction Mode A 3-phase half-wave controlled rectifier with an RL load operating in continuous conduction mode (CCM) is a circuit that converts AC voltage from a three-phase source to a regulated DC voltage. Here's an analysis of its working principle and key characteristics: Circuit Diagram: Working Principle: 1. Thyristors: The circuit uses three thyristors (SCR), each connected to one phase of the AC source. Thyristors are unidirectional switches that only conduct current in one direction. 2. Control Circuit: A control circuit triggers each thyristor to turn on (fire) at a specific point in its phase voltage cycle, determined by the firing angle (a). 3. Conduction: During its conduction period, the thyristor allows current to flow from the corresponding phase to the DC output. 4, RL Load: The DC output is connected to an RL load, consisting of a resistor (R) and an inductor (L). 5. Continuous Conduction: In CCM, the inductor current (iL) never falls to zero during a switching cycle. This ensures smooth and continuous DC voltage at the output. Key Characteristics in CCM: « Output Voltage: The average DC output voltage (Vd) depends on the firing angle (a) and the peak phase voltage (Vm): o Vd=(3*¥2* Vm * cos(a)) / 17 « Ripple Current: Due to the half-wave nature, the output voltage has a pulsating DC component with ripple current in the inductor. « Power Factor: The power factor is less than 1 due to the non-sinusoidal nature of the input current. ¢ Control: The firing angle (a) can be adjusted to control the output DC voltage. Waveforms: « Phase Voltages: Three sinusoidal waveforms representing the phase voltages (Va, Vb, Vc) with 120° phase shifts. « Thyristor Firing Pulses: Rectangular pulses indicating when each thyristor is triggered to turn on. « Output Voltage (Vd): Pulsating DC waveform with an average value determined by the firing angle. Inductor Current (iL): Continuous waveform with ripple due to the switching action. Advantages of CCM: « Continuous output current, reducing current stress on components. « Lower harmonic distortion compared to discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). Disadvantages of CCM: « Higher conduction losses in thyristors due to longer conduction periods. « Complex control circuitry required to maintain CCM operation. Applications: « DC motor speed control « Battery charging « Power supplies for welding equipment « Electrolytic refining processesParallel Operation of SCRs: Sharing the Load SCRs (Silicon Controlled Rectifiers) are powerful semiconductor switches commonly used in power electronics applications. While a single SCR has its limitations in terms of current and voltage handling capacity, connecting them in parallel allows you to increase these capabilities. However, it's crucial to understand the challenges and considerations involved in parallel operation. Benefits: « Increased Current Rating: By connecting SCRs in parallel, you can share the load current across multiple devices, effectively increasing the total current handling capacity of the circuit. This is beneficial for high-power applications. « Improved Reliability: If one SCR fails due to overload or other issues, the remaining SCRs can continue operating, preventing complete system failure and enhancing overall reliability. Challenges: « Current Sharing Unequal: Ideally, each SCR in parallel should share the current equally. However, due to slight manufacturing variations or operating conditions, unequal current sharing can occur. This can lead to overheating and premature failure of some SCRs. « Snubber Circuits Needed: To mitigate the effects of unequal current sharing and voltage transients during switching, snubber circuits are often employed across each SCR. These circuits help equalize voltage distribution and reduce stress on individual devices. Methods for Improved Current Sharing: « Careful SCR Selection: Selecting SCRs with tightly matched characteristics (voltage, current, temperature coefficient) can minimize initial differences and improve current sharing. « Dynamic Equalizing Circuits: More complex active circuits can dynamically adjust the impedance seen by each SCR, promoting more equal current distribution. Applications: « High-power DC motor drives: Parallel SCRs allow for controlling large motor currents smoothly and efficiently. « DC power supplies: Parallel configurations are used in high-power DC power supplies to handle substantial currents and voltages. ¢ Soft starters for motors: SCRs in parallel can be used to gradually ramp up the starting current of large motors, reducing inrush current and protecting equipment. Remember: Parallel operation of SCRs requires careful design and consideration to ensure proper current sharing and reliable operation. Implementing the right techniques and components is crucial for maximizing the benefits and mitigating potential drawbacks. | hope this explanation clarifies the concept of parallel operation for SCRs. Feel free to ask if you have any further questions!SCR static V-I characteristics and its behavior in the three modes: SCR Static V-I Characteristics: The static V-I characteristics of an SCR is a graph that shows the relationship between its anode-cathode voltage (Va) and the anode current (la) for different gate currents (Ig). It consists of three distinct regions: 1. Forward Blocking Region: In this region, Va is positive and both J1 and J3 are forward biased, while J2 is reverse biased. No significant current flows through the SCR (la = 0) even with increasing Va, until a specific voltage called the breakdown voltage (Vbr) is reached. At Vbr, avalanche breakdown occurs in J2, leading to a sudden increase in la. 2. Forward Conduction Region: Beyond Vbr, the SCR enters the forward conduction region. J1, J2, and J3 are all forward biased, and the SCR acts like a closed switch with low resistance. la increases rapidly with increasing Va, following an exponential relationship. The specific curve depends on the gate current (Ig). Higher Ig values result in lower forward voltage drop (Vf) and higher la for the same Va. 3. Reverse Blocking Region: When Va is negative (anode is negative, cathode is positive), J1 and J2 are reverse biased, while J3 is forward biased. A small leakage current (Ir) flows in the reverse direction due to minority carriers. This current is usually negligible compared to la in the forward conduction region. SCR Behavior in Different Modes: 1, Forward Blocking: In this mode, Va is positive but below Vbr, and Ig = 0 (no gate current). The SCR remains off, blocking current flow from anode to cathode. 2. Forward Conduction: In this mode, Va is either above Vbr or a positive gate current (Ig) is applied, triggering the SCR to turn on. Current flows freely from anode to cathode with low resistance. The forward voltage drop (Vf) depends on the gate current. 3. Reverse Blocking: In this mode, Va is negative, and the SCR remains off, blocking any significant current flow in the reverse direction. Additional Notes: « The breakdown voltage (Vbr) and leakage current (Ir) are device-specific parameters and can be found in the datasheet. « The SCR can be turned off by reducing the anode current below a specific value called the holding current (Ih). Once turned off, it needs a new trigger (gate current or exceeding Vbr) to turn on again. « Snubber circuits are often used across SCRs to protect them from voltage transients and improve switching performance. | hope this explanation with the visuals helps you understand the SCR static V-I characteristics and its behavior in different modes!Explanation of the operation of an Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) using a sectional view: Sectional View of an IGBT: An IGBT combines the characteristics of a Field-Effect Transistor (FET) with a Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT). It has a layered structure with four main regions: 1. P+ Substrate: This heavily doped p-type region forms the collector of the IGBT and provides a low resistance path for current flow. 2. N- Drift Region: This lightly doped n-type region forms the bulk of the device and sustains the high breakdown voltage. 3. P- Well: This moderately doped p-type region forms the base of the BJT and controls the current flow through the device. 4, N+ Gate Region: This highly doped n-type region forms the gate of the FET and controls the conductivity of the channel. Operation: 1. Turn-off State: When no voltage is applied to the gate, the N+ gate region and the N- drift region are depleted of majority carriers, forming a depletion region that blocks current flow between the collector and emitter. The IGBT is in the off state. 2. Turn-on State: When a positive voltage is applied to the gate, an inversion layer of majority carriers (electrons) is induced in the N- drift region below the gate. This inversion layer forms a conducting channel between the N+ source and the N- drift region, allowing current to flow from the collector to the emitter. The IGBT is in the on state. Key Features: « High Input Impedance: The gate of the IGBT is a highly insulated FET, requiring a very small gate current to turn it on, similar to a MOSFET. « High Current Handling Capability: The current flow in the IGBT is controlled by the BJT, allowing it to handle large currents like a BUT. « Fast Switching Speed: The IGBT can be switched on and off quickly, making it suitable for high-frequency applications. Applications: « Inverters: IGBTs are widely used in inverters for converting DC power to AC power, such as in solar power systems and electric vehicles. + Motor Drives: They are also used in motor drives to control the speed and direction of electric motors. « Power Supplies: IGBTs are used in various power supplies for regulating and controlling voltage and current. | hope this explanation helps! Let me know if you have any other questions.