Engineering Encyclopedia Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services. Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees. Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco. Chapter: Vessels For additional information on this subject, contact File Reference: MEX10405 RK. KhannaEngineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Bumer And Firebox Operation And Control Contents Pages FUELS AND BURNERS 1 Fuel Options... sncnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnannnnnnnnnnnannnnnnnnnnnnnenses L Bumers Burner Components.. Gas Burners. Oil Bumers.. Combination Gas and Oil Bumers . Forced Draft Burners Emissions Control. FUEL SYSTEMS. 16 Fuel Gas Systems ....ccccssninnennnnnnnnnnnnnnnannnnnannnnnnnensnnnnennssel6 Components. Controls. Fuel Oil Systems. Components. Controls... Effects on Boiler and Process Heater (Fumace) Design ..... MAJOR CONCERNS AND GUIDELINES FOR FIREBOX OPERATION ...scescssessse 27 Major Concerns......cosennnnnnen Flame Characteristics and Patterns Typical Draft Profile Optimum Operation for Excess Air Operating Guidelines for Natural Draft Fumaces ...ccssennnsennes seven DD GLOSSARY occ cinsnsnsntnnninnnnnnsnnhnnnnnninnnnnnninnnnnintinnnaninsninninsnnenaenen SO ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop StandardsEngineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Table of Figures Figure 1. Typical Natural-Draft Oil/Gas Burners. Figure 2. Pilot Burner... Figure 3. John Zink Burner Capacities... Figure 4. Typical Fuel Oil Bumer Figure 5. Forced-Draft Boiler Combination Bumer .....ccsesenne Figure 6. Typical LowNO, Burner Figure 7. AVC LowNOx Bumer..... Figure 8. LowNO, Burner with Flue Gas Recirculation. Figure 9. Flue/Fuel Gas Mixture... Figure 10. Typical Gas Bumer System (Automatic ie Startup). - Figure 11. Typical Gas Bumer System (Supervised Manual Startup). Figure 12. Pilot Gas System. Figure 13. Orifice Flow...... Figure 14. Fuel Oil System... Figure 15. RT Liquid Fuel System... Figure 16. Typical Oil Bumer System (Automatic ¢ Startup) Figure 17. Typical Oil Burner System (Supervised Manual)... Figure 18. Fumace Natural Draft Profile... Figure 19. Optimum Excess Air for a Fired Heater ...ccscsennnnnnnnnnennsenin 29 ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop StandardsEngineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, FUELS AND BURNERS Fuel Options The fuel options include gas and oil. Gas can include natural gas and/or a refinery or gas plant fuel gas. The refinery or gas plant fuel gas includes natural gas and make gas from the processes, and usually has a higher heating value than dry natural gas. Oil can be No. 6 fuel oil, bunker fuel oil, resids, or crude oil. It is almost always more economical to burn fuel oil and zesids than to burn crude oil. Burners Bumers are mechanical devices for mixing fuel and air for combustion, The main functions of bumers are: + To provide and mix the proper quantities of fuel and air + To provide a stable ame. + To release heat in the desired pattern, Bumers and their combustion control systems must produce satisfactory combustion over the range of expected operating conditions (fuel compositions and firing rates). Burners are expected to be reliable and to meet these requirements with reasonable initial cost and maintenance expense. Failure of burners to perform any of these functions adequately can lead to inefficient combustion and/or poor flame patterns. This can lead to localized overheating and damage to furnace or boiler components, resulting in increased maintenance costs. This damage can also cause a premature shutdown due to failure (or impending failure) of critical components such as tubes, tube supports, or the refractory lining. Burners are available in two general types: natural-draft and forced-drafi. Either type can be used for burning gas or liquid fuels alone, or both fuels in combination. + Natural-draft bumers are used in all Saudi Aramco process heaters. + Forced-draft bumers are used in all boilers, Forced-draft bumers may also be used in process heaters (furnaces). At this time, none of Saudi Aramco's process heaters use forced-draft burners. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 1Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Burner Components Burners consist of the following main components illustrated in Figure 1. Figure 1 shows typical natural-draft burners. Aaj ee oa . fl rT | | ‘Secondary Aeegte |S ru Fe Satria e ‘ine a Fuel Gas Connection ‘With permission from the Thin Zink Co, Figure 1. Typical Natural-Draft Oil/Gas Burners Air Register - Air enters the bumer through the air register. Air flow can be controlled by adjusting the size of the openings in the register. For natural-draft bumers, the most common type of air register consists of fixed and moveable concentric cylinders, each with slots. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 2Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Plenum Chamber - The air register in some bumers is located inside a plenum chamber, which usually serves all the bumers in the furnace or boiler. In boilers, the plenum chamber is called a windbox. The plenum chamber can serve several purposes: + Reduces noise emissions from the burners. . Reduces wind effects on natural-draft burners. + Permits combustion air supply from a single source, such as a fan. + Enables total air flow to the furnace or boiler to be controlled at one point. Euel System - This consists of manifolds and piping to deliver the fuel to the bumer tips. The fuel passes through one or more openings in the tips, which act as restriction orifices. The fuel is injected into, and mixes with, the airstream. Various types of bumer tips are used, depending upon the type of fuel and the flame pattern desired. Refractory Burner Tile - This is located at the bumer exit. The tile helps stabilize combustion and shape the flame. The bumer tile is usually shaped so that one section has a minimum cross- sectional flow area. This is called the throat and acts as a venturi in the airstream. The opening in most burner tiles is circular. Together with the air register and fuel tip designs, this produces a circular-shaped flame. In some cases, the tile and other components are designed to produce a non-circular flame shape. A rectangular-shaped tile opening can be used to produce a flat flame, which is needed in some furnace arrangements. lot Burner. - This small bumer is used for ignition of the main burner flame. In some burners, it also acts as a stabilizer for the main flame. In boilers, the pilot flame itself is usually ignited by an electric igniter. Pilots in process heater burners usually operate continuously, while pilots in boilers are usually shut down after the main flame is ignited. Individual pilots should be removable for maintenance while the boiler or process heater remains in operation. A typical pilot burner is shown in Figure 2 ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 3Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Mixer Ori Figure 2. Pilot Burner Gas Burners Natural-draft bumers rely on the draft (negative pressure) in the fumace’s radiant box to induce the air required for combustion. The efficiency of fuel/air mixing is strongly affected by the kinetic energy available in the air (ie. the velocity of the air as it passes through the bumer mixing zone). Since the draft available is usually only about 0.3-0.5 in. water at the bumer, the energy for mixing is relatively low. Consequently, natural-draft burners are limited to a maximum capacity of about 15 M Btwhr. Flame lengths can be excessive in large natural-draft burners. Many types of natural-draft bumers have much lower capacities, resulting in some large fumaces having many burners. For example, the Ras Tanura Crude Unit 15 F-100 A&B Atmospheric furnaces each have 56 bumers with a maximum firing capacity of 6.25 MBtwhr each There are two prineipal types of gas-fired burners: raw gas and pre-mix, ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 4Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Raw Gas Burners - Raw gas bumers (Figure 1a) are used for most applications. In these bumers, the fuel gas passes through orifices in the gas tip and is injected directly into the combustion zone where it mixes with air. A stabilizer cone is located just below the gas to improve combustion stability. Raw gas burners have a high tumdown ratio (about 5 to 1). They are suitable for mounting in plenum chambers and can be used with preheated combustion air. Raw gas bumers of this type (John Zink VYD) are used in Ras Tanura Rheniformer furnace 493- F-301/2/3/4. Pre-mix Burners - Pre-mix burners (Figure 1b) are sometimes used in special applications. In these bumers, the kinetic energy made available by the expansion of the fitel gas through the fuel gas orifice inspizates about half of the combustion air (called primary air) into the venturi mixer. This mixture exits through a large burner tip, where it is mixed with the balance of the combustion air (secondary air). This secondary air flow enters the bumer through the outer, secondary air register. Primary air flow through pre-mix burners varies with fuel flow, giving these bumers a degree of excess air control, Pre-mix bumers require less furnace draft than raw gas burners. Pre-mix bumers can produce a wide range of flame shapes. Use of a "spider" shaped tip, as shown in Figure 1b, produces a short flame, which may be suited to a furnace with a short radiant box. Other burner tips are used to produce other flame shapes (such as a long, thin flame). One major disadvantage of pre-mix buers is their susceptibility to flashback. Normally the flame front is stationary at or immediately above the bumer tip, where the fuel/air mixture slows down afier emerging from the holes in the tip. At reduced firing rates and with a high flame velocity, the flame can “flash back" through the tip and burn inside the mixer, just downstream of the fuel gas orifice. Flashback will damage the mixer and burner tip if left unchecked. Pre-mix bumers are generally noisier than raw gas bumers, and a muffler is almost always required for the primary air inlet. Pre-mix bumers also have less flexibility than raw gas bumers for fuel composition changes. Natural Draft Burner-Selection Factors - Bumer sizes are based mainly on their air flow capacities. Air flow through a natural-draft bumer is determined by the available draft at the bumer and by the size of the bumer’s air register and bumer tiles. The required air flow determines the required number and size of burners. The required air flow is calculated at 120% of maximum heat release and design excess air. Fuel flow capacity is mainly a function of the size of the openings in the bumer tips and the available fuel pressure. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop StandardsEngineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, The design maximum firing capacity of furnace bumers includes some extra capacity above the normal firing rate. This permits bumers to be occasionally taken out of service for maintenance without reducing the total furnace firing rate. However, bumers should not be excessively oversized. An oversized bumer has reduced ability to operate efficiently at normal design and turndown conditions. Most of the air-side pressure drop in an oversized burner is taken by the air register to control air flow. Very little pressure drop is taken by the low-velocity air flow through the burner throat, resulting in poor mixing of air and fuel. The following table gives recommended maximum bumer design capacities as a function of normal design capacity (fumace design firing divided by the number of bumers), based on API ‘Standard 560, Par. 10.1.3: Percent of Normal Number of Bumers Up to 5 bumers 6 or 7 burners 8 or more bumers 115 Burner design excess air rates are a function of the fuel fired, per API Standard 560, Par. 2.2.2, 32-SAMSS-029 for heaters, or 32-SAMSS-021 for boilers: ____ Percent Excess Air 32-SAMSS-029 32-SAMSS.021 Primary Fuel API Std 560 Heaters Boilers Gas 20 10 3 Oil (combination) 25, 20 10 Capacity curves for typical natural-deaft bumers are shown in Figure 3. These curves are for representative burners manufactured by the John Zink Company. Many of Saudi Aramco's bumers are manufactured by the John Zink Company. Similar curves are available from other manufacturers. In these curves, bumer capacity at a given excess air rate is shown as a fiction of the air pressure drop through the bumer (draft). The design maximum capacity of a natural- draft bummer should be as close as practical to the manufacturer's rated capacity, without exceeding it. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 6Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control A. Center Fired Raw Gas Burner B. Pre-Mix Short Flame Burner Wo (20% Excess Air)} HEVD (20% Excess Air)| a mo an 20d Maximum Burner Capacity, MBtuwhr (LHV) 2 Maximum Burner Capacity, MBtuiir (LHY) 2 2 ot 02 0.8 04 0.508 al az As ad Ans Air Prossure Drop Through Sumer, ‘Air Pressure Drop Through Bumer. Inches of Water Inches of Water ©. Combination Gas/Liquid Bumer MAE (30% Excess Ai}} 8 o aves Use also tor DBEA, MA, DBA \aximum Burner Capacity, MBwA (LHY) oa 02 03 04 0506 ‘Air Pressure Drop Through Burner, Inches of Waer With permission from the John Zink Co. Figure 3. John Zink Burner Capacities ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop StandardsEngineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Oil Burners Steam is always added to assist in the atomization of liquid fuels. The steam and oil are mixed in specially designed fuel atomizers, where the kinetic energy of the steam jets breaks up the fuel into small droplets. The resulting mixture of steam and finely dispersed oil is then released into the air stream through a number of orifices in the bumer tip. An efficient atomizer may use as little as 0.1 pound of steam per pound of fuel but a typical design requirement is 0.3 pound of steam per pound of fuel. A typical atomizer is shown in Figure 4 \ / YS Swen Steam Orifices c Fuel Oil Orifice i SII Co 4 Steam Oil "Steam Figure 4. Typical Fuel Oil Burner For good atomization and combustion of liquid fuels, the steam must be perfectly dry. If there is moisture in the steam, this moisture will fash when it mixes with the oil, causing erratic oil flow The atomizing steam should be superheated about 50°F, Mechanical atomization can be used when steam is not available, The kinetic energy in the oil itself is used for atomization by releasing the oil through the tip under very high pressure. Mechanical atomization is usually used only in large burners or with very clean fuels, since the very small orifices required in smaller bumers can become plugged by small dirt or coke particles in the fuel. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 8Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Combination Gas and Oil Burners A typical combination gas and oil bumer is shown in Figure 1c, This bumer can be used to fire liquid, gas, or a combination of liquid and gas fuels, depending upon the fuel systems supplied with the burner. Liquid fuel is fired through a centrally located oil gun, The oil and atomizing steam are fed through separate pipes in the feed tube to the atomizer and burner tip. ‘The fuel/steam mixture is injected through orifices in the burner tip into the primary airstream, where combustion begins. The primary air flow is limited to a small percentage of total air flow, so that the fuel will not be cooled before combustion begins. The spray angle of the bummer tip is designed so that the fuel/steam spray just fills, but does not hit the primary reffactory tile. This tile helps stabilize the initial combustion of the oil spray. The balance of combustion air enters the burner through the secondary air register. Fuel gas is fired through a series of gas tips that are located in the secondary air flow path, around the center oil gun. This type of bumer is often used in gas-fired furnaces when provisions are made for fature oil firing. Forced Draft Burners Forced draft burners are used in all boilers. They rely on fans to supply the combustion air under pressure. In well designed forced-dratt burners, the kinetic energy of the airstream is used to achieve much more efficient mixing of the fuel and air than is possible with natural-draft bumers. Asa result of this improved mixing, smaller flame volumes are obtained. Higher bumer capacities and lower excess air (5% - 10%) are possible. Thus, fewer forced-draft burners are required for the same total heat release than would be required with natural-draft bumers. For example, the Ras Tanura HP Boiler No. 8 has only six burners, each with a capacity of 108 M Brwhr: Boiler bumers are normally sized for the maximum capacity of the boiler. These bumers are not usually oversized in the same manner as process heater burners, A typical dual-fuel forced-draft burner is shown in Figure 5. This bumer is a combination oil and gas bumer, The inner bumer is an oil bummer. The outer bumer is a gas bumer. Since most boilers operate with an internal positive pressure, special interlocks are required to seal the oil gun connection when the gua is removed (32-SAMSS-021). Othenwise, high-temperature ue gas would escape through this opening, causing a safety hazard. All boiler bumers have pre-mix gas electtic ignitor pilot bumer. The pilot bummer is used for ignition only and is automatically tripped (shutoff) after flame ignition. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 9Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Figure 5. Forced-Draft Boiler Combination Burner Emissions Control There is a worldwide trend toward more stringent and comprehensive control of the emissions from combustion equipment. Emissions of concem are noise, nitrogen and sulfur oxides, and ‘unburned hydrocarbons and other particulates. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 10Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Noise - This is caused by the fuel and airstreams entering the bummer, and by the combustion process. Noise emissions are most often reduced by installing mufflers on the air inlets. Limiting the maximum fuel gas pressure also helps to reduce noise emissions. ‘Sulfur - Emissions are directly related to the sulfur content of the fuel. On large, power plant size boilers, flue gas cleanup processes can be used to reduce sulfur emissions. In other boilers and furnaces, sulfur emissions are mainly reduced by using low sulfur fuels. Incomplete Combustion - Can produce CO and particulate emissions. These can be minimized by providing good combustion conditions (good atomization of liquid fuels, proper combustion air flow, proper combustion control, ete.). The ash content of the fuel, if any, will add directly to these particulate emissions. NOx Emissions - NOx formation is a function of the combustion temperature and the excess air level. Liquid fuels may contain a small amount of nitrogen, which can be converted to NOx in the combustion process. ‘NOx emissions can be reduced by modifications to the combustion process. Two types of low ‘NOx bumners are illustrated in Figure 6. These bumers generally stage the combustion of the fuel to reduce the combustion temperatures and oxygen concentration in the combustion zone. Peak temperatures are reduced because some of the heat from the first stage of combustion is radiated to the radiant section tubes before the second stage begins. Since the combustion is staged, the total flame envelope is usually larger than that of conventional bumers. This must be considered when specifying the bumers + Staged air bumers. Combustion begins in a fuel-rich zone. This is followed by injection of the balance of the combustion air and completion of combustion in a bumout zone. + Staged fuel bumners. A portion of the fuel is bumed at high excess air levels, lowering the combustion temperature and NOx production. After some radiation to the surroundings, a second stage of combustion follows where the balance of the fuel is injected into the flue gas from the first stage as shown in Figure 6. Staged combustion is more efficient and allows operation at lower percent excess ais, ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards uEngineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, High Fuel-to-Alr Ratio in Primary Zone ‘Staged Air | | I Piotess —*" Fuel Connection A. Staged Air Burner Secondary Fue High Aieso- y Fuel Ratio InPrimary Zone combustion eae Secondar Primary Fuel Conne Fuel Connection 2B, Staged Fuel Burner by W. Bartok, RK. Lyon, A.D. Melntyre, LA. Ruth & 71 (1988). Reproduced by permission of "Combustors: Applications and Design Consideration: RE. Sommerlad, Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 84, No. 3, pp. © the Americaa Institute of Chemical Engineers © 1988 AICRE. Figure 6. Typical LowNOx Burner ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 2Vessels ig Encyclopedia Engineering Ex Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Figure 7 is a forced draft combustion LowNO, bumer incorporating staged air and staged fuel. auisioay wy awvanooas. Asiotmorsvena svo MNS muivalnu ove save svisouuia svo cava, soousismnwioess sowinrene sound unaie Figure 7. AVC LowNOx Burner B ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop StandardsEngineering Eneyelopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control Figure 8 is a forced drait LowNOx gas bumer in the staged air, staged fuel and flue gas recirculation. Flue gas recirculation dilutes the combustion mixture and reduces the combustion temperature Figure 8. LowNOx Burner with Flue Gas Recirculation Saudi Ar ck Top Standards 4Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control Figure 9 shows how flue gas is mixed with fuel gas in the burner on Figure 8. FUEL GaS UE GAS et ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 1sEngineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, FUEL SYSTEMS Fuel Gas Systems Gas fuels vary from clean, dry, relatively constant molecular weight streams to dizty, wet mixtures of process waste gases that can fluctuate greatly in molecular weight and composition. In the first case, the fuel should burn easily and cause few problems. However, in the latter case, serious safety and maintenance problems can occur unless the gas is thoroughly cleaned and dried, Both solids and condensed liquids can plug the fuel ports in the bumer tip. This can restrict the burner capacity and cause poor combustion due to maldistribution of the fuel in the bumer. Condensate passing through the fuel ports can also interrupt steady combustion and cause a flame failure. To protect against wet or dirty gas, knockout drums should be provided in all fuel gas systems. These should be located as close to the furnace or boiler as possible, but no closer than 50 feet for safety considerations. Piping downstream of the knockout drum may have to be heated and insulated if condensation of the gas is a problem. Filters should be provided in the fuel line downstream of the knockout drum, to remove scale or dirt entrained in the gas stream not removed in the knockout drum. Care should be taken to ensure that the fuel gas lines downstream of the filter are clean and are not corroded. When sour gas fuels containing more than 0.5% HsS are bumned, additional fouling (corrosion and scaling) problems may be encountered in the fuel gas piping and bumer tips. If fouling becomes a serious problem, conosion-resistant (stainless steel) piping may be necessary downstream of the gas filter. Components Fuel gas systems include both the fuel to the main burners and the fuel to the pilot gas bumers. Figure 10 shows the minimum fuel gas system as specified by SAES-J-602 for an automatic boiler startup and includes a knock-out drum (KO pot) to remove solids and liquids from the fuel gas, a pressure reducing station, a flow meter, automatic double block and bleed shut-offs, an emergency isolation valve and a firing control valve with a minimum pressure bypass. Many fuel gas systems have an additional KO pot after the emergency isolation valve, and steam trace and insulate the fuel gas line from the KO pot to the bumers to prevent liquids from condensing in the fuel gas lines. The emergency isolation valves provide a tight shutoff and will not reopen without being reset. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 16Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, g 2 8 8 3 gO 2 os & 8 ga 8 2 3 2 -A, & 4 3 i z 8 avs 3 Lro OTHER BOILERS A - Manual Block Valve F - Pressure Regulator B - BMS Operated Block Valve Ho - Manual Vent Valve C - BMS Operated Vent Valve FT - Flow Transmitter D - Flow Control Valve PI - Pressure Indicator (Gauge) E - Minimum Flow Regulator PS_- Pressure Switch Figure 10. Typical Gas Burner System (Automatic Startup) Fuel gas systems without automatic startup provide the same functions as in Figure 10 using manual instead of automatic valves as shown in Figure 1] ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards "7Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, eos ME SSD. A - Manual Block Valve G_-Manual Block Supervisory B - BMS Operated Block Valve H_- Manual Vent Valve C - BMS Operated Vent Valve FT - Flow Transmitter D - Flow Control Valve PI - Pressure Indicator (Gauge) E - Minimum Flow Regulator PS - Pressure Switch Figure 11. Typical Gas Burner System (Supervised Manual Startup) ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 1sEngineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Figure 12 shows the minimum pilot gas system specified by SAES-I-602 for an automatic boiler startup and includes a filter, double block and bleeds shutoff, a pressure reducing station, and an emergency shutoff valve. The pilot gas system does not have a firing control valve since it is always at full flow when operating. Pilot gas systems without automatic startup provide the same for three items as Figure 12 with manual valves and blinds. pe—e TO BURNERS PLANT GAS HEADER TO OTHER BOWLERS A - Manual Block Valve B - BMS Operated Block Valve C - BMS Operated Vent Valve D - Pressure Control Valve E - Bypass Valve To PILOTS Filter Strainer Manval Vent Valve Pressure Indicator (Gauge) Pressure Switch Pressure Controller Figure 12. Pilot Gas System ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards »Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Controls The required maximum fuel gas pressure to a bumer is largely determined by the required range of bumer firing rates. Gas burners typically have a turndown capability (ratio of maximum to minimum firing rates) of about 5 to 1, provided that the maximum fuel gas pressure at the burner is 30 psig or greater. 32-SAMSS-021 specifies that boiler burners should have a turn dowa ratio of 3:1 for normal operations but should be capable of 6:1 tum down ratio with stable bummer operation over this range. Fuel gas flow through a bummer tip is equivalent to flow through an orifice. The flow rate (and the conesponding firing rate) is proportional to the square root of the fuel gas pressure. This relationship, illustrated in Figure 13, is valid up to about 15 psig, and is very close to about 30 psig. Thus, for a 5:1 bumer turndown capability, the ratio of maximum to minimum fuel gas pressure will be 25:1. in | 2-4200¥. ry F soi Line = Actual Fon Stree [Deve Line > Flow Aciraing to Sours Roar Rae a8 oH a Lam 4 Oi Leahodaln hechsatswcbonts Peretreoe ae eTtit —5 + 18 2028-9040 80 80 70808000 ‘Source: RO, Reed, Furnace Operations, Figure 13. Orifice Flow ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 20Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, The range of furel gas pressures (and firing rate) is limited by the following constraints: + Maximum fuel gas pressure for satisfactory bumer operations is about 40 psig. Higher pressures can cause excessive noise. Also, very high gas velocities passing through the bumer tip can cause the flame to lift off the tip, which is an unstable firing condition, + Minimum fuel gas pressure is about 1-2 psig. Lower pressures are difficult to control with standard instrumentation. In cases where the fuel gas can vary considerably in molecular weight, bumer tumdown may be limited. Low molecular weight fuel gases (low density and low heating value) will require the highest gas pressure to achieve the maximum firing rate. Conversely. high molecular weight fuel gases (high density and high heating valve) will require the lowest gas pressure at minimum firing rate, This range of gas pressures may be beyond the bumer tumdown capability, and compromises may be required. ‘The usual solution is to size the burner orifices for the maximum firing rate with the lowest molecular weight fuel. At low firing rates, it may be necessary to tun some burners off to keep gas pressures above the minimum. For very low pressure gases (maximum available pressure at the bumer of about 3 psig), special burners can be used. These use a steam eductor to pull the gas through the burner. This type bumer is often used to combust waste gas streams, such as crude vacuum column noncondensibles. Fuel Oil Systems Components Liquid fuels must be free of solids that may plug small atomizer holes in the bumers. Liquid fuels must be atomized (broken up) into micron-sized droplets before they can be mixed with air and burned efficiently, The fuel oil system must be designed to control the pressure and viscosity of the oil to the range for which the oil bumer was designed. The viscosity of the oil is controlled to about 26 centistokes (cSt) by controlling the temperature. Steam is always added to assist in the atomization of liquid fuels. Figure 14 shows a typical fuel oil system which includes an inline oil heater and a recirculation system to make sure the oil does not cool if the oil flow is shut off at the bumers. The temperature control may be either in the day tank or at the inline heater shown in Figure 14. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards auEngineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Teansler pup Reciretation | Sising rote | | Burner Atornizirg aie or steam Figure 14. Fuel Oil System ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop StandardsEngineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Figure 15 shows the Ras Tanura liquid fuel system, The chemical additive reduces fouling due to soot and ash. ‘aut ou BURL Tveoee| | wroe sors) [en rurenauery | — sume | Sarnoe EDA ~ cree =e SST * * a! Y | cvewcal vaseniec rons eon ‘roamce . sss cra - Figure 15. RT Liquid Fuel System Figure 16 shows the minimum fuel oil system specified by SAES-J-602 for an automatic startup boiler. Figure 17 shows a similar system for a supervised manual startup boiler. The oil system includes a strainer (filter), a flow meter, an emergency isolation valve, and a firing control valve with a minimum pressure bypass. The steam supply has a strainer (filter), and a differential pressure control valve to provide steam at the pressure required for proper atomization. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 23Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, ays cos ces ONS BMS : I e ° t oo > uo * a og J ] 3 exoyy « 10 Brice & BURNERS, & 2 © OTHER BOILERS: Bus 2 exo 4 « G 8 g ¢ 3x < BURNERS es 22) g-—- 10 OTHER 2p if A Mamual Block Valve Go = Strainer B - BMS Operated Block Valve HH ~ Manual Bleed Valve C - Steam/Oil Pressure Regulator BMS - Bummer Management System D - Flow Control Valve CCS - Combustion Control System E - Minimum Flow Regulator PDS - Differential Pressure Switch TS _- Temperature Switch Figure 16. Typical Oil Burner System (Automatic Startup) ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 24Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, A - Manual Block Valve G Strainer B - BMS Operated Block Valve H - Manual Bleed Valve C - Steam/Oil Pressure Regulator BMS - Burner Management System D - Flow Control Valve CCS. - Combustion Control System E - Minimum Flow Regulator PDS. - Differential Pressure Switch F__ Manual Block Valve, Supervisory TS __- Temperature Switch Figure 17. Typical Oil Burner System (Supervised Manual) ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 25Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, Controls Maximum liquid fuel pressure at the burner is typically 60-100 psig, depending on the particular bumer design, The pressure of the atomizing steam at the burner is usually 20-30 psi above the fuel pressure: Effects on Boiler and Process Heater (Furnace) Design Gas fuels are capable of rapid mixing with combustion air, resulting in rapid combustion and short flame sizes, Larger combustion volumes (Firebox) and clearances must be provided when liquid fuels are fired. Liquid fuels are introduced into the combustion zone as fine droplets that must first be vaporized before combustion takes place. Droplets of heavy liquid fuels bun from the outside before vaporization is completed. As a result, the length of time required for complete combustion is much greater than for gas fuels. Consequently, flame sizes for liquid fuels are larger and longer. When both gas and liquid fuels are fired, the furnace or boiler design is based on the liquid fuels. If a fumace or boiler is designed for gas firing only. its capacity with liquid fuel firing may be limited. For boilers, Saudi Aramco Standard 32-SAMSS-021 (Par. 5.2.2) requires a 33% larger combustion volume when fuels of 15°API or heavier are burned (60,000 vs 80,000 Biwhr £3), The 1S°API corresponds to a specific gravity of 0.966. No. 6 fuel oil and resid are in this category, For furnaces, API Standard 560 (Par. 10.1.2) requires increased clearances between burners and tubes or refractory walls when any liquid fuels are fired. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 26Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, MAJOR CONCERNS AND GUIDELINES FOR FIREBOX OPERATION Major Concerns Elame Characteristics and Patterns Flame characteristics are primarily determined by the bumer design and the fuel-to-air ratio The bumer design determines how well the fuel and air are mixed. The better the mixing the quicker the combustion reaction can occur and the shorter the flames will be, The bumer design also determines the shape and stability of the flame during various operating conditions. Over-Firing -Over-firing the bumer (overdesign fuel rate) will result in longer flames and ‘unstable flames. Flames can tend to liftoff the bumer with the possibility of flame failure. Under- firing a bumer can also result in flame instability and the possibility of flame failure. Burners should be operated within the design limits of the 5:1 tumdown specified for Saudi Aramco burners. Air-to- Fuel Ratio/Draft - The air-to-fuel ratio is critical to proper bumer operation. Too low an air-to-fuel ratio will result in long flames and can result in an unstable flame. Too high an ait- to-fuel ratio will result in short flames but can result in an unstable flame. Too high an air-to-fuel ratio is an uneconomic operation, The air-to-fuel ratio in a forced draft boiler is controlled by the air-to-fuel ratio controller. The ratio is dependent to some degree on the heating value of the fuel. Higher heating value fuels require a higher air-to-fuel ratio for combustion. The fuel-to-air ratio in a natural draft furnace is controlled by the furnace draft and bumer air registers. The fumace draft also provides some kinetic energy for mixing in a natural draft fumace, Inadequate draft will result in a low aiz-to-fuel ratio, long flames, and an unstable flame. Too high a draft will result in a high air-to-fuel ratio, short flames, and could result in an unstable flame. Too high a draft is an uneconomic operation. Burner Distribution - ll burners should normally be operating in a firebox. At low loads, it may be necessary to shut off some bumers in order to have stable flames. For reduced load operation, the number of bumers operating in a firebox should be set such that the load for each burner is approximately equal and about midway in the turndown ratio for the bumers. The operating burners should provide an even flame distribution over the firebox. Uneven loading of bumers and/or uneven distribution of bumers can result in overheating of tubes. ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 27Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, ‘Typical Draft Profile Figure 8 shows a typical draft profile for a natural draft furnace. The fire box has a positive draft (negative pressure). The lowest drait is at the top of the firebox. With permission from the Gas Processors Suppliers Association. Source: Engineering Data Book, Figure 18, Furnace Natural Draft Profile ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 28Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, The optimum operation for excess air is dependent on the fuel and the bumer design, Fuel oils require a higher optimum excess air for proper operation. Each bumer desiga will have a different optimum excess air. Forced draft bumers have a lower optimum excess air than natural draft burners. Staged burners such as low NOx burners have a lower optimum excess air than normal bumers, The optimum excess air for any firebox can be determined by reducing the air ratio until the CO content of the flue gas starts to rise. Then increase the air ratio until the flue gas CO returns to normal to find the optimal air ratio. Since the optimum is an air ratio the firebox will have to be rebalanced when the fuel rate changes significantly as in a load change. Operating Guidelines for Natural Draft Furnaces Proper control of draft and excess air require control of both burner air registers and the stack damper. The guide lines below show which one should be used in extreme situations. Low Draft High Draft Low Excess Air (09) Open Damper Open Burner Air High Excess Air (0) Close Burner Air Close Damper Figure 19. Optimum Excess Air for a Fired Heater ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 29Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels Fuel Burner And Firebox Operation And Control, GLOSSARY flashback flashing knockout drum pulsing purge pre-mix burner raw gas burner sour gas fuel stack effect turndown capability Combustion in a pre-mix bumer taking place inside the venturi- mixer, upstream of the normal combustion zone. The sudden vaporization of a liquid due to a change in conditions, such as a reduction in pressure A drum used to separate any liquid in the fuel gas stream from the fuel gas vapor. Intermittent, noncontinuous combustion. A flow of air through a furnace or boiler and associated flues and ducts, which will effectively remove any gaseous combustibles and replace with air. Purging in furnaces is often accomplished with steam instead of air. A bumer in which the fuel gas and some of the air are mixed ahead of the bumer combustion zone. A bumer in which the fuel gas and air are mixed in the combustion zone of the burner. Fuel gas containing more than about 1/2% H2S. ‘The difference in densities between the hot gases inside a furnace and the ambient air outside the furnace. The ratio of maximum to minimum burner firing capability ‘Saudi Arameo DeskTop Standards 30