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Contents
Basic concepts......................................................................................................................................................... 4
Circuit law ................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Magnetic Circuit ...................................................................................................................................................... 7
Magnetic calculations for conductors of different configuration ............................................................ 8
Straight conductor ............................................................................................................................................. 8
Circular conductor ............................................................................................................................................. 8
Solenoidal conductor ........................................................................................................................................ 9
Electromagnetic induction, self and mutual induction................................................................................ 9
Self induction ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
Mutual induction ................................................................................................................................................ 10
Difference between self and mutual induction ......................................................................................... 11
AC Fundamentals ................................................................................................................................................... 11
Sinusoidal wave form ...................................................................................................................................... 12
Simple series and parallel AC circuits consisting of R, L and C ........................................................ 13
Series AC circuit............................................................................................................................................ 13
Parallel AC circuit ......................................................................................................................................... 14
Resonance ........................................................................................................................................................... 16
Series resonance .......................................................................................................................................... 16
Parallel resonance ....................................................................................................................................... 17
Tank Circuit ......................................................................................................................................................... 17
Poly Phase system – star and delta connection, 3 phase power ...................................................... 18
Star connection ............................................................................................................................................. 18
Delta connection............................................................................................................................................ 19
DC and sinusoidal response of R-Land R-C circuit ............................................................................... 19
Power and energy measurement................................................................................................................ 20
Single-phase power and energy measurement ...................................................................................... 21
Three-phase power and energy measurement ....................................................................................... 21
One-wattmeter method .............................................................................................................................. 21
Two-wattmeter method ............................................................................................................................. 23
Measurement and measuring instruments .................................................................................................. 24
Frequency and phase angle measurement.............................................................................................. 25
Ammeter and voltmeter (both moving oil and moving iron type) ..................................................... 25
Moving oil ammeter and voltmeter ........................................................................................................ 26
Moving iron ammeter and voltmeter ..................................................................................................... 26
Extension of range wattmeter ..................................................................................................................... 27
Multimeters ........................................................................................................................................................ 28
Megger ................................................................................................................................................................. 28
Energy meter ..................................................................................................................................................... 29
AC Bridges .......................................................................................................................................................... 29
Use of CRO, Signal Generator, CT, PT and their uses ........................................................................... 30
Electrical Machines .............................................................................................................................................. 32
D.C. Machine ........................................................................................................................................................... 32
Construction of D.C. Machine........................................................................................................................ 32
Basic Principles of D.C. Motors and Generators .................................................................................... 33
Characteristics of D.C. Motors and Generators ...................................................................................... 34
Types of D.C. Machine ..................................................................................................................................... 34
Speed Control and Starting of D.C. Motors .............................................................................................. 35
Applications of D.C. Machines ...................................................................................................................... 36
Application of D.C. Machine as a Motor................................................................................................. 36
Application of D.C. Machine as Generator............................................................................................ 36
1-Phase Transformers: Construction, Principles of Operation, and Equivalent Circuit: ............ 37
3-Phase Transformers: Construction, Principles of Operation, and Equivalent Circuit: ........... 39
. Auto Transformers ............................................................................................................................................. 40
Theory of Auto Transformer .......................................................................................................................... 41
Advantages of Auto Transformer ................................................................................................................. 41
Disadvantages of Auto Transformer .......................................................................................................... 42
Formula for Auto Transformer .................................................................................................................... 42
3 Phase Induction Motors .................................................................................................................................. 43
Rotating Magnetic Field .................................................................................................................................. 43
Principle of Operation ..................................................................................................................................... 44
Equivalent Circuit ............................................................................................................................................. 44
Torque-Speed Characteristics ..................................................................................................................... 45
Starting and Speed Control of 3 Phase Induction Motor ..................................................................... 45
Methods of Braking .............................................................................................................................................. 46

Formula for Braking ........................................................................................................................................ 47
Effect of Voltage and Frequency Variation on Torque Speed Characteristics .................................. 48
Effect of Voltage Variation ............................................................................................................................. 48
Effect of Frequency Variation ....................................................................................................................... 48
Fractional Kilowatt Motors and Single Phase Induction Motors: .......................................................... 49
Synchronous Machines ....................................................................................................................................... 52
Generation, Transmission and Distribution .................................................................................................. 57
Estimation and costing......................................................................................................................................... 71
Utilization of Electrical Energy ......................................................................................................................... 75
Utilization of Electrical Energy formulas .................................................................................................. 79
Basic Electronics .................................................................................................................................................. 80
Basic concepts : Concepts of resistance, inductance, capacitance, and various

factors affecting them. Concepts of current, voltage, power, energy and their units.
Resistance is the property of a material that opposes the flow of electric current
through it. It is measured in ohms (Ω) and can be calculated using Ohm's law, which
states that resistance equals voltage divided by current, or R = V/I. Resistance depends
on the physical characteristics of the material, such as its length, cross-sectional area,
resistivity, temperature, and impurities. The longer and thinner the material, the higher
its resistance. The higher the resistivity of the material, the higher its resistance. The
higher the temperature of the material, the higher its resistance. The presence of
impurities in the material can also increase its resistance. Resistance can also vary
with the frequency of the alternating current (AC), as it affects the movement of
electrons within the conductor .
Inductance is the property of a coil of wire that causes it to store energy in a magnetic
field when an electric current flows through it. It is measured in henries (H) and can be
calculated using the formula L = N^2^μA/ℓ, where N is the number of turns in the coil,
μ is the permeability of the core material, A is the cross-sectional area of the coil, and
ℓ is the length of the coil. Inductance causes a voltage to be induced in the coil when
the current changes, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The
induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of current and opposes the
change in current, according to Lenz's law. The induced voltage is given by E = L dI/dt,
where E is the induced voltage, L is the inductance, and dI/dt is the rate of change of
current .
Capacitance is the property of two conductors separated by an insulator that causes
them to store electric charge when a voltage is applied across them. It is measured in
farads (F) and can be calculated using the formula C = εA/d, where ε is the permittivity
of the insulator, A is the area of overlap of the conductors, and d is the distance
between them. Capacitance causes a current to flow in the circuit when the voltage
changes, according to Kirchhoff's current law. The current is proportional to the rate of
change of voltage and leads the voltage by 90 degrees in phase, according to I = C
dV/dt, where I is the current, C is the capacitance, and dV/dt is the rate of change of
voltage .
The factors affecting resistance, inductance, and capacitance are summarized in Table
1.
Current is the flow of electric charge in a circuit or a conductor. It is measured in
amperes (A), which is defined as the amount of charge that passes through a cross-
section of a conductor in one second. One ampere is equal to one coulomb per second.
Current can be direct (DC) or alternating (AC), depending on whether the direction of
the charge flow is constant or changing periodically. The symbol for current is I .
Voltage is the difference in electric potential between two points in a circuit or a
conductor. It is measured in volts (V), which is defined as the amount of energy
required to move one coulomb of charge from one point to another. One volt is equal to
one joule per coulomb. Voltage can also be thought of as the force that pushes or pulls
the charge in a circuit. The symbol for voltage is V .
Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or transformed in a circuit or a device.
It is measured in watts (W), which is defined as the amount of energy transferred or
transformed per unit time. One watt is equal to one joule per second. Power can also
be calculated as the product of voltage and current, P = VI, which shows how much
energy is delivered or consumed by a circuit or a device. The symbol for power is P .
Energy is the capacity to do work or transfer heat. It is measured in joules (J), which is
defined as the amount of work done or heat transferred when a force of one newton
moves an object by one meter. One joule is equal to one watt-second. Energy can be
stored in various forms, such as chemical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, nuclear,
etc., and can be converted from one form to another by various processes, such as
combustion, friction, induction, etc. The symbol for energy is E .
The units of current, voltage, power, and energy are summarized in Table 2: Units of
current, voltage, power, and energy
Circuit law : Kirchhoff’s law, Simple Circuit solution using network theorems.
Kirchhoff’s law is a set of two rules that describe the conservation of charge and
energy in electrical circuits. They are named after Gustav Kirchhoff, a German
physicist who formulated them in 1845. The two rules are:
● Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL), also known as Kirchhoff’s junction rule, node rule,
or first law. It states that at any junction (node) in an electrical circuit, the sum
of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of currents flowing out of
that node. In other words, the algebraic sum of currents in a network of
conductors meeting at a point is zero. This is based on the principle that charge
cannot be created or destroyed in a circuit .
● Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL), also known as Kirchhoff’s loop rule, mesh rule, or
second law. It states that in any closed loop (mesh) in an electrical circuit, the
sum of voltages across the loop is equal to zero. In other words, the algebraic
sum of the products of currents and resistances in a loop is equal to the
algebraic sum of the electromotive forces (EMFs) in that loop. This is based on
the principle that energy cannot be created or destroyed in a circuit .
Simple Circuit solution using network theorems is a method of analyzing complex
circuits by applying some basic theorems that simplify the circuit and reduce the
number of equations needed to solve for unknown variables. Some of the common
network theorems are:
● Superposition theorem: It states that in a linear circuit with multiple sources,
the response (voltage or current) in any element is equal to the algebraic sum
of the responses caused by each source acting alone, while all other sources
are replaced by their internal resistances.
● Thevenin’s theorem: It states that any linear circuit with voltage and current
sources and only resistances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting
of a single voltage source Vth in series with a single resistance Rth, where Vth
is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and Rth is the equivalent resistance
at the terminals when all independent sources are turned off.
● Norton’s theorem: It states that any linear circuit with voltage and current
sourAces and only resistances can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a single current source In in parallel with a single resistance Rn,
where In is the short-circuit current through the terminals and Rn is the
equivalent resistance at the terminals when all independent sources are turned
off. Rn is equal to Rth and In is equal to Vth/Rth.
● Maximum power transfer theorem: It states that in a linear circuit, maximum
power is transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance is equal
to the source resistance (or Thevenin/Norton resistance). The maximum power

transferred is
Magnetic Circuit : Concepts of flux, mmf, reluctance, Different kinds of

magnetic materials, Magnetic calculations for conductors of different
configuration e.g. straight, circular, solenoidal, etc. Electromagnetic induction,
self and mutual induction.
Flux is the measure of the amount of magnetic field passing through a given area. It is
measured in webers (Wb), which is defined as the amount of magnetic field that
produces an electromotive force (EMF) of one volt in a one-turn coil when the flux
changes at a rate of one weber per second. The symbol for flux is Φ .
MMF stands for magnetomotive force, which is the measure of the potential difference
that drives the magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit. It is measured in ampere-turns (At),
which is defined as the product of the current (I) and the number of turns (N) in a coil
that produces the magnetic field. The symbol for MMF is F .
Reluctance is the measure of the opposition to the flow of magnetic flux in a magnetic
circuit. It is measured in ampere-turns per weber (At/Wb), which is defined as the ratio
of the MMF to the flux in a magnetic circuit. The symbol for reluctance is R or S .
Different kinds of magnetic materials are classified based on their response to an
external magnetic field. Some of the common types are:
● Diamagnetic materials: These are materials that have no permanent magnetic
moment and tend to repel an external magnetic field. They have a negative
magnetic susceptibility, which means they reduce the magnetic flux density
inside them. Examples are copper, silver, gold, bismuth, etc.
● Paramagnetic materials: These are materials that have no permanent magnetic
moment but tend to align with an external magnetic field. They have a positive
but small magnetic susceptibility, which means they increase the magnetic flux
density inside them slightly. Examples are aluminum, magnesium, platinum,
oxygen, etc.
● Ferromagnetic materials: These are materials that have a permanent magnetic

moment and tend to align strongly with an external magnetic field. They have a
positive and large magnetic susceptibility, which means they increase the
magnetic flux density inside them significantly. They also exhibit hysteresis,
which means they retain some magnetization even after the external field is
removed. Examples are iron, nickel, cobalt, steel, etc.
Magnetic calculations for conductors of different configuration

Magnetic calculations for conductors of different configuration involve finding the
magnetic field produced by a current-carrying conductor of a certain shape and size.
The magnetic field is a vector quantity that describes the direction and strength of the
magnetic force exerted by the conductor on other magnetic materials or charges. The
magnetic field depends on the current, the geometry and the position of the conductor,
as well as the permeability of the medium.
Straight conductor
A straight conductor is a wire that carries a current in a straight line. The magnetic
field around a straight conductor is circular and perpendicular to the wire. The
direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right-hand rule: if the thumb
points in the direction of the current, then the fingers curl in the direction of the
magnetic field. The magnitude of the magnetic field at a distance r from the wire is
given by:
where $\mu_0$ is the permeability of free space, and I is the current in the wire. This
formula can be derived from Ampere's law, which relates the magnetic field along a
closed loop to the current passing through it.
Circular conductor
A circular conductor is a wire that carries a current in a circular loop. The magnetic
field inside a circular conductor is uniform and parallel to the axis of the loop. The
direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right-hand rule: if the fingers
curl in the direction of the current, then the thumb points in the direction of the
magnetic field. The magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of the loop is given by:
where R is the radius of the loop. This formula can be derived from Biot-Savart law,
which relates an infinitesimal element of magnetic field to an infinitesimal element of
current.
Solenoidal conductor
A solenoidal conductor is a coil of wire that carries a current in multiple loops. The
magnetic field inside a solenoidal conductor is uniform and parallel to the axis of the
coil. The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by the right-hand rule: if the
fingers curl in the direction of the current, then the thumb points in the direction of the
magnetic field. The magnitude of the magnetic field at any point inside or near the coil
is given by:
where n is the number of turns per unit length of the coil, and l is its length. This
formula can be derived from Ampere's law, by considering a rectangular loop that
encloses some turns of the coil.
Electromagnetic induction, self and mutual induction

Electromagnetic induction is the phenomenon of generating an electric current or
voltage in a conductor due to a changing magnetic field. The principle of
electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1831 and is the basis
of many electrical devices such as generators, transformers, motors, etc.
Self induction
Self induction is the phenomenon in which a changing current in a coil induces an
electromotive force (emf) in the same coil, i.e., no other coil is involved. Self induction
occurs because the changing current produces a changing magnetic flux through the
coil, which according to Faraday's law of induction, induces an emf in the coil. The
induced emf opposes the change in the current, as per Lenz's law. This opposition to
the change in current is called self-inductance.
The self-inductance of a coil is a measure of how much emf is induced per unit change
in current. It depends on the geometry and material of the coil, and is given by:
where L is the self-inductance, N is the number of turns of the coil, ϕ is the magnetic
flux through one turn of the coil, and I is the current in the coil. The SI unit of self-
inductance is henry (H).
The self-induced emf in a coil can be calculated by:
where E is the self-induced emf, L is the self-inductance, and dtdI is the rate of change
of current in the coil.
Mutual induction
Mutual induction is the phenomenon in which a changing current in one coil induces an
emf in another coil that is placed near it. Mutual induction occurs because the changing
current in one coil produces a changing magnetic field that links with another coil,
creating a changing magnetic flux through it. According to Faraday's law of induction,
this induces an emf in the second coil. The induced emf depends on how much flux is
linked with the second coil, which depends on the relative position and orientation of
the two coils.
The mutual inductance of two coils is a measure of how much emf is induced in one
coil per unit change in current in another coil. It depends on the geometry and material
of both coils, and is given by:
where M is the mutual inductance, N1 and N2 are the number of turns of the first and
second coils respectively, ϕ21 and ϕ12 are the magnetic fluxes through one turn of the
second and first coils respectively due to the currents I1 and I2 respectively. The SI unit
of mutual inductance is also henry (H).
The mutually induced emf in one coil can be calculated by:

where E1 and E2 are the mutually induced emfs in the first and second coils
respectively, M is the mutual inductance, and are the rates of change of
currents in the first and second coils respectively.
Difference between self and mutual induction
● Self induction is the generation of an induced emf in a coil as a result of current
flowing in the same coil. Mutual induction is the generation of an induced emf in
a coil as a result of current flowing in an adjacent coil.
● Self induction involves a single coil or inductor. Mutual induction involves two or
more coils or inductors.
● Self induction opposes the change in its own current. Mutual induction does not
oppose but rather assists or opposes depending on relative direction of
currents.
● Self induction depends only on the properties of one coil. Mutual induction
depends on the properties and relative position of both coils.
AC Fundamentals: Instantaneous, peak, R.M.S. and average values of alternating

waves, Representation of sinusoidal wave form, simple series and parallel AC Circuits
consisting of R.L. and C, Resonance, Tank Circuit. Poly Phase system – star and delta
connection, 3 phase power, DC and sinusoidal response of R-Land R-C circuit
Instantaneous value- Instantaneous value is the value of an alternating quantity (such

as voltage or current) at any given instant of time. It varies continuously with time
according to the nature of the waveform. The symbol for instantaneous value is usually
a lower case letter with a subscript t, such as v(t) or i(t) .
Peak value- Peak value is the maximum value that an alternating quantity reaches in
one cycle (either positive or negative). It is also called the amplitude of the waveform.
The symbol for peak value is usually an upper case letter with a subscript 0, such as
V0 or I0 .
R.M.S. value- R.M.S. value stands for root mean square value, which is the square root
of the mean of the squares of the instantaneous values over one cycle. It is also called
the effective or virtual value, because it represents the equivalent direct current (DC)
value that would produce the same heating effect in a resistor as the alternating
current (AC). The symbol for R.M.S. value is usually an upper case letter without any
subscript, such as V or I .
Average value of alternating wave- Average value of alternating wave is the arithmetic
mean of the instantaneous values over one cycle. It is also called the mean or DC
value, because it represents the equivalent direct current (DC) value that would
transfer the same amount of charge in one cycle as the alternating current (AC). The
symbol for average value is usually an upper case letter with a bar on top, such as V̅
or I̅ .
The following table summarizes these values for a sinusoidal waveform, which is the
most common type of AC waveform.
The same formulas apply for current by replacing v with i and V with I .
Sinusoidal wave form
A sinusoidal wave form is a periodic wave form that can be described by the sine or
cosine function from trigonometry. It is the simplest wave form that can be created
and represents the motion of a simple vector rotating at a constant speed, such as the
vertical displacement of the second hand of a clock.
A sinusoidal wave form has the following parameters:
● Amplitude: The maximum value of the wave form from the zero line. It can be
expressed as peak value or peak-to-peak value.
● Period: The time it takes to complete one cycle of the wave form. It is denoted by
T.
● Frequency: The number of cycles per second of the wave form. It is denoted by f
and measured in Hertz (Hz). Frequency is the reciprocal of period: f = 1/T.
● Phase: The angle that represents the position of the wave form relative to a
reference point. It is denoted by θ and measured in degrees or radians.
A sinusoidal wave form can be expressed mathematically as:
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑝 sin⁡(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
where v(t) is the instantaneous value of the wave form at time t, Vp is the peak value,
ω is the angular frequency (ω = 2πf), and θ is the phase.
Simple series and parallel AC circuits consisting of R, L and C
An AC circuit is a circuit that is powered by an alternating current (AC) source, such as
a sinusoidal voltage or current source. An AC circuit can contain resistors (R),
inductors (L) and capacitors (C) as circuit elements. These elements have different
behaviors when connected to an AC source.
● A resistor has a constant resistance that does not depend on the frequency or
phase of the AC source. It dissipates power as heat and follows Ohm's law: v =
iR, where v and i are the instantaneous voltage and current across the resistor,
respectively.
● An inductor has an inductive reactance that increases with the frequency of the
AC source. It stores energy in a magnetic field and opposes changes in current.
The voltage across an inductor is proportional to the rate of change of current: v
= L di/dt, where L is the inductance.
● A capacitor has a capacitive reactance that decreases with the frequency of the
AC source. It stores energy in an electric field and opposes changes in voltage.
The current through a capacitor is proportional to the rate of change of voltage: i
= C dv/dt, where C is the capacitance.
When these elements are connected in series or parallel to an AC source, they form
simple AC circuits that have different characteristics depending on their configuration.
Series AC circuit
A series AC circuit is a circuit where all elements are connected end-to-end, forming a
single path for current. The current through each element is equal and depends on the
total impedance of the circuit. The impedance is a complex quantity that represents the
opposition to current flow in an AC circuit. It can be calculated as:
𝑍 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋
where R is the resistance and X is the reactance. The reactance can be positive or
negative depending on whether it is inductive or capacitive. The reactance can also be
calculated as:
𝑋 = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
where XL is the inductive reactance (XL = ωL) and XC is the capacitive reactance (XC =
1/ωC).
The impedance has a magnitude and a phase angle that can be found using Pythagoras'
theorem and trigonometry:
The magnitude of the impedance determines how much current flows through the
circuit for a given voltage, while the phase angle determines how much the current
lags or leads behind the voltage.
The voltage across each element in a series AC circuit can be found using Kirchhoff's
voltage law (KVL), which states that the sum of all voltages around a closed loop is
zero. This means that:
𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶
where Vs is the source voltage and VR, VL and VC are the voltages across the resistor,
inductor and capacitor, respectively.
The voltages across each element can also be expressed in terms of the current and
the impedance as:
where I is the current through the circuit.

Parallel AC circuit
A parallel AC circuit is a circuit where all elements are connected across the same
pair of terminals, forming multiple paths for current. The voltage across each element
is equal and depends on the source voltage. The current through each element is
different and depends on the admittance of the element. The admittance is a complex
quantity that represents the ease of current flow in an AC circuit. It is the reciprocal of
the impedance:
where G is the conductance and B is the susceptance. The conductance and the
susceptance can be calculated as:

The admittance has a magnitude and a phase angle that can be found using
Pythagoras' theorem and trigonometry:
The magnitude of the admittance determines how much current flows through the
element for a given voltage, while the phase angle determines how much the current
lags or leads behind the voltage.
The current through each element in a parallel AC circuit can be found using
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL), which states that the sum of all currents entering a node
is equal to the sum of all currents leaving that node. This means that:
𝐼𝑠 = 𝐼𝑅 + 𝐼𝐿 + 𝐼𝐶
where Is is the source current and IR, IL and IC are the currents through the resistor,
inductor and capacitor, respectively.
The currents through each element can also be expressed in terms of the voltage and
the admittance as:
where V is the voltage across the circuit.

Resonance
Resonance is a phenomenon that occurs in AC circuits when the frequency of the
source matches the natural frequency of the circuit. At resonance, the impedance of
the circuit is purely resistive and the current reaches a maximum value. The voltage
across the inductor or the capacitor is equal to the product of the current and the
reactance, which can be much higher than the source voltage.
Resonance can be classified into two types: series resonance and parallel resonance.
Series resonance
Series resonance occurs in a series RLC circuit when the inductive reactance (XL) is
equal to the capacitive reactance (XC). At this condition, the reactances cancel each
other and the impedance of the circuit is equal to the resistance (R). The resonant
frequency (fr) can be calculated as:
At resonance, the current in the circuit is maximum and equal to:
where Vs is the source voltage.

The voltage across the inductor or the capacitor is equal to:
The voltage across the inductor or the capacitor can be much higher than the source
voltage if the resistance is small and the reactance is large. This can cause damage to
the circuit components or create sparks.
An example of a series resonant circuit is shown below:
Parallel resonance
Parallel resonance occurs in a parallel RLC circuit when the admittance of the circuit
is purely conductive and the susceptance is zero. At this condition, the current through
the inductor or the capacitor is zero and the current through the resistor is maximum.
The resonant frequency (fr) can be calculated as:
At resonance, the current through the resistor is equal to:

where Vs is the source voltage.
The current through the inductor or the capacitor is zero and their voltages are equal
to: 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝐶 = 0
The impedance of the circuit is maximum and equal to: 𝑍𝑟 = 𝑅

Parallel resonance can be used to filter out unwanted frequencies from a signal or to
tune a radio receiver to a desired frequency.
Tank Circuit
A tank circuit is a simple resonant circuit that consists of an inductor and a capacitor
connected in parallel. It can store electrical energy by oscillating between charging
and discharging modes. When a voltage source is connected to a tank circuit, it
charges up the capacitor until it reaches its maximum value. Then, it disconnects from
the source and allows the capacitor to discharge through the inductor. The energy
stored in the capacitor's electric field is transferred to the inductor's magnetic field.
When the capacitor is fully discharged, it starts to charge up again in the opposite
polarity by drawing current from the inductor. The energy stored in the inductor's
magnetic field is transferred back to the capacitor's electric field. This process repeats
until all energy is dissipated by resistance or radiation.
The frequency of oscillation of a tank circuit depends on its natural frequency, which is
determined by its capacitance and inductance as:
The quality factor (Q) of a tank circuit measures how well it can store and transfer
energy without losses. It is defined as:

where Δf is the bandwidth of frequencies around f0 that can pass through the tank
circuit with minimal attenuation, ω0 is 2πf0, L is the inductance, C is the capacitance,
and R is the equivalent resistance of the tank circuit.
A high Q tank circuit has a narrow bandwidth, a low damping rate, and a high voltage
gain. It can be used as a filter, an oscillator, or a tuner.
Poly Phase system – star and delta connection, 3 phase power

A poly phase system is a system that consists of two or more alternating currents or
voltages that have the same frequency but differ in phase by a fixed angle. A poly
phase system can deliver more power and efficiency than a single phase system with
the same amount of conductor material.
A three-phase system is the most common type of poly phase system. It consists of
three alternating currents or voltages that have the same frequency but differ in phase
by 120 degrees. A three-phase system can be generated by a three-phase alternator or
transformer.
A three-phase system can be connected in two ways: star (or Y) connection and delta
(or Δ) connection.
Star connection
In a star connection, one end of each phase is connected to a common point called the
neutral or the star point. The other ends are connected to the load or the line. The line
voltages are equal to the phase voltages multiplied by √3 and have a phase difference
of 30 degrees with respect to the phase voltages. The line currents are equal to the
phase currents and have the same phase as the phase voltages.
The power delivered by a balanced star-connected load can be calculated as:
𝑃 = 3𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 cos⁡ 𝜙 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos⁡ 𝜙
where Vp and Ip are the phase voltage and current, respectively, VL and IL are the line
voltage and current, respectively, and φ is the power factor angle.
Delta connection
In a delta connection, each phase is connected between two lines forming a closed
loop. The line voltages are equal to the phase voltages and have the same phase as the
phase currents. The line currents are equal to the phase currents multiplied by √3 and
have a phase difference of 30 degrees with respect to the phase currents.
The power delivered by a balanced delta-connected load can be calculated as:
where Vp and Ip are the phase voltage and current, respectively, VL and IL are the line
voltage and current, respectively, and φ is the power factor angle.
DC and sinusoidal response of R-Land R-C circuit
A DC response of a circuit is the steady-state behavior of the circuit when it is
connected to a constant voltage or current source. A DC response can be analyzed
using Kirchhoff's laws, Ohm's law, and equivalent circuits.
A sinusoidal response of a circuit is the behavior of the circuit when it is connected to
an alternating voltage or current source that has a sinusoidal wave form. A sinusoidal
response can be analyzed using phasors, impedances, admittances, and complex
power.
An R-L circuit is a circuit that contains only resistors and inductors. An R-L circuit has
an inductive time constant (τL) that determines how fast it reaches its steady-state
when connected to a DC source. The inductive time constant can be calculated as:
where L is the total inductance and R is the total resistance of the circuit.
When an R-L circuit is connected to a DC source, it takes about 5τL seconds for the
current to reach its final value. The current in an R-L circuit can be expressed as:
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏𝐿 )
where Is is the steady-state current and t is the time.
When an R-L circuit is connected to an AC source with angular frequency ω, it has an
impedance that can be calculated as: 𝑍𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝜔𝐿
where j is the imaginary unit.
The impedance has a magnitude and a phase angle that can be found using Pythagoras'
theorem and trigonometry:
The magnitude of the impedance determines how much current flows through
Power and energy measurement
Power is the rate of doing work or transferring energy. It is measured in watts (W) or
volt-amperes (VA). Energy is the capacity to do work or transfer heat. It is measured in
joules (J) or watt-hours (Wh).
Power and energy measurement are important for designing, testing, and operating
electrical devices and systems. They can help to optimize performance, efficiency,
reliability, and safety.
There are different types of power and energy measurement depending on the nature
of the source and the load. The main types are:
● Active power: The power that is converted into useful work or heat. It is
measured in watts (W). It is also called real power or true power.
● Reactive power: The power that is stored and released by the reactive elements
(inductors and capacitors) in the circuit. It is measured in volt-amperes reactive
(VAR). It does not do any useful work but causes voltage and current to be out
of phase. It is also called imaginary power or wattless power.
● Apparent power: The product of the RMS values of voltage and current. It is
measured in volt-amperes (VA). It represents the total power supplied by the
source. It is also called complex power or volt-ampere power.
● Power factor: The ratio of active power to apparent power. It is a dimensionless

number between 0 and 1. It indicates how efficiently the power is used by the
load. A high power factor means less reactive power and more active power. A
low power factor means more reactive power and less active power.
● Energy: The product of power and time. It is measured in watt-hours (Wh) or
joules (J). It represents the total amount of work done or heat transferred by
the source or the load.
Single-phase power and energy measurement
A single-phase circuit is a circuit that has only one alternating voltage or current
source. A single-phase circuit can be connected to a single-phase load, such as a
lamp, a heater, or a motor.
A single-phase power meter or wattmeter can measure the active power in a single-
phase circuit. It consists of two coils: a current coil that measures the current in the
circuit, and a voltage coil that measures the voltage across the load. The coils are
connected to a moving coil galvanometer that deflects proportionally to the product of
voltage and current.
A single-phase energy meter or watt-hour meter can measure the energy consumed
by a single-phase load. It consists of an electromechanical device that rotates
proportionally to the active power in the circuit. The rotation is recorded by a counter
that displays the energy in watt-hours.
An example of a single-phase circuit with a wattmeter and an energy meter is shown
below:
Three-phase power and energy measurement

A three-phase circuit is a circuit that has three alternating voltage or current sources
that have the same frequency but differ in phase by 120 degrees. A three-phase circuit
can be connected to a three-phase load, such as a transformer, an induction motor, or
a generator.
A three-phase power meter or wattmeter can measure the active power in a three-
phase circuit. There are two methods to measure three-phase power: one-wattmeter
method and two-wattmeter method.
One-wattmeter method
The one-wattmeter method can be used to measure three-phase power in a balanced

three-wire system, where the line currents are equal and have a phase difference of
120 degrees with respect to each other.
The one-wattmeter method uses only one wattmeter that measures the current in one
line and the voltage between two lines. The wattmeter reading gives the total active
power in the circuit.
The one-wattmeter method can be derived as follows:
Let VL be the line voltage, IL be the line current, φ be the phase angle between VL and
IL, and P be the active power per phase.
Then, the total active power PT is:
𝑃𝑇 = 3𝑃 = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos⁡ 𝜙
The wattmeter measures the current in line R and the voltage between lines R and Y.
The angle between VR-Y and IR is 30 + φ.
Then, the wattmeter reading W is:
𝑊 = 𝑉𝑅−𝑌 𝐼𝑅 cos⁡(30 + 𝜙)
Using phasor diagram, we can write:
Substituting these values in the wattmeter equation, we get:

Using trigonometric identity, we can simplify this as:
Using the identity cos(φ - 30) = cosφcos30 + sinφsin30, we can write:
Using the identity cos(φ - 30) = 2cos^2(φ/2 - 15) - 1, we can write:
Simplifying, we get:
Comparing this with the total active power equation, we get:

This shows that the wattmeter reading is equal to the total active power multiplied by a
factor that depends on the power factor angle φ.
An example of a three-phase circuit with one wattmeter is shown below:
Two-wattmeter method
The two-wattmeter method can be used to measure three-phase power in a three-
wire or a four-wire system, whether balanced or unbalanced.
The two-wattmeter method uses two wattmeters that measure the currents in any two
lines and the voltages between those lines and the third line. The total active power in
the circuit is equal to the algebraic sum of the two wattmeter readings.
The two-wattmeter method can be derived as follows:
Let VL be the line voltage, IL be the line current, φ be the phase angle between VL and
IL, and P be the active power per phase.
Then, the total active power PT is:
𝑃𝑇 = 3𝑃 = 3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos⁡ 𝜙
The first wattmeter measures the current in line R and the voltage between line R and
line B. The angle between VR-B and IR is 30 + φ.
Then, the first wattmeter reading W1 is: 𝑊1 = 𝑉𝑅−𝐵 𝐼𝑅 cos⁡(30 + 𝜙)


The second wattmeter measures the current in line Y and the voltage between line Y
and line B. The angle between VY-B and IY is 30 - φ.
Then, the second wattmeter reading W2 is: 𝑊2 = 𝑉𝑌−𝐵 𝐼𝑌 cos⁡(30 − 𝜙)
Measurement and measuring instruments: Measurement of power (1

phase and 3 phase, both active and re-active) and energy, 2 wattmeter method of 3
phase power measurement. Measurement of frequency and phase angle. Ammeter and
voltmeter (both moving oil and moving iron type), extension of range wattmeter,
Multimeters, Megger, Energy meter AC Bridges. Use of CRO, Signal Generator, CT, PT
and their uses. Earth Fault detection.
Frequency and phase angle measurement
Frequency and phase angle are important parameters of alternating current (AC)
circuits and signals. Frequency is the number of cycles per second of an AC waveform,
measured in hertz (Hz). Phase angle is the angular displacement between two AC
waveforms of the same frequency, measured in degrees or radians.
There are different methods and instruments for measuring frequency and phase
angle, depending on the accuracy, range, and application required. Some of the
common methods and instruments are:
● Frequency counter: A digital device that counts the number of cycles or pulses
of an AC signal in a given time interval. It displays the frequency as a numerical
value on a screen or a panel. Frequency counters can measure frequencies
from a few hertz to several gigahertz with high accuracy and resolution.
● Frequency meter: An analog device that measures the frequency of an AC signal
by comparing it with a reference signal of known frequency. It displays the
frequency as a pointer deflection on a scale or a dial. Frequency meters can
measure frequencies from a few hertz to several kilohertz with moderate
accuracy and resolution.
● Phase meter: A device that measures the phase angle between two AC signals
of the same frequency by detecting the time difference between their zero
crossings or peaks. It displays the phase angle as a numerical value on a
screen or a panel, or as a pointer deflection on a scale or a dial. Phase meters
can measure phase angles from 0 to 360 degrees with high accuracy and
resolution.
● Oscilloscope: A device that displays the waveform of an AC signal on a screen
as a function of time. It can measure both frequency and phase angle by using
various features such as cursors, markers, triggers, and math functions.
Oscilloscopes can measure frequencies from a few hertz to several gigahertz
and phase angles from 0 to 360 degrees with high accuracy and resolution.
Ammeter and voltmeter (both moving oil and moving iron type)
Ammeter and voltmeter are devices that measure current and voltage, respectively, in
an electric circuit. They are classified into different types based on their operating
principle, construction, and application.
Moving oil and moving iron are two types of ammeters and voltmeters that are
commonly used for measuring AC currents and voltages.
Moving oil ammeter and voltmeter
Moving oil ammeter and voltmeter are devices that use the principle of
electromagnetic induction to measure AC currents and voltages. They consist of a coil
of wire that carries the current or voltage to be measured, and a movable aluminum
vane that is suspended in an oil-filled chamber. The coil produces a magnetic field that
induces eddy currents in the vane, which in turn produce a magnetic field that opposes
the coil's field. This creates a torque on the vane that makes it rotate against a spring.
The angle of rotation is proportional to the current or voltage in the coil, which is
indicated by a pointer on a scale.
Moving oil ammeters and voltmeters have some advantages over other types, such as:
● They have low power consumption and high sensitivity.
● They have good damping due to the oil viscosity, which reduces oscillations and
errors.
● They have good frequency response due to the low inertia of the vane.
● They have good accuracy and linearity due to the uniform magnetic field in the
chamber.
However, they also have some disadvantages, such as:
● They are bulky, heavy, and expensive.
● They are affected by temperature changes due to the expansion or contraction
of oil.
● They are prone to leakage or contamination of oil.
● They are not suitable for high currents or voltages due to heating or insulation
problems.
Moving iron ammeter and voltmeter
Moving iron ammeter and voltmeter are devices that use the principle of
electromagnetic attraction to measure AC currents and voltages. They consist of a coil
of wire that carries the current or voltage to be measured, and a movable iron piece
that is attached to a pointer. The coil produces a magnetic field that attracts the iron
piece toward it. The force of attraction is proportional to the square of the current or
voltage in the coil, which is indicated by the pointer on a scale.
Moving iron ammeters and voltmeters have some advantages over other types, such
as:
● They are simple, cheap, and robust.
● They can measure both AC and DC currents and voltages.
● They can measure high currents or voltages with suitable shunts or multipliers.
However, they also have some disadvantages, such as:
● They have high power consumption and low sensitivity.
● They have poor damping due to air friction, which causes oscillations and
errors.
● They have poor frequency response due to the inertia of the iron piece.
● They have poor accuracy and linearity due to the non-uniform magnetic field
and the square law characteristic.
Extension of range wattmeter
Wattmeter is a device that measures the power in an electric circuit. It consists of two
coils: a current coil that measures the current in the circuit, and a potential coil that
measures the voltage across the load. The coils are connected to a moving coil
galvanometer that deflects proportionally to the product of voltage and current.
The range of a wattmeter is limited by the rating of its coils, which can be extended by
using shunts, multipliers, or transformers.
● Shunt: A shunt is a low resistance that is connected in parallel with the current
coil to divert some of the current away from it. This reduces the current in the
coil and increases its range. The shunt resistance is calculated as:
where Rs is the shunt resistance, Rc is the current coil resistance, and n is the
multiplying factor.
● Multiplier: A multiplier is a high resistance that is connected in series with the
potential coil to reduce the voltage across it. This reduces the current in the coil
and increases its range. The multiplier resistance is calculated as: 𝑅𝑚 =
(𝑛 − 1)𝑅𝑝
where Rm is the multiplier resistance, Rp is the potential coil resistance, and n is the
multiplying factor.
● Transformer: A transformer is a device that steps up or down the voltage or
current in a circuit by using electromagnetic induction. A transformer can be
used to extend the range of a wattmeter by connecting it between the source
and the load, and measuring the power on its secondary side. The power on the
primary side can be calculated by using the transformer ratio and efficiency.
Multimeters
A multimeter is a device that can measure multiple electrical quantities, such as
voltage, current, resistance, frequency, capacitance, etc. It can be analog or digital,
depending on the type of display and measurement technique.
An analog multimeter uses a moving coil galvanometer to indicate the measured value
by a pointer on a scale. It has different ranges and functions that can be selected by a
rotary switch. It can measure AC and DC voltages and currents, and resistance by
using shunts, multipliers, and bridges.
A digital multimeter uses an analog-to-digital converter to convert the measured
value into a numerical display on a screen. It has different modes and features that can
be selected by buttons or menus. It can measure AC and DC voltages and currents,
resistance, frequency, capacitance, diode, continuity, etc. by using various sensors and
circuits.
Megger
A megger is a device that can measure the insulation resistance of electrical wires,
cables, motors, transformers, etc. It can also measure the earth resistance of
grounding systems. It works on the principle of generating a high DC voltage (usually
500 V or 1000 V) and applying it across the insulation or the earth electrode. The
current that flows through the insulation or the earth is measured by a sensitive
ammeter and converted into resistance by using Ohm's law.
A megger consists of a hand-cranked or battery-powered generator that produces the
high DC voltage, a voltmeter that indicates the applied voltage, an ammeter that
indicates the leakage current, and a selector switch that selects the desired range and
function. The megger has two terminals: one is connected to the conductor whose
insulation is to be tested, and the other is connected to the ground or the other
conductor.
Energy meter
An energy meter is a device that can measure the electrical energy consumed by a
load or supplied by a source. It can be single-phase or three-phase, depending on the
type of circuit. It can also measure other parameters such as power, power factor,
voltage, current, frequency, etc.
An energy meter consists of an electromechanical or electronic device that rotates or
counts proportionally to the active power in the circuit. The rotation or count is
recorded by a register that displays the energy in watt-hours or kilowatt-hours.
An electromechanical energy meter uses an induction motor that has two coils: one is
connected in series with the load and measures the current; the other is connected
across the supply and measures the voltage. The coils produce a torque on an
aluminum disk that rotates at a speed proportional to the power. The disk drives a gear
train that moves pointers on dials that indicate the energy.
An electronic energy meter uses an analog-to-digital converter that samples the
voltage and current waveforms and calculates the power by multiplying them. The
power is then integrated over time to obtain the energy. The energy is displayed on a
digital screen or transmitted to a remote system.
AC Bridges
AC bridges are devices that can measure unknown impedances (resistance,
inductance, capacitance) by comparing them with known impedances using AC
sources. They work on the principle of balancing two arms of a Wheatstone bridge by
adjusting variable impedances until no current flows through the detector
(galvanometer). The unknown impedance can then be calculated from the known
impedances using Kirchhoff's laws.
There are different types of AC bridges for measuring different types of impedances,
such as:
● Wheatstone bridge: for measuring resistance
● Maxwell bridge: for measuring inductance
● Hay bridge: for measuring inductance with high accuracy
● Schering bridge: for measuring capacitance
● Wien bridge: for measuring frequency
Use of CRO, Signal Generator, CT, PT and their uses

CRO: A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a device that can display the waveform of an
AC signal on a screen as a function of time. It can measure various parameters of the
signal, such as amplitude, frequency, phase, distortion, etc. It can also perform various
functions, such as triggering, scaling, filtering, storing, etc.
A CRO consists of a cathode ray tube (CRT) that produces an electron beam that is
deflected by two sets of plates: one for horizontal deflection and one for vertical
deflection. The horizontal deflection is controlled by a time base generator that
produces a sawtooth waveform. The vertical deflection is controlled by the input signal
that is amplified and fed to the plates. The electron beam hits a phosphor screen that
emits light and forms the waveform.
A CRO can be used for various purposes, such as:
● Testing and troubleshooting of electronic circuits and devices
● Analyzing and measuring the characteristics of AC signals
● Comparing and synchronizing two or more signals
● Generating and modulating signals
Signal Generator: A signal generator is a device that can produce various types of AC
signals with adjustable parameters, such as frequency, amplitude, phase, shape, etc. It
can also modulate the signals with different types of modulation, such as amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), phase modulation (PM), etc.
A signal generator consists of an oscillator that produces a sinusoidal waveform with
a variable frequency and amplitude. The oscillator can be tuned by using a variable
capacitor or inductor. The waveform can be shaped by using different circuits, such as
filters, amplifiers, clippers, etc. The waveform can be modulated by using different
circuits, such as mixers, modulators, multipliers, etc.
A signal generator can be used for various purposes, such as:
● Testing and calibrating of electronic instruments and devices
● Simulating and generating different types of signals
● Modulating and demodulating signals
● Communicating and transmitting signals
CT: A current transformer (CT) is a device that can measure high AC currents by
stepping them down to low AC currents that can be measured by an ammeter or a
wattmeter. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction and mutual
inductance.
A CT consists of a primary winding that carries the high current to be measured and a
secondary winding that produces a low current proportional to the primary current.
The primary winding can be a single turn or a few turns of thick wire or a bus bar. The
secondary winding can be many turns of thin wire wound on a laminated core. The
ratio of the primary current to the secondary current is called the turns ratio or the
transformation ratio.
A CT can be used for various purposes, such as:
● Measuring high currents in power systems and circuits
● Protecting circuits from overcurrents and faults
● Metering and billing electricity consumption
● Controlling and regulating power flow
PT: A potential transformer (PT) is a device that can measure high AC voltages by
stepping them down to low AC voltages that can be measured by a voltmeter or a
wattmeter. It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction and mutual
inductance.
A PT consists of a primary winding that is connected across the high voltage to be
measured and a secondary winding that produces a low voltage proportional to the
primary voltage. The primary winding can be many turns of thin wire wound on a
laminated core. The secondary winding can be few turns of thick wire wound on the
same core or another core. The ratio of the primary voltage to the secondary voltage is
called the turns ratio or the transformation ratio.
A PT can be used for various purposes, such as:
● Measuring high voltages in power systems and circuits
● Protecting circuits from overvoltages and faults
● Metering and billing electricity consumption
● Controlling and regulating voltage level
Electrical Machines :
D.C. Machine – Construction, Basic Principles of D.C. motors and generators, their
characteristics, speed control and starting of D.C. Motors. (b) 1 phase and 3 phase
transformers – Construction, Principles of operation, equivalent circuit, voltage
regulation, O.C. and S.C. Tests, Losses and efficiency. Effect of voltage, frequency and
wave form on losses. Parallel operation of 1 phase /3 phase transformers. Auto
transformers. (c) 3 phase induction motors, rotating magnetic field, principle of
operation, equivalent circuit, torque-speed characteristics, starting and speed control
of 3 phase induction motors. Methods of braking, effect of voltage and frequency
variation on torque speed characteristics.
D.C. Machine
A D.C. machine is an electromechanical device that converts electrical energy into
mechanical energy or vice versa. The same machine can be used either as a motor or
generator. The construction is same for D.C. motor and D.C. generator.
Construction of D.C. Machine
The D.C. machine consists of the following main parts:
● Yoke or Frame: It covers the internal parts of the machine and provides
mechanical protection and low reluctance path to the magnetic flux.
● Pole and Pole shoe: They provide housing for the field winding and produce
magnetic flux inside the machine.
● Field Winding: It is wound on the pole and carries direct current to create an
electromagnet.
● Armature or Rotor: It is a cylinder of magnetic laminations that rotates in the
magnetic field and carries the armature winding.
● Armature Winding: It is a closed loop of conductors that are connected to the
commutator segments and carry the induced current in the generator or the
input current in the motor.
● Commutator: It is a cylindrical structure made of copper segments that are

insulated from each other and connected to the armature winding. It acts as a
mechanical rectifier to convert AC to DC or vice versa.
● Brushes: They are made of graphite or carbon and conduct electric current from
the external circuit to the rotating commutator or vice versa.
● Shaft and Bearings: They support the rotation of the armature and reduce
friction.
Basic Principles of D.C. Motors and Generators
The working principle of a D.C. machine is based on the interaction between a current-
carrying conductor and a magnetic field. When a current-carrying conductor is placed
in a magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by
Fleming's left-hand rule. The magnitude of this force is given by:
F = BIL
Where:
F = Magnitude of the generated force
B = Flux density
I = Current
L = Length of the conductor
In a D.C. motor, this force causes the armature to rotate and produce mechanical
output. In a D.C. generator, the mechanical input causes the armature to rotate and cut
the magnetic flux, which induces an electromotive force (EMF) in the armature winding
according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction. The direction of this induced
EMF is given by Fleming's right-hand rule. The magnitude of this EMF is given by:
E = Blv
Where:
E = Magnitude of the induced EMF
B = Flux density
l = Length of the conductor
v = Velocity of the conductor
Characteristics of D.C. Motors and Generators

The characteristics of a D.C. motor or generator are the curves that show the
relationship between different parameters such as torque, speed, power, efficiency,
etc. Some common characteristics are:
● Torque-Speed Characteristic: It shows how the torque varies with the speed for
a given voltage and load condition.
● Power-Speed Characteristic: It shows how the power output or input varies
with the speed for a given voltage and load condition.
● Efficiency-Speed Characteristic: It shows how the efficiency varies with the
speed for a given voltage and load condition.
The shape of these characteristics depends on the type of D.C. machine and its field
winding configuration.
Types of D.C. Machine
The D.C. machines are classified into two types based on their field winding connection:
● Separately Excited D.C. Machine: In this type, the field winding is supplied by a
separate source of direct current independent of the armature circuit.
● Self-excited D.C. Machine: In this type, the field winding is supplied by the same
source of direct current as the armature circuit or by the induced EMF in the
armature itself.
The self-excited D.C. machines are further classified into three types based on their
field winding arrangement:
● Series D.C. Machine: In this type, the field winding is connected in series with
the armature winding, so that the same current flows through both.
● Shunt D.C. Machine: In this type, the field winding is connected in parallel with
the armature winding, so that a fraction of the armature current flows through
it.
● Compound D.C. Machine: In this type, the field winding is composed of two parts:
one connected in series and one connected in shunt with the armature winding.
The compound D.C. machines are further classified into two types based on their shunt
field winding position:
● Short Shunt D.C. Machine: In this type, the shunt field winding is connected
across the armature terminals only.
● Long Shunt D.C. Machine: In this type, the shunt field winding is connected
across the series combination of armature and series field winding.
The following table summarizes the types of D.C. machines and their symbols:
Speed Control and Starting of D.C. Motors
The speed of a D.C. motor is given by:
Where:
N = Speed in rpm
E_b = Back EMF in volts
phi = Flux per pole in webers
Z = Total number of armature conductors
P = Number of poles
From this equation, we can see that the speed of a D.C. motor can be controlled by
varying any of the following factors:
● Back EMF: By varying the applied voltage to the armature circuit, the back EMF
can be changed and hence the speed can be controlled. This method is called
armature voltage control.
● Flux per pole: By varying the current in the field winding, the flux per pole can
be changed and hence the speed can be controlled. This method is called field
flux control.
● Number of armature conductors: By changing the number of parallel paths in
the armature circuit, the effective number of armature conductors can be
changed and hence the speed can be controlled. This method is called armature
resistance control.
The starting of a D.C. motor requires a special device called a starter. The starter is
used to limit the starting current and protect the motor from damage due to excessive
heating or sparking. The starter consists of a variable resistance that is connected in
series with the armature circuit and gradually reduced as the motor picks up speed.
The starter also has a no-volt coil that disconnects the motor from the supply in case
of power failure or overload.
Applications of D.C. Machines
The D.C. machines have various applications depending on their type and
characteristics .
Application of D.C. Machine as a Motor
The D.C. motors are used where speed control, high starting torque, and wide speed
range are required. Some examples are:
● Electric traction
● Cranes and hoists
● Electric vehicles
● Lathes and drills
● Fans and blowers
● Pumps and compressors
● Printers and scanners
● Robotics and automation
Application of D.C. Machine as Generator
The D.C. generators are used where direct current supply is needed or where voltage
regulation is important. Some examples are:
● Battery charging
● Welding
● Electroplating
● Arc lamps
● Emergency lighting
● Excitation for alternators
1-Phase Transformers: Construction, Principles of Operation, and Equivalent

Circuit:
Construction:
A 1-phase transformer consists of two windings, the primary winding and the
secondary winding, wound on a common iron core. The iron core is made up of thin
laminations to minimize eddy current losses. The windings are insulated from the core
and each other to prevent short circuits.
Principles of Operation:
When an alternating current (AC) is applied to the primary winding, it creates a varying
magnetic field in the core. This magnetic field induces a voltage in the secondary
winding through electromagnetic induction. The magnitude of the secondary voltage
depends on the turns ratio of the windings.
Equivalent Circuit:
The equivalent circuit of a 1-phase transformer consists of the following components:
1. Primary and secondary windings represented by inductive reactances (X1 and X2).
2. Leakage reactances (Xl1 and Xl2) to account for the leakage flux that doesn't link
both windings directly.
3. Magnetizing inductance (Xm) to represent the core magnetization characteristics.
4. Core losses (Rc) due to hysteresis and eddy current losses in the iron core.
The equivalent circuit is typically represented using phasor diagrams, where voltage
drops across the different components are considered.
Voltage Regulation:
Voltage regulation refers to the ability of a transformer to maintain its secondary
voltage within acceptable limits, despite changes in the load. The voltage regulation is
given by the formula:
Where:
- Vr: Voltage regulation (in percentage)
- VNL: No-load secondary voltage
- VFL: Full-load secondary voltage
Open Circuit (O.C.) and Short Circuit (S.C.) Tests:
Open Circuit Test:

The open circuit test is performed to determine the core losses (hysteresis and eddy
current losses) and the magnetizing current of the transformer. In this test, the
secondary winding is kept open, and rated voltage is applied to the primary winding.
The primary current drawn represents the core losses and magnetizing current.
Short Circuit Test:

The short circuit test is conducted to determine the winding resistance and leakage
reactance of the transformer. In this test, the primary winding is short-circuited, and a
reduced voltage is applied to the secondary winding. The primary current drawn
represents the copper losses (winding resistance) and leakage reactance.
Losses and Efficiency:

The losses in a transformer can be categorized into two main types:
1. Copper Losses (I^2R losses): These losses occur in the windings due to the
resistance of the conductors. They increase with the square of the load current.
2. Core Losses: Core losses consist of hysteresis losses (due to magnetic reversal in
the core) and eddy current losses (due to circulating currents induced in the core
material). These losses are constant and independent of load.
The efficiency of a transformer is given by the formula:
Where:
- Output Power = Rated Secondary Voltage Rated Secondary Current
- Input Power = Output Power + Core Losses + Copper Losses
Efficiency is maximum at a specific load, known as the maximum efficiency point.
3-Phase Transformers: Construction, Principles of Operation, and Equivalent

Circuit:
3-Phase Transformers: Construction, Principles of Operation, and Equivalent Circuit:
Construction:
A 3-phase transformer consists of three sets of windings wound on a common iron
core. The windings can be connected in various configurations, including Delta-Delta
(∆-∆), Star-Star (Y-Y), Delta-Star (∆-Y), and Star-Delta (Y-∆). The core is made up of
laminated iron sheets to minimize eddy current losses. The windings and core are
insulated to prevent short circuits.
Principles of Operation:
When three-phase alternating current (AC) is applied to the primary windings, it
generates a rotating magnetic field in the core. This rotating magnetic field induces
voltages in the secondary windings through electromagnetic induction. The magnitude

of the induced voltages depends on the turns ratio and configuration of the windings.
The three-phase transformer operates based on the principle of mutual induction

between the primary and secondary windings, just like a 1-phase transformer.
However, the presence of three phases enables efficient power transfer and balanced
operation in 3-phase power systems.
Equivalent Circuit:
The equivalent circuit of a 3-phase transformer extends the concept of the 1-phase
equivalent circuit. It includes the following components for each phase:
1. Primary and secondary winding resistances (R1, R2, R3, and R'1, R'2, R'3)
2. Primary and secondary winding inductive reactances (X1, X2, X3, and X'1, X'2, X'3)
3. Leakage reactances (Xl1, Xl2, Xl3, and X'l1, X'l2, X'l3) to account for the flux that
doesn't directly link the windings
4. Magnetizing inductances (Xm1, Xm2, Xm3) to represent the core magnetization
characteristics
5. Core losses (Rc1, Rc2, Rc3) due to hysteresis and eddy current losses in the iron
core
The equivalent circuit of a 3-phase transformer allows analysis of each phase

separately while considering the interaction between phases.
The voltage and current relationships between the primary and secondary sides of the
3-phase transformer are governed by the turns ratio and the configuration of the
windings.
. Auto Transformers
An auto transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but varies in the way the
primary and secondary winding of the transformer are interrelated.
Theory of Auto Transformer

In an auto transformer, one single winding is used as primary winding as well as
secondary winding. But in two windings transformer two different windings are used
for primary and secondary purpose. A circuit diagram of auto transformer is shown
below.
The winding AB of total turns N 1 is considered as primary winding. This winding is

tapped from point ′C′ and the portion BC is considered as secondary. Let’s assume the
number of turns in between points ′B′ and ′C′ is N 2. If V 1 voltage is applied across the
winding i.e. in between ′A′ and ′C′. Hence, the voltage across the portion BC of the
winding, will be,
As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be understood

that value of constant ′k′ is nothing but turns ratio or voltage ratio of that auto
transformer. When load is connected between secondary terminals i.e.between ′B′ and
′C′, load current I 2 starts flowing. The current in the secondary winding or common
winding is the difference of I 2 and I 1.
Advantages of Auto Transformer
The advantages of an auto transformer include:
● For transformation ratio = 2, the size of the auto transformer would be

approximately 50% of the corresponding size of two winding transformer. For
transformation ratio say 20 however the size would be 95 %.
● For the same material used, an autotransformer as compared to a 2-winding
transformer gives higher output, has higher efficiency, lower leakage
impedance and hence better voltage regulation.
Disadvantages of Auto Transformer
The disadvantages of an auto transformer include:
● They are used for a voltage ratio less than 2. If the ratio differs far from unity
then the economic advantages decrease.
● A failure of the isolation of the windings of an autotransformer can result in full
input voltage applied to the output. Also, a break in the part of the winding that
is used as both primary and secondary will result in the transformer acting as
an inductor in series with the load (which under light load conditions may result
in near full input voltage being applied to the output).
Formula for Auto Transformer
The following table summarizes some important formulas for auto transformers.
Where,
● V 1 , I 1 are primary voltage and current
● V 2 , I 2 are secondary voltage and current
● N 1 , N 2 are primary and secondary turns
● R, r are primary and secondary resistances
● X, x are primary and secondary reactances
● W tw , W a are weight of copper in two winding transformer and auto
transformer respectively
3 Phase Induction Motors

A 3 phase induction motor is an electromechanical device that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy by using the principle of electromagnetic induction. It is
the most widely used type of AC motor because it does not require any additional
starting device and is self-starting.
Rotating Magnetic Field
The rotating magnetic field is the key concept behind the operation of a 3 phase
induction motor. It is produced by applying balanced three-phase voltages to the stator
windings, which are displaced in space by 120 degrees electrical. The three-phase
currents in the stator windings create a magnetic flux that rotates at the synchronous
speed, which is given by
N_s = {120f}/{P}
where N s is the synchronous speed in rpm, f is the supply frequency in Hz, and P is
the number of poles of the motor.
Principle of Operation
When the rotating magnetic field cuts the rotor conductors, which are either short-
circuited or connected to an external resistance, an emf is induced in them according
to Faraday's law. This emf causes a current to flow in the rotor circuit, which in turn
produces a magnetic field around the rotor. The interaction between the stator and
rotor magnetic fields creates a torque that causes the rotor to rotate in the same
direction as the stator field.
However, the rotor cannot rotate at the same speed as the stator field, otherwise there
would be no relative motion between them and no emf induced in the rotor. Therefore,
there is always a difference between the synchronous speed and the actual rotor
speed, which is called slip. The slip can be expressed as
s = {N_s - N_r}/{N_s}
where N r is the rotor speed in rpm. The slip is usually a small fraction and varies with
the load on the motor.
Equivalent Circuit
The equivalent circuit of a 3 phase induction motor can be derived by applying the per-
phase analysis to the stator and rotor circuits. The stator circuit can be represented by
a voltage source V 1 in series with a stator resistance R 1 and a stator leakage
reactance X 1 . The rotor circuit can be referred to the stator side by using a
transformation ratio k = N 1 /N 2 , where N 1 and N 2 are the number of turns per phase
of the stator and rotor respectively. The referred rotor circuit consists of a rotor
resistance R 2 /k 2 and a rotor leakage reactance X 2 /k 2 in series with a variable
resistor R r , which represents the mechanical load on the motor. The magnetizing
branch of the equivalent circuit consists of a magnetizing reactance X m in parallel
with a core loss resistance R c . The equivalent circuit per phase is shown below.
The power input to the motor can be calculated as

P_i = 3V_1 I_1cosphi_1
where I 1 is the stator current and phi 1 is the power factor angle.
The power output of the motor can be calculated as
P_o = P_i - P_{st} - P_{rt} - P_{core}
where P st , P rt , and P core are the stator copper loss, referred rotor copper loss,
and core loss respectively.
The efficiency of the motor can be calculated as

eta = {P_o}/{P_i}
Torque-Speed Characteristics
The torque-speed characteristic of a 3 phase induction motor shows how the torque
varies with the slip or rotor speed. The torque can be derived from the equivalent
circuit as
The torque-speed characteristic has three important points:
● The starting torque T s , which is the torque at s = 1 or N r = 0.

● The maximum torque T m , which occurs at s = R 2 /k 2 R 1 or N r = N s (1 - R 2 /k
2 R 1 ).
● The breakdown torque T b , which is the maximum torque that the motor can
sustain without stalling.
The torque-speed characteristic also depends on the rotor resistance. By increasing
the rotor resistance, the starting torque and the slip at maximum torque can be
increased, but the maximum torque and the efficiency are reduced. The figure below
shows the effect of rotor resistance on the torque-speed characteristic.
Starting and Speed Control of 3 Phase Induction Motor

The starting and speed control of a 3 phase induction motor are important aspects of
its operation and performance. Some of the methods used for starting and speed
control are:
● Direct-on-line (DOL) starter: This is the simplest and most common method of
starting a 3 phase induction motor, where the stator is directly connected to the
supply voltage. This method provides high starting torque, but also causes high
inrush current and voltage drop in the supply line.
● Star-delta starter: This is a method of reducing the starting current by
connecting the stator windings in star configuration during starting and then
switching to delta configuration after the motor reaches a certain speed. This
method reduces the starting torque and current by a factor of 3.
● Auto-transformer starter: This is a method of reducing the starting voltage and
current by using an auto-transformer with taps to provide different voltage
levels to the stator during starting. The auto-transformer is bypassed after the
motor reaches a certain speed. This method provides better voltage regulation
and higher starting torque than star-delta starter.
● Rotor resistance starter: This is a method of increasing the rotor resistance by
connecting external resistors in series with the rotor circuit during starting.
This method increases the starting torque and reduces the starting current, but
also reduces the efficiency and power factor of the motor.
● Variable frequency drive (VFD): This is a method of controlling the speed of a 3
phase induction motor by varying the frequency and voltage of the supply to the
stator. This method provides smooth and precise speed control, high efficiency,
and energy saving.
Methods of Braking
Braking is the process of reducing or stopping the speed of a motor by applying an
external force or torque. Braking can be achieved either mechanically or electrically.
Electrical braking is preferred over mechanical braking because it provides smooth
and precise control, high efficiency, and energy saving. Electrical braking can be
classified into three types:
● Regenerative braking: This is the method of braking where the kinetic energy of
the motor is converted into electrical energy and returned to the supply source.
This method reduces the energy losses and improves the efficiency of the
system. Regenerative braking can be achieved by operating the motor as a
generator with a higher back emf than the supply voltage. This causes a reverse
torque to act on the motor and slow it down. Regenerative braking is suitable
for applications where frequent braking is required, such as electric trains,
elevators, cranes, etc.
● Dynamic or rheostatic braking: This is the method of braking where the kinetic
energy of the motor is converted into electrical energy and dissipated in a
resistor. This method reduces the speed of the motor but does not stop it
completely. Dynamic or rheostatic braking can be achieved by operating the
motor as a generator with a lower back emf than the supply voltage. This
causes a forward torque to act on the motor but less than the load torque. The
difference between the load torque and the forward torque is balanced by the
resistor connected across the motor terminals. Dynamic or rheostatic braking is
suitable for applications where quick stopping is required, such as hoists, lifts,
etc.
● Counter current or plugging braking: This is the method of braking where the
direction of the supply voltage is reversed so that the motor starts to rotate in
the opposite direction. This method produces a high braking torque and stops
the motor quickly. Counter current or plugging braking can be achieved by
interchanging any two supply terminals of the motor. This causes a reverse
current to flow in the motor and a reverse torque to act on it. The reverse
torque is greater than the load torque and brings the motor to rest. Counter
current or plugging braking is suitable for applications where emergency
stopping is required, such as conveyor belts, machine tools, etc.
Formula for Braking
The following table summarizes some important formulas for braking.
Where,
● P b is the braking power in watts

● T is the braking torque in Nm
● omega is the angular speed in rad/s
● t is the braking time in s
● J is the moment of inertia in kg m2
● Delta omega is the change in angular speed in rad/s
● E b is the braking energy in joules
Effect of Voltage and Frequency Variation on Torque Speed Characteristics

The torque speed characteristic of a motor shows how the torque varies with respect
to the speed. The torque speed characteristic depends on various factors such as
voltage, frequency, load, etc. The effect of voltage and frequency variation on torque
speed characteristics can be explained as follows:
Effect of Voltage Variation
The voltage variation affects both the magnitude and shape of the torque speed
characteristic. The figure below shows how different values of voltage affect the
torque speed characteristic.
As seen from the figure, increasing or decreasing the voltage causes a proportional
change in both maximum torque and starting torque. However, increasing or
decreasing the voltage also causes a change in slip at maximum torque. Increasing the
voltage decreases the slip at maximum torque, while decreasing the voltage increases
it. This means that increasing or decreasing the voltage shifts the peak point of
maximum torque along both axes.
Effect of Frequency Variation
The frequency variation affects only the shape but not the magnitude of the torque
speed characteristic. The figure below shows how different values of frequency affect
the torque speed characteristic.
As seen from the figure, increasing or decreasing the frequency does not change the
maximum torque or starting torque. However, increasing or decreasing the frequency
causes a change in slip at maximum torque. Increasing the frequency decreases the
slip at maximum torque, while decreasing the frequency increases it. This means that
increasing or decreasing the frequency shifts the peak point of maximum torque along
the horizontal axis only.
Fractional Kilowatt Motors and Single Phase Induction Motors:

Characteristics and applications.
- Fractional Kilowatt Motors: Fractional kilowatt motors are electric motors that have
a power rating less than one kilowatt (1000 watts). Fractional kilowatt motors are
widely used in domestic appliances, commercial equipment and small industrial
machines. Fractional kilowatt motors are usually single phase induction motors or
commutator-type motors.
- Advantages: Fractional kilowatt motors have some advantages over higher power
motors, such as:
- They are small in size and light in weight.
- They are simple in construction and easy to repair.
- They are cheaper to manufacture and operate.
- They have low starting current and high power factor.
- Disadvantages: Fractional kilowatt motors also have some disadvantages, such as:
- They have low efficiency and high losses.
- They have poor speed regulation and torque characteristics.
- They have limited speed range and load capacity.
- They have high noise and vibration levels.

- Single Phase Induction Motors: Single phase induction motors are electric motors
that operate on single phase alternating current (AC) supply. Single phase induction
motors are the most common type of fractional kilowatt motors. Single phase
induction motors are classified into different types based on their starting and running
characteristics, such as:
- Split-phase motors: Split-phase motors have two windings on the stator: a main
winding and an auxiliary winding. The auxiliary winding is connected in series with a
capacitor or a resistor to create a phase difference between the currents in the two
windings. This phase difference produces a rotating magnetic field that induces a
torque on the rotor. The auxiliary winding is disconnected by a centrifugal switch when
the motor reaches a certain speed. Split-phase motors have low starting torque and
moderate power factor. Examples of split-phase motors are resistance-start motor
and capacitor-start motor.
- Permanent-split capacitor motor: Permanent-split capacitor motor has two

windings on the stator: a main winding and an auxiliary winding. The auxiliary winding
is permanently connected in series with a capacitor to create a phase difference
between the currents in the two windings. This phase difference produces a rotating
magnetic field that induces a torque on the rotor. Permanent-split capacitor motor has
low starting torque but high power factor and efficiency. It is suitable for constant
speed applications.
- Two-value capacitor motor: Two-value capacitor motor has two windings on the
stator: a main winding and an auxiliary winding. The auxiliary winding is connected in
series with two capacitors of different values: a large capacitor for starting and a
small capacitor for running. The large capacitor creates a large phase difference
between the currents in the two windings for high starting torque. The small capacitor
creates a small phase difference for high power factor and efficiency. The capacitors
are switched by a centrifugal switch when the motor reaches a certain speed. Two-
value capacitor motor has high starting torque and high power factor.
- Shaded-pole induction motor: Shaded-pole induction motor has only one winding on
the stator. The stator poles are partially covered by copper rings called shading coils.
The shading coils create a phase difference between the fluxes in the shaded and
unshaded parts of the poles. This phase difference produces a rotating magnetic field
that induces a torque on the rotor. Shaded-pole induction motor has very low starting
torque but high power factor. It is suitable for low power applications.
- Reluctance-start induction motor: Reluctance-start induction motor has two

windings on the stator: a main winding and an auxiliary winding. The auxiliary winding
is connected in series with an inductor to create a phase difference between the
currents in the two windings. This phase difference produces a rotating magnetic field
that induces a torque on the rotor. The rotor has salient poles that align with the stator
poles due to reluctance torque. The auxiliary winding is disconnected by a centrifugal
switch when the motor reaches a certain speed. Reluctance-start induction motor has
moderate starting torque but low power factor.
- Repulsion-start induction motor: Repulsion-start induction motor has two windings

on the stator: a main winding and an auxiliary winding. The auxiliary winding is short-
circuited by brushes that slide on commutator segments attached to the rotor. The
brushes are placed at an angle to the stator field axis to create a repulsion torque on
the rotor. The brushes are lifted by a centrifugal mechanism when the motor reaches a
certain speed. The rotor then acts as a squirrel-cage rotor and the motor runs as an
induction motor. Repulsion-start induction motor has high starting torque but low
power factor.
- Characteristics and applications: The characteristics and applications of fractional

kilowatt motors and single phase induction motors depend on their types, ratings and
load requirements. Some general characteristics and applications are:
- Characteristics:
- Fractional kilowatt motors and single phase induction motors have low starting
current and high power factor compared to three-phase motors of the same output.
- Fractional kilowatt motors and single phase induction motors have lower
efficiency and higher losses than three-phase motors of the same output.
- Fractional kilowatt motors and single phase induction motors have poor speed
regulation and torque characteristics than three-phase motors of the same output.
- Fractional kilowatt motors and single phase induction motors have limited speed
range and load capacity than three-phase motors of the same output.
- Applications:
- Fractional kilowatt motors and single phase induction motors are extensively used
for electrical drive for low power constant speed apparatus such as fans,
refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, other kitchen equipment, tools,
blowers, centrifugal pumps, small farming appliances etc.
- Fractional kilowatt motors and single phase induction motors are also used for
variable speed applications such as portable tools, hair dryers, vending machines etc.
- Fractional kilowatt motors and single phase induction motors are suitable for
applications where a three-phase supply is not readily available or where the power
requirement is rather small.
Synchronous Machines - Generation of 3-phase e.m.f. armature reaction,

voltage regulation, parallel operation of two alternators, synchronizing, control of
active and reactive power. Starting and applications of synchronous motors.
● Generation of 3-phase e.m.f.: Generation of 3-phase e.m.f. is the process of

producing three alternating voltages or currents of the same frequency and
magnitude but having a phase difference of 120 degrees. Generation of 3-phase
e.m.f. can be achieved by using a three-phase AC generator or alternator that
has three identical windings displaced from each other by 120 degrees electrical
on a common rotor. The rotor is driven by a prime mover and has a magnetic
field produced by permanent magnets or electromagnets. As the rotor rotates,

the windings cut the magnetic flux and induce e.m.f.s according to Faraday's law
of electromagnetic induction. The induced e.m.f.s are sinusoidal and have a
phase difference of 120 degrees due to the angular displacement of the
windings.
The formula for the induced e.m.f. in one phase of a three-phase generator is given by:
● Armature reaction: Armature reaction is the effect of the magnetic field

produced by the armature current on the main field flux in a synchronous
generator. Armature reaction causes distortion and weakening of the main field
flux and affects the terminal voltage and power factor of the generator.
Armature reaction depends on the load current and power factor of the
generator. When the load is resistive or unity power factor, the armature
current is in phase with the induced e.m.f. and produces a magnetic field that is
perpendicular to the main field. This causes distortion but no weakening of the
main field flux. When the load is inductive or lagging power factor, the armature
current lags behind the induced e.m.f. and produces a magnetic field that
opposes the main field. This causes weakening and distortion of the main field
flux and reduces the terminal voltage. When the load is capacitive or leading
power factor, the armature current leads ahead of the induced e.m.f. and
produces a magnetic field that aids the main field. This causes strengthening
and distortion of the main field flux and increases the terminal voltage.
The formula for calculating the armature reaction effect on terminal voltage is given
by:
● Voltage regulation: Voltage regulation is a measure of how well a synchronous

generator maintains its terminal voltage under varying load conditions. Voltage
regulation is defined as the percentage change in terminal voltage when the
load changes from full load to no load at a constant speed and excitation.
Voltage regulation can be calculated by using the formula:
The voltage regulation depends on various factors such as excitation, power factor,
armature reaction, synchronous reactance, etc. The voltage regulation can be positive,
negative or zero depending on whether the terminal voltage increases, decreases or
remains constant when the load changes from full load to no load.
● Parallel operation of two alternators: Parallel operation of two alternators is the
process of connecting two synchronous generators in parallel to supply a
common load or to increase the reliability and efficiency of power generation.
Parallel operation of two alternators requires synchronization of their voltages,
frequencies and phases before connecting them to a common bus bar.
Synchronization can be done manually or automatically by using devices such
as lamps, synchroscope, synchronizing relay, etc. Parallel operation of two
alternators also requires proper sharing of active and reactive power between
them according to their ratings and characteristics. Active power sharing can be
controlled by adjusting their prime mover speeds or mechanical inputs.
Reactive power sharing can be controlled by adjusting their excitations or field
currents.
● Synchronizing: Synchronizing is the mechanism of matching frequency, phase
and voltage of AC power sources before connecting them in parallel.
Synchronizing ensures that at the moment of closing the circuit breaker or
switch, the voltages across the phases are as close to zero as possible and
remain so after the switch is closed. To ensure that, the following conditions
must be met:
○ The generated voltage must be approximately equal to the grid voltage.
○ The frequency of the generated voltage must be equal to that of the grid.
○ The phase sequence of the generated voltage must be the same as that of
the grid.
○ The phase of the generated voltages relative to some reference must be
very close to the phase of grid lines.
● Control of active and reactive power: Control of active and reactive power is the
process of regulating the real and reactive components of the power delivered
by a synchronous generator to a load or a grid. Control of active and reactive
power is important for maintaining the stability and efficiency of the power
system.
○ Control of active power: Active power is the component of power that does
useful work in a load. Active power depends on the torque or mechanical
input to the prime mover and the speed or frequency of rotation of the
generator. Control of active power can be achieved by adjusting the speed
or frequency reference of the prime mover governor. Increasing or
decreasing the speed or frequency reference will increase or decrease the
active power output respectively.
○ Control of reactive power: Reactive power is the component of power that
causes voltage rise or drop in a load. Reactive power depends on the
excitation or field current of the generator and the terminal voltage or
induced e.m.f. Control of reactive power can be achieved by adjusting the
voltage or e.m.f. reference of the generator exciter. Increasing or
decreasing the voltage or e.m.f. reference will increase or decrease the

reactive power output respectively.
● Starting and applications of synchronous motors: Starting and applications of
synchronous motors are related topics that describe how a synchronous motor
is started and what are its advantages and disadvantages over other types of
motors.
○ Starting: A synchronous motor cannot start on its own because it has no
starting torque. A synchronous motor needs an external means to bring it to
synchronous speed before it can operate as a motor. There are different
methods for starting a synchronous motor, such as:
■ Using an auxiliary motor: An auxiliary motor such as an induction
motor or a DC motor can be coupled to the shaft of the
synchronous motor and used to rotate it up to synchronous speed.
Then, the excitation is applied to the field winding and synchronism
is achieved. The auxiliary motor is then disconnected from the
shaft.
■ Using a damper winding: A damper winding is a set of short-
circuited copper bars embedded in the pole faces of the field
winding. The damper winding acts like a squirrel-cage rotor of an
induction motor and produces a starting torque when the stator is
supplied with AC power. The damper winding also helps in
maintaining synchronism during load variations.
■ Using a variable frequency supply: A variable frequency supply
such as an inverter or a cycloconverter can be used to supply AC
power to the stator at a frequency that matches the speed of the
rotor. The frequency is gradually increased until it reaches the
rated value and synchronism is achieved. Then, the excitation is
applied to the field winding.
○ Applications: A synchronous motor has some advantages and
disadvantages over other types of motors, such as:
■ Advantages:
● A synchronous motor can operate at any power factor
(leading, lagging or unity) by adjusting its excitation. This
can be used for power factor correction or voltage
regulation in a power system.
● A synchronous motor has a constant speed that is

independent of the load torque. This can be used for
applications that require precise speed control or
synchronization with other machines.
● A synchronous motor has a high efficiency and low losses
due to the absence of slip or rotor currents.
■ Disadvantages:
● A synchronous motor requires a separate DC source for
excitation, which adds to the cost and complexity of the
system.
● A synchronous motor has no inherent starting torque and
needs an external means to start it.
A synchronous motor is susceptible to loss of synchronism or hunting during sudden
load changes or faults
Generation, Transmission and Distribution – Different types of power

stations, Load factor, diversity factor, demand factor, cost of generation, inter-
connection of power stations. Power factor improvement, various types of tariffs, types
of faults, short circuit current for symmetrical faults. Switchgears – rating of circuit
breakers, Principles of arc extinction by oil and air, H.R.C. Fuses, Protection against
earth leakage / over current, etc. Buchholtz relay, Merz-Price system of protection of
generators & transformers, protection of feeders and bus bars. Lightning arresters,
various transmission and distribution system, comparison of conductor materials,
efficiency of different system.
Different types of power stations

● Power stations or power plants are facilities that generate electric power by
converting various forms of energy into electrical energy. There are different
types of power stations based on the source of energy they use, such as
thermal, hydroelectric, nuclear, solar, wind, biomass, geothermal, etc. Each type
of power station has its own advantages and disadvantages in terms of
efficiency, cost, environmental impact, reliability, etc.
Some examples of different types of power stations are:
● Thermal power station: A thermal power station uses heat to produce steam
that drives a turbine connected to a generator. The heat can be obtained from
burning fossil fuels (such as coal, oil, natural gas), biomass (such as wood,
agricultural waste), or waste (such as municipal solid waste). Thermal power
stations are the most common type of power station in the world and account
for about 65% of global electricity generation.
● Hydroelectric power station: A hydroelectric power station uses the kinetic

energy of flowing water to spin a turbine connected to a generator. The water
can be stored in a reservoir behind a dam or diverted from a river or canal.
Hydroelectric power stations are the most widely used renewable energy
source and account for about 16% of global electricity generation.
● Nuclear power station: A nuclear power station uses nuclear fission to produce
heat that generates steam that drives a turbine connected to a generator. The
nuclear fission occurs in a reactor core where uranium fuel rods are
bombarded with neutrons. Nuclear power stations are the second largest
source of low-carbon electricity after hydroelectricity and account for about 10%
of global electricity generation.
● Solar power station: A solar power station uses solar radiation to produce
electricity either directly or indirectly. Direct solar power stations use
photovoltaic (PV) cells that convert sunlight into direct current (DC) electricity.
Indirect solar power stations use concentrated solar power (CSP) systems that
use mirrors or lenses to focus sunlight onto a receiver that heats a fluid that
drives a turbine connected to a generator. Solar power stations are one of the
fastest growing renewable energy sources and account for about 3% of global
electricity generation.
● Wind power station: A wind power station uses wind turbines that convert the
kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy that drives a generator. Wind
turbines can be installed on land or offshore. Wind power stations are one of the
most cost-effective renewable energy sources and account for about 6% of
global electricity generation.
● Load factor: Load factor is a measure of how efficiently a power station uses its
capacity. It is defined as the ratio of the average load to the maximum demand
on the power station during a given period. A high load factor means that the
power station is operating close to its full capacity for most of the time, which
reduces the cost per unit of electricity generated. A low load factor means that
the power station is underutilized and has a higher fixed cost per unit of
electricity generated.
● Diversity factor: Diversity factor is a measure of how diversified the load on a

power station is. It is defined as the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum
demands of all consumers to the maximum demand on the power station. A
high diversity factor means that the consumers have different peak load times
and do not demand electricity at the same time, which reduces the maximum
demand on the power station and allows for a smaller capacity. A low diversity
factor means that the consumers have similar peak load times and demand
electricity at the same time, which increases the maximum demand on the
power station and requires a larger capacity.
● Demand factor: Demand factor is a measure of how much of the connected load
on a power station is actually used. It is defined as the ratio of the maximum
demand on the power station to its connected load. A high demand factor means
that most of the connected load on the power station is used at some point,
which indicates a high utilization of electricity by the consumers. A low demand
factor means that only a small portion of the connected load on the power
station is used at any point, which indicates a low utilization of electricity by the
consumers.
● Cost of generation: Cost of generation is the total cost incurred by a power

station to produce electricity. It consists of two components: fixed cost and
variable cost. Fixed cost is the cost that does not vary with the output of
electricity, such as capital cost, depreciation, interest, taxes, insurance, etc.
Variable cost is the cost that varies with the output of electricity, such as fuel
cost, operation and maintenance cost, etc. The cost of generation depends on
various factors such as type of power station, load factor, diversity factor,
demand factor, fuel price, efficiency, etc.
● Inter-connection of power stations: Inter-connection of power stations is the
process of linking different power stations together through transmission lines
to form a grid or a network. Inter-connection of power stations has several
benefits such as improving reliability, security, economy and efficiency of power
supply; enabling load sharing and exchange of surplus power; reducing
transmission losses and voltage fluctuations; facilitating integration of
renewable energy sources; etc.
● Power factor improvement: Power factor is the ratio of active power to apparent
power in an AC circuit. It indicates how efficiently the electrical power is
converted into useful work. A low power factor means that more reactive power
is required to maintain the voltage and current in the circuit, which increases
the losses and reduces the efficiency. Power factor improvement is the process
of increasing the power factor of a load or a system by reducing the reactive
power demand. This can be achieved by using devices such as capacitors,
synchronous condensers, phase advancers, static VAR compensators, etc.
Power factor improvement has several benefits such as reducing the line
losses, improving the voltage regulation, increasing the load capacity, saving
energy and cost, etc.
● Various types of tariffs: Tariff is the rate or price at which the electricity is sold
to the consumers by the utility. There are various types of tariffs based on
different criteria such as type of consumer, time of use, type of load, type of
metering, etc. Some common types of tariffs are:
○ Flat rate tariff: This tariff charges a fixed rate per unit of electricity
consumed irrespective of the time or amount of consumption. This tariff
is simple and easy to apply but does not encourage energy conservation
or load management.
○ Block rate tariff: This tariff charges different rates for different blocks or
slabs of electricity consumption. The rate per unit decreases as the
consumption increases within a block and vice versa. This tariff
encourages the consumers to limit their consumption within a block to
avail lower rates.
○ Two-part tariff: This tariff consists of two components: a fixed charge and
a variable charge. The fixed charge is based on the connected load or
maximum demand of the consumer and is paid irrespective of the
consumption. The variable charge is based on the actual units consumed
and varies with the consumption. This tariff recovers both the fixed and
variable costs of the utility and provides an incentive for the consumers
to improve their power factor and reduce their maximum demand.
○ Three-part tariff: This tariff consists of three components: a fixed charge,
a semi-fixed charge and a variable charge. The fixed charge is based on
the connected load or maximum demand of the consumer and is paid
irrespective of the consumption. The semi-fixed charge is based on the
actual maximum demand or peak load of the consumer during a billing
period and varies with the peak demand. The variable charge is based on
the actual units consumed and varies with the consumption. This tariff
reflects the cost structure of the utility more accurately and provides an
incentive for the consumers to reduce their peak demand and shift their
load to off-peak hours.
○ Time-of-day tariff: This tariff charges different rates for different time
periods of a day or a week or a season. The rates are higher during peak
hours and lower during off-peak hours. This tariff encourages the
consumers to shift their load from peak hours to off-peak hours and
helps in load management and peak shaving.
○ Spot pricing tariff: This tariff charges different rates for different intervals
(such as 15 minutes or an hour) based on the real-time market price of
electricity. The rates vary according to the supply and demand conditions
in each interval. This tariff provides a dynamic pricing signal to the
consumers and enables them to respond to price fluctuations by
adjusting their consumption or generation accordingly.
● Types of faults: Faults are abnormal conditions in an electrical system that
cause interruption or disturbance in the normal operation. Faults can be
classified into two types: symmetrical faults and unsymmetrical faults.
○ Symmetrical faults: These are faults that involve all three phases equally
and maintain symmetry in the system. Symmetrical faults are also known
as balanced faults or three-phase faults. Examples of symmetrical faults
are three-phase short circuit, three-phase open circuit, etc. Symmetrical
faults are rare but severe and cause high fault currents in the system.
○ Unsymmetrical faults: These are faults that involve one or two phases
unequally and disturb symmetry in the system. Unsymmetrical faults are
also known as unbalanced faults or single-phase or double-phase faults.
Examples of unsymmetrical faults are single-phase short circuit, single-
phase open circuit, line-to-line fault, double-line-to-ground fault, etc.
Unsymmetrical faults are more common but less severe and cause lower
fault currents in the system.
● Short circuit current for symmetrical faults: Short circuit current is the current
that flows in the system when a short circuit fault occurs. Short circuit current
can be calculated by using the per-unit method or the symmetrical components
method. For symmetrical faults, the short circuit current can be calculated by
using the per-unit method as follows:
○ Step 1: Draw the per-unit impedance diagram of the system by converting

all impedances to a common base and neglecting all shunt elements.
○ Step 2: Identify the fault location and calculate the total impedance from
the source to the fault point by adding all series impedances in the path.
○ Step 3: Calculate the pre-fault voltage at the fault point by multiplying the
source voltage with the voltage regulation factor.
○ Step 4: Calculate the short circuit current at the fault point by dividing the
pre-fault voltage by the total impedance.
○ Step 5: Calculate the short circuit current at any other point in the system
by multiplying the short circuit current at the fault point with the
appropriate transformation ratio or current division factor.
● Switchgears: Switchgears are devices that are used to switch, control and
protect electrical equipment in power systems. Switchgears can be classified
into different types based on their voltage level, construction, interrupting
medium, etc. Some common types of switchgears are:
○ Low voltage switchgear: These are switchgears that operate at voltages
up to 1 kV. They include switches, fuses, circuit breakers, relays, etc. They
are mainly used for distribution and protection of low voltage equipment
such as motors, lighting, appliances, etc.
○ Medium voltage switchgear: These are switchgears that operate at
voltages from 1 kV to 36 kV. They include most of the substation
equipment such as minimum oil circuit breakers, bulk oil circuit
breakers, air magnetic, SF6 gas-insulated, vacuum, and gas-insulated
switchgear. They are mainly used for the distribution and protection of
medium voltage equipment such as transformers, generators, feeders,
etc.
○ High voltage switchgear: These are switchgears that operate at voltages
above 36 kV. They include oil circuit breakers, SF6 circuit breakers, air
blast circuit breakers, gas-insulated switchgear, etc. They are mainly
used for the transmission and protection of high voltage equipment such
as transmission lines, power plants, etc.
● Rating of circuit breakers: Circuit breakers are devices that can interrupt the
flow of current in a circuit under normal or abnormal conditions. Circuit
breakers have various ratings that indicate their performance and capability.
Some common ratings of circuit breakers are:
○ Rated voltage: This is the maximum voltage that the circuit breaker can
withstand without causing damage or insulation failure.
○ Rated current: This is the maximum continuous current that the circuit
breaker can carry without exceeding its temperature limits.
○ Rated breaking current: This is the maximum current that the circuit
breaker can interrupt at its rated voltage and power factor.
○ Rated making current: This is the maximum peak current that the circuit
breaker can close on a short circuit at its rated voltage and power factor.
○ Rated short-time withstand current: This is the maximum current that the
circuit breaker can withstand for a specified duration (usually 1 or 3
seconds) without causing damage or deterioration.
○ Rated operating sequence: This is the sequence of operations (such as O-
CO-2 min-CO) that the circuit breaker can perform without affecting its
performance or life span.
● Principles of arc extinction by oil and air: Arc extinction is the process of
quenching or extinguishing the arc that is formed when the contacts of a circuit
breaker separate. Arc extinction can be achieved by various methods such as
increasing the arc resistance, cooling the arc, lengthening the arc, splitting the
arc, etc. Two common methods of arc extinction are by oil and air.
○ Arc extinction by oil: In this method, the contacts of the circuit breaker
are immersed in a tank filled with insulating oil (such as mineral oil).
When the contacts separate, an arc is formed between them. The oil
surrounding the arc acts as a cooling medium and reduces the
temperature and pressure of the arc. The oil also decomposes into
hydrogen gas due to the heat of the arc. The hydrogen gas has high
thermal conductivity and low ionization potential and helps in deionizing
and extinguishing the arc. The oil also acts as an insulating medium and
prevents restriking of the arc after it is extinguished.
○ Arc extinction by air: In this method, the contacts of the circuit breaker
are exposed to air or enclosed in a chamber filled with compressed air.
When the contacts separate, an arc is formed between them. The air
surrounding the arc acts as a cooling medium and reduces the
temperature and pressure of the arc. The air also has high dielectric
strength and helps in deionizing and extinguishing the arc. The air also
acts as an insulating medium and prevents restriking of the arc after it is

extinguished.
● H.R.C. Fuses: H.R.C. stands for high rupturing capacity. H.R.C. fuses are fuses
that have a high breaking capacity and can interrupt high fault currents without
causing damage or explosion. H.R.C. fuses consist of a fuse element enclosed in
a ceramic tube filled with sand or quartz. The fuse element is made of silver or
copper and has a low melting point. When a fault current flows through the fuse,
the fuse element melts and an arc is formed. The sand or quartz surrounding
the arc acts as a cooling and quenching medium and extinguishes the arc. The
ceramic tube acts as a protective casing and prevents the escape of hot gases
or molten metal.
● Protection against earth leakage / over current, etc.: Protection against earth
leakage or over current is the process of detecting and isolating a fault that
causes an abnormal flow of current to the earth or exceeds the normal load
current. Protection against earth leakage or over current can be achieved by
using devices such as earth leakage circuit breakers (ELCBs), residual current
circuit breakers (RCCBs), miniature circuit breakers (MCBs), etc.
○ Earth leakage circuit breaker: An ELCB is a device that detects the
leakage current to the earth and interrupts the supply to prevent electric
shock or fire hazards. An ELCB consists of a core-balance current
transformer (CBCT) that senses the difference between the line and
neutral currents. If there is no leakage, the line and neutral currents are
equal and cancel each other in the CBCT. If there is a leakage, the line
and neutral currents are unequal and produce a residual current in the
CBCT. This residual current operates a relay that trips the circuit breaker
and disconnects the supply.
○ Residual current circuit breaker: An RCCB is a device that detects the
residual current in a circuit and interrupts the supply to prevent electric
shock or fire hazards. An RCCB consists of a toroidal transformer that
senses the residual current in the line and neutral wires. If there is no
fault, the residual current is zero and no output is produced by the
transformer. If there is a fault, the residual current is non-zero and
produces an output voltage by the transformer. This output voltage

operates an electronic circuit that trips the circuit breaker and
disconnects the supply.
○ Miniature circuit breaker: An MCB is a device that detects and interrupts
over current or short circuit faults in a circuit. An MCB consists of a
bimetallic strip and an electromagnet that act as two independent
tripping mechanisms. The bimetallic strip responds to over current faults
by bending due to heat and releasing a latch that trips the circuit breaker.
The electromagnet responds to short circuit faults by attracting an
armature that releases a latch that trips the circuit breaker.
● Buchholtz relay: A Buchholtz relay is a safety device mounted on some oil-filled
power transformers and reactors, equipped with an external overhead oil
reservoir called a conservator. Buchholtz relays are used as a protective
device, as they are sensitive to the effects of dielectric failure that can occur
inside the equipment they protect. A Buchholtz relay consists of a metallic
chamber filled with oil and fitted with two electrodes and two mercury switches.
The chamber is connected to the main tank and the conservator by pipes. When
a fault occurs inside the transformer, such as an inter-turn short circuit,
winding overheating, core fault, etc., it causes the oil to decompose into gas. The
gas bubbles rise up and enter the chamber, displacing the oil level. When the oil
level falls below the upper electrode, it activates the upper mercury switch,
which sends an alarm signal. When the oil level falls below the lower electrode,
it activates the lower mercury switch, which trips the circuit breaker and
isolates the transformer.
● Merz-Price system of protection: Merz-Price system of protection is a type of
differential protection used to safeguard generators and transformers against
internal faults, such as inter-turn short circuits, phase-to-phase faults, phase-
to-earth faults, etc. Merz-Price system of protection consists of two identical
current transformers (CTs) connected to each end of the winding to be
protected. The secondary windings of the CTs are connected in parallel and fed
to a relay coil. Under normal conditions, the currents in both CTs are equal and
opposite, and hence no current flows through the relay coil. Under fault
conditions, the currents in both CTs become unequal and a differential current
flows through the relay coil. This differential current operates the relay and
trips the circuit breaker.
● Protection of feeders and bus bars: Feeders are transmission lines that carry
power from generating stations or substations to distribution points or load
centers. Bus bars are conductors that connect different feeders or equipment in
a substation. Protection of feeders and bus bars is essential to prevent damage
or disruption to the power system due to faults or overloads. Protection of
feeders and bus bars can be achieved by using devices such as overcurrent
relays, distance relays, pilot wire relays, carrier current relays, differential
relays, etc.
○ Overcurrent relay: An overcurrent relay is a device that detects and
interrupts overcurrent or short circuit faults in a feeder or a bus bar. An
overcurrent relay consists of a current transformer (CT) that senses the
current in the feeder or bus bar and a relay that operates when the
current exceeds a predetermined value.
○ Distance relay: A distance relay is a device that detects and interrupts
faults in a feeder based on the impedance or distance of the fault from
the relay location. A distance relay consists of a voltage transformer (VT)
that senses the voltage at the relay location and a CT that senses the
current in the feeder. The ratio of voltage to current gives the impedance
or distance of the fault from the relay location. The relay operates when
this impedance falls below a predetermined value.
○ Pilot wire relay: A pilot wire relay is a device that uses a dedicated
communication channel (such as a pilot wire) to exchange information
between two relays located at both ends of a feeder. A pilot wire relay
consists of two identical CTs connected to each end of the feeder and two
identical relays connected by a pilot wire. Under normal conditions, no
current flows through the pilot wire. Under fault conditions, a differential
current flows through the pilot wire and operates both relays
simultaneously.
○ Carrier current relay: A carrier current relay is a device that uses a high-
frequency carrier signal superimposed on the power line to exchange
information between two relays located at both ends of a feeder. A
carrier current relay consists of two identical CTs connected to each end
of the feeder and two identical relays equipped with carrier transmitters
and receivers. Under normal conditions, no carrier signal is transmitted
or received. Under fault conditions, one relay transmits a carrier signal
and the other relay receives it and operates.
○ Differential relay: A differential relay is a device that compares the
currents at both ends of a feeder or a bus bar and operates when they
are unequal. A differential relay consists of two identical CTs connected
to each end of the feeder or bus bar and a relay that senses the
difference between the two currents. Under normal conditions, the
currents are equal and no differential current flows through the relay.
Under fault conditions, the currents are unequal and a differential current
flows through the relay and operates it.
● Lightning arresters: Lightning arresters are devices that are used to protect
electrical equipment and systems from the effects of lightning. Lightning
arresters provide a low-impedance path for the lightning surge to the ground
and divert it away from the equipment. Lightning arresters can be classified into
different types based on their construction, application, voltage level, etc. Some
common types of lightning arresters are:
○ Rod gap arrester: This is the simplest type of arrester that consists of
two metal rods with a small gap between them. The gap is set to
withstand the normal operating voltage but breaks down when a lightning
surge occurs and creates an arc that conducts the surge to the ground.
○ Horn gap arrester: This is an improved type of rod gap arrester that
consists of two horn-shaped metal electrodes with a gap between them.
The gap is filled with air or oil and has a series resistance to limit the arc
current. The horn shape increases the length of the arc and helps in
extinguishing it.
○ Sphere gap arrester: This is a type of arrester that consists of two metal
spheres with a gap between them. The gap is calibrated to break down at
a certain voltage level and conduct the surge to the ground. The sphere
shape provides a uniform electric field and reduces the effect of
atmospheric conditions on the breakdown voltage.
○ Multi gap arrester: This is a type of arrester that consists of several gaps
connected in series. The gaps are filled with air or oil and have resistors
or reactors in parallel to control the arc current and voltage. The multiple
gaps increase the arc resistance and reduce the energy dissipated in
each gap.
○ Valve type arrester: This is a type of arrester that consists of several
non-linear resistors (such as silicon carbide or zinc oxide) connected in
series. The resistors have a high resistance at normal operating voltage
but a low resistance at high voltage. The resistors conduct the surge to
the ground and limit the follow-on current.
○ Metal oxide arrester: This is the most advanced type of arrester that
consists of several non-linear resistors (such as zinc oxide) connected in
series and parallel. The resistors have a very high resistance at normal
operating voltage but a very low resistance at high voltage. The resistors
conduct the surge to the ground and suppress the follow-on current. The
metal oxide arrester has no spark gaps and hence no switching noise or
power loss.
● Various transmission and distribution system: Transmission and distribution
system are parts of the power system that carry electricity from generating
stations to consumers. Transmission system operates at high voltage levels
(such as 132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV, etc.) and transfers large amounts of power over
long distances. Distribution system operates at lower voltage levels (such as 11
kV, 6.6 kV, 0.4 kV, etc.) and delivers power to local loads or consumers.
Transmission and distribution system can be classified into different types
based on their configuration, such as:
○ Radial system: This is the simplest type of system that consists of a
single source feeding one or more loads through a single feeder. There is
no alternative path for power flow in case of a fault or outage. The radial
system is easy to design and operate but has low reliability and high
losses.
○ Ring system: This is a type of system that consists of two or more
sources feeding one or more loads through two or more feeders forming
a closed loop. There is an alternative path for power flow in case of a
fault or outage in one feeder. The ring system has higher reliability and
lower losses than the radial system but requires more equipment and
protection devices.
○ Meshed system: This is a type of system that consists of multiple sources
feeding multiple loads through multiple feeders forming an
interconnected network. There are multiple paths for power flow in case
of a fault or outage in any feeder. The meshed system has the highest
reliability and lowest losses but requires complex design, operation and
protection schemes.
● Comparison of conductor materials: Conductor materials are materials that are
used to make wires or cables for transmitting electricity. Conductor materials
have different properties such as conductivity, resistivity, tensile strength,
thermal expansion, corrosion resistance, etc. that affect their performance and
suitability for different applications. Some common conductor materials are:
○ Copper: Copper is the most widely used conductor material due to its
high conductivity, ductility, solderability, and corrosion resistance. Copper
has a conductivity of 58.5 MS/m, a resistivity of 1.72 μΩm, a tensile
strength of 200-250 MPa, a thermal expansion coefficient of 16.6 μm/m°C,
and a density of 8.96 g/cm3.
○ Aluminium: Aluminium is the second most widely used conductor
material due to its low cost, light weight, and high conductivity.
Aluminium has a conductivity of 37.7 MS/m, a resistivity of 2.65 μΩm, a
tensile strength of 100-200 MPa, a thermal expansion coefficient of 23
μm/m°C, and a density of 2.7 g/cm3.
○ Steel: Steel is a conductor material that is used for mechanical strength
and durability rather than electrical conductivity. Steel has a conductivity
of 6.99 MS/m, a resistivity of 14.3 μΩm, a tensile strength of 400-1200
MPa, a thermal expansion coefficient of 11.7 μm/m°C, and a density of 7.8
g/cm3.
○ ACSR: ACSR stands for aluminium conductor steel reinforced. ACSR is a
composite conductor that consists of a core of steel wires surrounded by
one or more layers of aluminium wires. ACSR combines the high
conductivity and light weight of aluminium with the high strength and
durability of steel. ACSR has a conductivity of 26-52 MS/m, a resistivity of
1.92-3.85 μΩm, a tensile strength of 300-800 MPa, a thermal expansion
coefficient of 18-19 μm/m°C, and a density of 3-5 g/cm3.
● Efficiency of different system: Efficiency is the ratio of output power to input
power in an electrical system. Efficiency indicates how well the system converts
the input power into useful output power without wasting energy in the form of
losses. Efficiency can be calculated by using the formula: Efficiency = Output
power / Input power x 100%. The efficiency of different systems depends on
various factors such as voltage level, load factor, power factor, conductor size,
line length, etc. The efficiency of different systems can be compared by using
the following table:
Estimation and costing : Estimation of lighting scheme, electric installation of

machines and relevant IE rules. Earthing practices and IE Rules.
Estimation and costing is the process of calculating the approximate quantity and cost
of materials, labor, and equipment required for an electrical project. It involves the
following steps:
● Planning: defining the scope, objectives, specifications, and standards of the
project.
● Designing: selecting the suitable electrical systems, components, layouts, and
drawings for the project.
● Estimating: measuring and listing the quantities of materials, labor, and
equipment needed for the project based on the design.
● Costing: applying the current market rates and prices to the estimated
quantities to obtain the total cost of the project.
Estimation of lighting scheme is the process of determining the number, type, size, and
location of lamps and luminaires required to provide adequate illumination for a given
area or task. It involves the following steps:
● Surveying: collecting the relevant data and information about the area or task to
be illuminated, such as dimensions, shape, color, reflectance, purpose, activity
level, etc.
● Calculating: applying the appropriate formulas and methods to calculate the

illumination level, luminous flux, lamp efficiency, power consumption, etc. for
the area or task to be illuminated.
● Selecting: choosing the suitable lamps and luminaires based on the calculated
values and other factors such as cost, availability, maintenance, aesthetics, etc.
● Placing: locating and arranging the lamps and luminaires in a way that ensures
uniform and effective illumination for the area or task to be illuminated.
Electric installation of machines is the process of connecting and wiring various
electrical machines and equipment to a power source and a control system. It involves
the following steps:
● Selecting: choosing the appropriate electrical machines and equipment based
on their specifications, ratings, functions, applications, etc.
● Sizing: determining the proper size and capacity of cables, wires, conduits,
switches, fuses, circuit breakers, etc. required for connecting and wiring the
electrical machines and equipment.
● Laying: installing and fixing the cables, wires, conduits, etc. along the desired
routes and paths for connecting and wiring the electrical machines and
equipment.
● Connecting: attaching and joining the cables, wires, conduits, etc. to the
terminals and points of the electrical machines and equipment using suitable
connectors and methods.
● Testing: checking and verifying the proper functioning and performance of the
electrical machines and equipment after connecting and wiring them.
Relevant IE rules are the rules and regulations prescribed by the Indian Electricity Act
2003 and its amendments for ensuring safety, quality, efficiency, reliability, etc. of
electrical installations. Some of these rules are:
● Rule 29: Every electric supply-line or apparatus shall be sufficient in power &
size & shall be constructed & protected & maintained so as to prevent danger &
shall be worked so as not to cause undue interference with any other electric
supply-line or apparatus
● Rule 30: Every electric supply-line or apparatus shall be so constructed &
installed & maintained as to reduce as far as practicable any injurious affection
by electrostatic induction upon any other electric supply-line or apparatus

by electromagnetic induction upon any other electric supply-line or apparatus
by leakage currents upon any other electric supply-line or apparatus
by harmonics upon any other electric supply-line or apparatus
by voltage fluctuations upon any other electric supply-line or apparatus
by frequency variations upon any other electric supply-line or apparatus
by noise upon any other electric supply-line or apparatus
by transient disturbances upon any other electric supply-line or apparatus
by power quality upon any other electric supply-line or apparatus
Earthing practices are the methods and procedures of connecting the metallic parts of
electrical machines and equipment to the earth or a common point of zero potential.
The purpose of earthing practices is to ensure safety, protection, and stability of
electrical installations. Some of these practices are:
● Plate earthing: using a metal plate (such as copper, iron, or galvanized steel)
buried in the ground and connected to the electrical machines and equipment by
a conductor (such as copper wire or strip).
● Pipe earthing: using a metal pipe (such as copper, iron, or galvanized steel)
buried in the ground and connected to the electrical machines and equipment by
a conductor (such as copper wire or strip).
● Rod earthing: using a metal rod (such as copper, iron, or galvanized steel)
driven into the ground and connected to the electrical machines and equipment
by a conductor (such as copper wire or strip).
● Strip earthing: using a metal strip (such as copper, iron, or galvanized steel) laid
in the ground and connected to the electrical machines and equipment by a
conductor (such as copper wire or strip).
IE rules for earthing are the rules and regulations prescribed by the Indian Electricity
Act 2003 and its amendments for ensuring safety, quality, efficiency, reliability, etc. of
earthing practices. Some of these rules are:
● Rule 61: Every medium voltage & high voltage & extra-high voltage electric
supply-line or apparatus shall be earthed by two separate & distinct
connections with earth
● Rule 62: Every low voltage electric supply-line or apparatus shall be earthed by
one connection with earth
● Rule 63: Every earthed terminal of an electric supply-line or apparatus shall be
permanently & effectively connected with general mass of earth in accordance
with rule 64
● Rule 64: The resistance to earth of any earthed terminal shall not exceed one
ohm in case of medium voltage & high voltage & extra-high voltage electric
supply-line or apparatus & five ohms in case of low voltage electric supply-line
or apparatus
● Rule 65: The resistance to earth of any system of earthing shall not vary by
more than five per cent from its average value
● Rule 66: The earth electrodes shall be placed at a depth of not less than one
meter below the general surface level of the ground
● Rule 67: The earth electrodes shall be placed at a distance of not less than two
meters from each other & from any other earth electrode
● Rule 68: The earth electrodes shall be made of metal having high conductivity &
corrosion resistance
● Rule 69: The conductors used for connecting the earthed terminals to the earth
electrodes shall be made of metal having high conductivity & mechanical
strength
● Rule 70: The conductors used for connecting the earthed terminals to the earth
electrodes shall be protected from mechanical damage & corrosion
Utilization of Electrical Energy : Illumination, Electric heating, Electric

welding, Electroplating, Electric drives and motors
Illumination is the process of providing artificial light for visibility and comfort.
Illumination requires electric energy to power various sources of light, such as lamps,
and devices to control the light distribution, such as reflectors and shades. The quality
of illumination depends on factors such as intensity, color, direction and uniformity of
light. Some of the common terms used in illumination are:
● Luminous flux: Luminous flux is the measure of the total amount of light emitted
by a source in all directions. It is denoted by letter 'F' and is measured in lumens
(lm). For example, a 100 W incandescent bulb emits about 1200 lm of luminous
flux.
● Illumination: Illumination is the measure of the amount of light received by a
surface per unit area. It is denoted by letter 'E' and is measured in lux (lx) or
lumen per square meter (lm/m^2^). For example, a surface that receives 100 lm
of luminous flux over an area of 1 m^2^ has an illumination of 100 lx.
● Luminous intensity: Luminous intensity is the measure of the brightness of a
source in a given direction. It is denoted by letter 'I' and is measured in candela
(cd) or lumen per steradian (lm/sr). For example, a candle emits about 1 cd of
luminous intensity.
● Luminance: Luminance is the measure of the brightness of a surface in a given
direction. It is denoted by letter 'L' and is measured in candela per square meter
(cd/m^2^) or nit. For example, a white paper reflects about 250 cd/m^2^ of
luminance.
● Solid angle: Solid angle is the measure of the area subtended by an object on a
sphere with a given radius. It is denoted by letter 'ω' and is measured in
steradians (sr). For example, a sphere has a solid angle of 4π sr.
Some of the common methods of electric illumination are:
● Incandescent lamps: Incandescent lamps are the oldest and simplest type of
electric lamps. They produce light by passing an electric current through a thin
filament made of tungsten, which heats up and emits light. Incandescent lamps
have advantages such as low cost, easy availability and warm color. However,
they have disadvantages such as low efficiency, short life span and high heat
generation.
● Fluorescent lamps: Fluorescent lamps are more efficient and durable than
incandescent lamps. They produce light by passing an electric current through a
tube filled with mercury vapor and coated with phosphor, which emits
ultraviolet radiation that excites the phosphor and produces visible light.
Fluorescent lamps have advantages such as high efficiency, long life span and
cool color. However, they have disadvantages such as high initial cost, flickering
and mercury disposal.
● Discharge lamps: Discharge lamps are similar to fluorescent lamps but use
different gases or vapors instead of mercury. They produce light by passing an
electric current through a tube filled with gas or vapor, which ionizes and emits
light. Discharge lamps have advantages such as high intensity, long life span
and various colors. However, they have disadvantages such as high initial cost,
high voltage requirement and color shift.
● LED lamps: LED lamps are the most advanced and efficient type of electric
lamps. They produce light by passing an electric current through a
semiconductor material, which emits light due to electroluminescence. LED
lamps have advantages such as very high efficiency, very long life span, low
heat generation and various colors. However, they have disadvantages such as
high initial cost, low brightness and color rendering.
● Electric heating: Electric heating is the process of converting electric energy
into heat energy for various purposes, such as cooking, water heating, space
heating, industrial heating and welding. Electric heating has advantages such as
cleanliness, safety, efficiency and controllability. Some of the common products
of electric heating are:
○ Resistance heaters: Resistance heaters are devices that produce heat by
passing an electric current through a resistive element, such as a wire or
a coil. Resistance heaters are used for domestic appliances, such as
electric irons, kettles, ovens and toasters, as well as for industrial
furnaces and ovens.
○ Induction heaters: Induction heaters are devices that produce heat by
inducing an electric current in a conductive material, such as a metal or a
ceramic. Induction heaters are used for industrial applications, such as
induction furnaces and induction welding.
○ Arc heaters: Arc heaters are devices that produce heat by creating an
electric arc between two electrodes or between an electrode and a
workpiece. Arc heaters are used for industrial applications, such as arc
furnaces and arc welding.
○ Dielectric heaters: Dielectric heaters are devices that produce heat by
applying an electric field to a dielectric material, such as a plastic or a
wood. Dielectric heaters are used for industrial applications, such as
dielectric heating and dielectric welding.
○ Infrared heaters: Infrared heaters are devices that produce heat by
emitting infrared radiation, which is absorbed by the objects in its path.
Infrared heaters are used for domestic and industrial applications, such
as room heaters and infrared drying.
○ Microwave heaters: Microwave heaters are devices that produce heat by
emitting microwave radiation, which is absorbed by the molecules in the
material. Microwave heaters are used for domestic and industrial
applications, such as microwave ovens and microwave sterilization.
● Electric welding: Electric welding is the process of joining two or more metal
pieces by melting and fusing them with an electric arc or an electric current.
Electric welding has advantages such as speed, economy, strength and
flexibility. Some of the common products of electric welding are:
○ Arc welders: Arc welders are devices that create an electric arc between
an electrode and a workpiece or between two electrodes to melt and fuse
the metals. Arc welders are used for various types of welding, such as
shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and submerged arc welding (SAW).
○ Resistance welders: Resistance welders are devices that pass an electric
current through the metals to be joined to melt and fuse them by
resistance heating. Resistance welders are used for various types of
welding, such as spot welding, seam welding, projection welding and
flash welding.
○ Induction welders: Induction welders are devices that induce an electric
current in the metals to be joined to melt and fuse them by induction
heating. Induction welders are used for various types of welding, such as
induction brazing and induction soldering.
○ Dielectric welders: Dielectric welders are devices that apply an electric

field to the materials to be joined to melt and fuse them by dielectric
heating. Dielectric welders are used for various types of welding, such as
dielectric sealing and dielectric embossing.
● Electroplating: Electroplating is the process of depositing a thin layer of metal
on another metal by passing an electric current through an electrolytic solution.
Electroplating is used for enhancing the appearance, corrosion resistance,
hardness and conductivity of metal objects. Some of the common products of
electroplating are:
○ Copper plating: Copper plating is the process of coating a metal object
with copper by using copper sulfate solution as the electrolyte. Copper
plating is used for decorative purposes, as well as for electrical contacts
and printed circuit boards.
○ Nickel plating: Nickel plating is the process of coating a metal object with
nickel by using nickel sulfate solution as the electrolyte. Nickel plating is
used for improving the wear resistance, corrosion resistance and
appearance of metal objects.
○ Chromium plating: Chromium plating is the process of coating a metal
object with chromium by using chromic acid solution as the electrolyte.
Chromium plating is used for providing a shiny and durable finish to
metal objects.
○ Gold plating: Gold plating is the process of coating a metal object with
gold by using gold cyanide solution as the electrolyte. Gold plating is used
for decorative purposes, as well as for electrical contacts and jewelry.
● Electric drives and motors: Electric drives and motors are devices that convert
electric energy into mechanical energy for various applications, such as fans,
pumps, compressors, conveyors, cranes and lifts. Electric drives and motors
have advantages such as high efficiency, low maintenance, smooth operation
and easy speed control. Some of the common products of electric drives and
motors are:
○ DC drives and motors: DC drives and motors are devices that use direct
current (DC) to power and control the speed of DC motors. DC drives and
motors are used for applications that require precise and variable speed
control, such as electric vehicles and robots.
○ AC drives and motors: AC drives and motors are devices that use
alternating current (AC) to power and control the speed of AC motors. AC
drives and motors are used for applications that require constant and
fixed speed control, such as fans and pumps.
○ Special drives and motors: Special drives and motors are devices that
use special types of current or voltage to power and control the speed of
special types of motors. Special drives and motors are used for
applications that require specific performance or characteristics, such as
stepper motors, servo motors, brushless DC motors and synchronous
motors.
Utilization of Electrical Energy formulas
Utilization of electrical energy is the process of converting electrical energy into useful
forms of energy such as heat, light, motion, etc. Electrical energy can be utilized in
various ways depending on the nature and purpose of the application. Some of the
common applications of electrical energy are:
● Illumination: This is the application of electrical energy to produce light for
various purposes such as domestic, industrial, commercial, outdoor, etc.
Illumination involves the use of different types of lamps and luminaires that
have different characteristics such as luminous efficacy, color rendering, life
span, etc. The basic formula for illumination is
E = {phi}/{A}
where E is the illuminance in lux, phi is the luminous flux in lumens, and A is the area
in m 2 .
● Electric heating: This is the application of electrical energy to produce heat for
various purposes such as cooking, welding, melting, drying, etc. Electric heating
involves the use of different types of heaters and furnaces that have different
characteristics such as efficiency, power rating, temperature range, etc. The
basic formula for electric heating is
where Q is the heat produced in joules, V is the voltage in volts, I is the current in
amperes, eta is the efficiency of the heater or furnace, and t is the time in seconds.
● Electric welding: This is the application of electrical energy to join two or more
metal pieces by melting and fusing them together. Electric welding involves the
use of different types of welding processes and equipment that have different
characteristics such as power source, electrode type, current type, polarity, etc.
The basic formula for electric welding is
where P is the power input to the welding circuit in watts, V is the voltage across the
arc in volts, I is the current through the arc in amperes, and phi is the power factor
angle.
● Electroplating: This is the application of electrical energy to deposit a thin layer
of metal on another metal by using an electrolytic cell. Electroplating involves
the use of different types of electrolytes and electrodes that have different
characteristics such as concentration, voltage, current density, etc. The basic
formula for electroplating is
where m is the mass of metal deposited in grams, Z is the electrochemical equivalent

of metal in g/C, I is the current through the cell in amperes, t is the time in seconds,
and F is the Faraday constant in C/mol.
● Electric drives and motors: This is the application of electrical energy to
produce motion for various purposes such as transportation, industrial
machinery, domestic appliances, etc. Electric drives and motors involve the use
of different types of motors and controllers that have different characteristics
such as speed control methods, torque-speed curves, efficiency, power factor,
etc. The basic formula for electric drives and motors is
T = {P}/{omega}
where T is the torque produced by the motor in Nm, P is the power output of the motor
in watts, and omega is the angular speed of the motor in rad/s.
Basic Electronics : Working of various electronic devices e.g. P N

Junction diodes, Transistors (NPN and PNP type), BJT and JFET. Simple
circuits using these devices.
● P N Junction diodes: A P N junction diode is a semiconductor device that

consists of a p-type and an n-type region joined together. A p-type region has
an excess of holes (positive charge carriers) and an n-type region has an
excess of electrons (negative charge carriers). When the p-type and n-type
regions are joined, a depletion region is formed at the junction, where the
charge carriers recombine and create an electric field that opposes the
diffusion of more charge carriers. A P N junction diode allows current to flow
only in one direction, from the p-type to the n-type region, when it is forward
biased (the p-type region is connected to the positive terminal of a battery and
the n-type region is connected to the negative terminal). When it is reverse
biased (the opposite polarity), the current is blocked by the depletion region. A P
N junction diode can be used for various applications, such as rectification,
switching, clamping and voltage regulation.
● Transistors (NPN and PNP type): A transistor is a semiconductor device that
consists of three regions: a base, a collector and an emitter. There are two
types of transistors: NPN and PNP. An NPN transistor has an n-type base
sandwiched between a p-type emitter and an n-type collector. A PNP transistor
has a p-type base sandwiched between an n-type emitter and a p-type
collector. A transistor can act as a switch or an amplifier, depending on how it is
biased. When a small current flows into the base region, it controls a larger
current that flows from the collector to the emitter region. The ratio of the
collector current to the base current is called the current gain of the transistor.
A transistor can be used for various applications, such as logic gates,
amplifiers, oscillators and regulators .
● NPN transistor: An NPN transistor has an n-type base sandwiched between a p-
type emitter and an n-type collector. The arrow on the emitter points outwards,
indicating the direction of conventional current flow when the transistor is
forward biased. The base-emitter junction is forward biased and the base-
collector junction is reverse biased. The electrons from the emitter are injected
into the base and most of them reach the collector due to the thinness and low
doping of the base. The holes from the base are injected into the emitter and
reach the external circuit. The collector current is mainly due to the electrons
from the emitter and the base current is mainly due to the holes from the base.
● PNP transistor: A PNP transistor has a p-type base sandwiched between an n-
type emitter and a p-type collector. The arrow on the emitter points inwards,
indicating the direction of conventional current flow when the transistor is
forward biased. The base-emitter junction is forward biased and the base-
collector junction is reverse biased. The holes from the emitter are injected into
the base and most of them reach the collector due to the thinness and low
doping of the base. The electrons from the base are injected into the emitter and
reach the external circuit. The collector current is mainly due to the holes from
the emitter and the base current is mainly due to the electrons from the base.
● BJT: A BJT (bipolar junction transistor) is a type of transistor that uses both
electrons and holes as charge carriers. A BJT can be either an NPN or a PNP
transistor. A BJT has three terminals: a base, a collector and an emitter. The
base terminal controls the current that flows from the collector to the emitter
terminal. The operation of a BJT depends on how it is biased. There are four
modes of operation: cut-off, active, saturation and reverse-active. In cut-off
mode, no current flows in the transistor. In active mode, the transistor acts as
an amplifier. In saturation mode, the transistor acts as a closed switch. In
reverse-active mode, the transistor acts as an open switch .
● JFET: A JFET (junction field-effect transistor) is a type of transistor that uses
only one type of charge carrier, either electrons or holes. A JFET has three
terminals: a gate, a source and a drain. The gate terminal controls the current
that flows from the source to the drain terminal by creating an electric field in
the channel between them. The operation of a JFET depends on how it is biased.
There are two types of JFETs: n-channel and p-channel. An n-channel JFET has
an n-type channel and a p-type gate. A p-channel JFET has a p-type channel
and an n-type gate. A JFET can be used for various applications, such as
switches, amplifiers, buffers and mixers .
● Simple circuits using these devices: Here are some examples of simple circuits
using these devices:
○ Common-emitter amplifier: A common-emitter amplifier is a circuit that
uses an NPN transistor to amplify a small input voltage signal into a
larger output voltage signal. The input signal is applied to the base
terminal of the transistor and the output signal is taken from the
collector terminal. The emitter terminal is connected to ground or
common reference point. The circuit requires two DC power supplies: one
for biasing the transistor and one for providing the output voltage.
○ Common-source amplifier: A common-source amplifier is a circuit that
uses an n-channel JFET to amplify a small input voltage signal into a
larger output voltage signal. The input signal is applied to the gate
terminal of the JFET and the output signal is taken from the drain
terminal. The source terminal is connected to ground or common
reference point. The circuit requires a single DC power supply for biasing
the JFET and providing the output voltage.
○ Switching circuit: A switching circuit is a circuit that uses a transistor to
turn on or off another device, such as a LED or a relay. The input signal is
applied to the base (for BJT) or gate (for JFET) terminal of the transistor
and the output device is connected between the collector (for BJT) or
drain (for JFET) terminal and the power supply. When the input signal is
high enough to turn on the transistor, the output device is activated.
When the input signal is low enough to turn off the transistor, the output
device is deactivated.
_________________________xx____________________xx_______________________________

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Methods of Braking .............................................................................................................................................. 46

Basic concepts : Concepts of resistance, inductance, capacitance, and various

to the source resistance (or Thevenin/Norton resistance). The maximum power

Magnetic Circuit : Concepts of flux, mmf, reluctance, Different kinds of

● Ferromagnetic materials: These are materials that have a permanent magnetic

Magnetic calculations for conductors of different configuration

Electromagnetic induction, self and mutual induction

The mutually induced emf in one coil can be calculated by:

AC Fundamentals: Instantaneous, peak, R.M.S. and average values of alternating

Instantaneous value- Instantaneous value is the value of an alternating quantity (such

where I is the current through the circuit.

susceptance can be calculated as:

where V is the voltage across the circuit.

At resonance, the current in the circuit is maximum and equal to:

where Vs is the source voltage.

At resonance, the current through the resistor is equal to:

The impedance of the circuit is maximum and equal to: 𝑍𝑟 = 𝑅

energy without losses. It is defined as:

Poly Phase system – star and delta connection, 3 phase power

The power delivered by a balanced star-connected load can be calculated as:

𝑃 = 3𝑉𝑝 𝐼𝑝 cos⁡ 𝜙 = √3𝑉𝐿 𝐼𝐿 cos⁡ 𝜙

The power delivered by a balanced delta-connected load can be calculated as:

● Power factor: The ratio of active power to apparent power. It is a dimensionless

Three-phase power and energy measurement

The one-wattmeter method can be used to measure three-phase power in a balanced

Substituting these values in the wattmeter equation, we get:

Using the identity cos(φ - 30) = cosφcos30 + sinφsin30, we can write:

Using the identity cos(φ - 30) = 2cos^2(φ/2 - 15) - 1, we can write:

Comparing this with the total active power equation, we get:

Then, the first wattmeter reading W1 is: 𝑊1 = 𝑉𝑅−𝐵 𝐼𝑅 cos⁡(30 + 𝜙)

Using phasor diagram, we can write:

Using trigonometric identity, we can simplify this as:

Substituting these values in the wattmeter equation, we get:

Using trigonometric identity, we can simplify this as:

Measurement and measuring instruments: Measurement of power (1

Use of CRO, Signal Generator, CT, PT and their uses

● Commutator: It is a cylindrical structure made of copper segments that are

Characteristics of D.C. Motors and Generators

1-Phase Transformers: Construction, Principles of Operation, and Equivalent

Open Circuit (O.C.) and Short Circuit (S.C.) Tests:

Open Circuit Test:

Short Circuit Test:

Losses and Efficiency:

The efficiency of a transformer is given by the formula:

Efficiency is maximum at a specific load, known as the maximum efficiency point.

3-Phase Transformers: Construction, Principles of Operation, and Equivalent

3-Phase Transformers: Construction, Principles of Operation, and Equivalent Circuit:

voltages in the secondary windings through electromagnetic induction. The magnitude

The three-phase transformer operates based on the principle of mutual induction

The equivalent circuit of a 3-phase transformer allows analysis of each phase

Theory of Auto Transformer

The winding AB of total turns N 1 is considered as primary winding. This winding is

As BC portion of the winding is considered as secondary, it can easily be understood

● For transformation ratio = 2, the size of the auto transformer would be

3 Phase Induction Motors