ISS born at the end of the Cold War and during reconciliation of the US and Russia

→ embodies a high level of cooperation between the spatial powers

despite its joint management, it does not mask the rivalries between the powers

In what ways is the International Space Station an example of multilateralism?

Most of space diplomacy is based on cooperation between stakeholders rather than

confrontation = ISS epitomizes this
mainly financed by the US (98 billion since its creation), it welcomes other main space
powers such as : Europe, Russia, Japan, Canada with the goal of peace and cooperation
American leadership remains fundamental, bc it initiated this project and largely financed its
existence
Russia is also a main contributor as it enabled the transfer of soviet technology after 1991
→ the administrative collapse that followed the Eastern bloc’s crash threatened to wipe out
its space expertise due to lack of funding
this is why the US president multiplied its partnerships with the new Russian Federation to
acquire its technologies and preserve its world renown scientific expertise in space

majority of staff by far is american (54) or russian (41)

→ reflection of global balance

cooperation limited by power issues

China made great progress in this field yet does not wish to collaborate with the US which is
surprising since nowadays they even work with Russia (old nemesis)
Wolf Amendment of 2011 promised to ban NASA’s partnership with China on all scientific
activity out of fear they will take advantage of american technologies
astronaut C. Anderston points out benefits of collaboration in advancement of research and
reduction of conflict outbursts
in 2018 : 1rst big step was made as a chinese experiment was permitted in the american
section of the space program
→ was carried out on DNA to see if absence of gravity would cause genetic mutations
but Wolf Amendment still hinders any true step in the direction of peaceful partnership
India is making its way to the top space powers with its first mission to the moon in 2020 and
its plan to explore Venus by 2023

Background
● international Space Station (ISS), space station assembled in low Earth orbit largely
by the united States and Russia, with assistance and components from a
multinational consortium
● project began as an American effort, was long delayed by funding and technical
problems
● originally called freedom in the 1980s by the U.S. President Ronald Reagan, who
authorized the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to build it
within 10 years, it was redesigned in the 1990Z to reduce costs and expand
international involvement, at which time it was renamed

Assembly
 ● ISS began with the launches of the Russian control module Zarya on November 20,
1998, and the U.S -built Unity connecting node the following month, which were
linked in orbit by U.S space shuttle astronauts

Present Reality
● outer space more integral to Earth than ever before
● Increasing number of space assets
○ ‘Critical’ Civilian applications
○ ‘Vital’ Military uses, incl nuclear deterrence
● increasing number of space faring nations
● increasing of interstate commercial relations

Challenges to Space Security

● National Ambitions
○ Doctrines of dominance & denial
○ Weaponization of space
○ Galloping technological developments on types of space weapons
○ Use of space 4 asymmetric warfare – space disruption easier than space
control
○ Mistrust & lack of transparency & confidence
Guerilla warfare → think about examples like Vietnam where a smaller army can’t defeat
larger army so will do tactics/ small attacks cause its a smaller arm force that would lose if
they had to fight a regular battle with the larger army
● Lack of International Consensus
○ Divergent state priorities
● Lack of Legal Regimes
○ Outpaced by technological developments
○ Different interpretations of ‘peaceful use’, ‘outer space’
● Environmental Concerns
○ Generation of uncontrolled space debris
■ Routine space activity
■ Intentional destruction of satellites
○ Overcrowding in some key orbits
○ Long term impact of induction of satellites
○ Possibility of malfunction and associated dangers to earth and atmosphere

Preventing Arms Race in Outer Space

● Need for collective action
○ Equal vulnerability of all space faring nations
● Need for multilateral mechanisms to
○ Place limits on militarisation
○ Ban weaponization
● Better inter-state relations for political actions
○ Acceptance of common code of conduct
● Very difficult to stop proliferation later
● Act now to ensure secure & sustainable access to & use of outer space

limits to this multilateralist initiative : India example