Developing Athletic Motor Skill Competencies In.7

Developing Athletic
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Motor Skill Competencies

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in Youth
John M. Radnor, PhD,1 Sylvia Moeskops, MSc, CSCS,1 Stephanie J. Morris, MSc, CSCS,1
Thomas A. Mathews, MSc, CSCS,1 Nakul T. A. Kumar, CSCS,1 Ben J. Pullen, BSc,1 Robert W. Meyers, PhD,1
Jason S. Pedley, PhD,1 Zach I. Gould, PhD, CSCS,1 Jon L. Oliver, PhD,1,2 and Rhodri S. Lloyd, PhD, CSCS*D1,2,3
1
Youth Physical Development Centre, School of Sport and Health Sciences, Cardiff Metropolitan University, Cardiff,
United Kingdom; 2Sport Performance Research Institute, New Zealand (SPRINZ), AUT University, Auckland, New
Zealand; and 3Centre for Sport Science and Human Performance, Waikato Institute of Technology, Hamilton, New
Zealand
ABSTRACT (33), due to their close association with bracing, lifting, catching, accelerating,
physical performance (55) and injury risk and decelerating) requires some level of
Synergistic development of muscular
reduction (28). Recent research has dem- force to be produced or absorbed; thus,
strength and motor skill competency is
onstrated that young athletes will often increasing muscle and connective tissue
central to long-term athletic develop- strength should be viewed as an impor-
show substandard levels of movement
ment. However, these qualities need to tant adjunct to developing coordination
competency, which typically reflects an
be developed in a logical and pro- and overall motor skill competency.
impaired range of motion and limited
gressive manner, and training methods muscular strength and stability
need to be developmentally appropri- (49,57,58). Furthermore, recent trends in ATHLETIC MOTOR SKILL
ate, engaging, and enjoyable for young physical fitness show children are less COMPETENCIES
athletes to help them build a positive physically capable than 10 years ago All practitioners will adopt and refine
association with strength and (53). Regular and early participation in their own methods of practice and train-
conditioning-based activities. This interventions throughout childhood and ing philosophies when programming and
article aims to provide a resource for adolescence will likely improve move- coaching athletes. Although LTAD
coaches to use when developing the ment mechanics, enhance force should be viewed holistically (35), a cen-
athletic motor skill competencies in expression, minimize the risk of sports- tral mission is to build solid foundations of
youth, including game-based activities, related injury, and promote positive athleticism that enable young athletes to
and a more structured resistance long-term health outcomes in youth (17). participate in sports and physical activity
training curriculum. with effective, efficient, and safe tech-
Practitioners working with youth popu- nique. To this end, athletic motor skill
lations face the challenge of developing competencies (AMSC; Figure 1) were
context-specific frameworks that facili- proposed as the foundational movements
INTRODUCTION tate the development of motor skill com- that underpin all athletic movements (36).
eading position statements sur-
L
petency and basic levels of muscular
rounding long-term athletic devel- Most athletic tasks will typically use a
strength. Traditionally, motor skill com-
opment (LTAD) emphasize the combination of numerous AMSC to be
petency and muscular strength are
need for children and adolescents to performed competently. For example,
viewed as separate entities; however, it
engage with strength and conditioning notwithstanding the contribution of per-
is important to acknowledge that these
programs that help develop fitness and ceptual decision making and cognitive
athletic qualities should be developed
appropriate levels of athleticism to enable input, the act of cutting during an agility
synergistically (9). Effective motor skill
safe and effective participation in sports movement will rely on efficient unilateral
execution is governed by the efficient
and physical activity (5,29). Increasing combination of cognitive processing, cor-
muscular strength and motor skill com- rect fundamental movement patterns,
KEY WORDS:
petency is central to the LTAD mission resistance training;
and force production and absorption
games; obstacle course; children; long-term
Address correspondence to Dr. John M. (32). Therefore, the ability to perform
athletic development
Radnor, jradnor@cardiffmet.ac.uk. any form of movement (e.g., jumping,
54 VOLUME 42 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2020 Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
Copyright © National Strength and Conditioning Association. Unauthorized reproduction of this article is prohibited.
and development of competency in the
AMSC (8). However, irrespective of the
accelerated maturation of the central
nervous system during childhood, devel-
opment of movement competency is

limited without the opportunity to regu-
larly practice these skills with or without

feedback from a qualified coach (20).
Considering that pre- and early-
pubertal youth can achieve approxi-
mately 50% greater training-induced
gains in motor skills in response to resis-
tance training interventions compared to
adolescents (4), coaches should look to
introduce the AMSC movements at a
young age to take advantage of the
heightened responsiveness to training
interventions.
In light of existing research, it is imper-
ative that motor skill development is
started early in childhood. However,
to ensure long-term adherence to
Figure 1. Athletic motor skill competencies (AMSC).
sport, training sessions should be
enjoyable (13) and, anecdotally, strin-
gent repetition and loading schemes
lower-limb force production/absorption strength in the AMSC for young chil- that are successful with adults will typ-
and core bracing/antirotation. Alterna- dren. Within this article, the AMSC that ically be ineffective for younger chil-
tively, the act of jumping to catch a will be focused on are lower-body bilat- dren. Therefore, during the early
rebound in basketball can necessitate eral, lower-body unilateral, horizontal stages of learning, fun-based activities
the athlete to generate bilateral force push and pull, vertical push and pull, that encompass the AMSC should be
through rapid triple flexion and exten- core bracing, and fundamental move- designed to engage young athletes
sion to get airborne before safely tolerat- ment skills. These movements could be because research has shown fun and
ing the ground reaction forces upon regarded as the foundations that under- enjoyment features prominently in a
impact with the floor, possibly on 1 or pin the remaining AMSC (e.g., jumping, child’s attitude toward physical activity
2 limbs. Young athletes will be exposed landing, and rebounding, and accelera- (15). These activities may be less-
to a range of movements within sport tion, deceleration, and reacceleration). structured than typical sessions, but
because most are chaotic, highly reactive, For example, developing competency coaches can introduce a constraints-
and multidimensional in nature. Due to in the bilateral and unilateral lower- based approach to ensure learning still
reduced neuromuscular control during body movements may be a pre- takes place. Within a coaching context,
the adolescent growth spurt, youth suffer requisite to further acceleration, deceler- a constraint is any task, environmental,
more injuries during this period (8), and ation, and jump and land mechanics. or individual-related factor that shapes
movement skill has been listed as one of Although outside the context of this arti- or influences the outcome of a move-
the many factors that increase injury risk cle, additional resources currently exist ment or motor pattern (44). Task con-
in youth (52). To decrease the risk of that specifically examine the develop- straints are easily manipulated by the
injury, youth strength and conditioning ment of plyometric training (14), and coach; factors that can be changed to
specialists are required to ensure children speed and agility (38,48). promote different outcomes include
are robust enough to tolerate these loads rules of games, equipment used,
(29); thus, it is important that young ath- boundary areas, and number of players
letes become technically competent and TARGETING ATHLETIC MOTOR
SKILL COMPETENCIES IN THE involved. In addition, this approach to
are able to produce and absorb forces coaching allows individuals to find
EARLY STAGES—LESS-
across all components of the AMSC STRUCTURED METHODS movement solutions based on
spectrum (Figure 1). During childhood (,11 years in girls unchangeable individual constraints,
The aim of this article is to promote safe and ,13 years in boys) (33), greater lev- such as limb length, rather than trying
and effective methods to develop move- els of neural plasticity provide an optimal to mold an athlete to conform to a
ment competency and muscular environment for motor skill acquisition technical model that is not suitable
55
Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-scj.com
Athletic Motor Skill Competencies
for their constraints. Likewise, such an be able to perform these movements, analogies, children may retain more
approach is likely to be advantageous research suggests that a number of information about key body positions
with youth athletes who are likely to youth struggle to demonstrate compe- compared to internal cues.
benefit from the external focus of atten- tency in such basic motor skills (20).
When using animal movements and

tion (47). Using task constraints along- Coaches should periodically revisit these positions, coaches are only limited by
side simple instructions, relevant rudimentary movements with children their imagination, and they should be
feedback, and child-friendly cues will and adolescents as part of a training pro-
versatile and creative to present fun,

ensure the learning objectives of the gram because these lay the foundations captivating, and safe activities for
session are still addressed, while allow- for more advanced skills required for young children of all ages and abilities.
ing children to explore different move- sport performance (16). From a strength In this instance, the example of animal
ment solutions. and conditioning perspective, these shapes has been used, but other body
movements will enhance coordination, shapes and positions can be incorpo-
proprioception, muscular strength, rated, for example, superheroes, mon-
ANIMAL SHAPES
mobility, and stability. sters, and zombies. The importance of
To help build a positive association with
strength and conditioning-based activi- An additional benefit of using the ani- allowing children time to use their
ties in young children, it is important mal shapes is that children can relate own imagination and develop their
that simple exercises are initially intro- to the movements of each animal, al- own animals and subsequent move-
duced to teach the different AMSC in lowing them to learn movement skills ments should not be underestimated
a fun and engaging manner. Through without the need for explicit informa- because opportunities for creativity
the use of animal shapes, children can tion. Explicit knowledge is thought to and originality are important to liber-
learn the AMSC in an enjoyable envi- occupy conscious attention or working ate a child’s expressions of move-
ronment, with the intended physiologi- memory resources (1), which can ment (3).
cal adaptations to training often masked impede performance (25). However,
within fun based tasks. Table 1 provides these negative effects on performance BODY MANAGEMENT EXERCISES
an A-Z of animal shapes, including the can be reduced when using analogies Children will subconsciously use
AMSC and specific adaptations that can because a number of task-relevant rules movements that require manipulation
be targeted when using each particular can be condensed into a single meta- of their own bodyweight such as roll-
movement pattern. Animal shapes can phor (40). This allows the acquisition ing, jumping, hanging, swinging, and
be taught in isolation to promote learn- of knowledge to be processed implic- twisting during free play (3). The inclu-
ing of correct and safe movement pat- itly at an unconscious level, enhancing sion of basic body management exer-
terns, but could also be integrated within performance. Furthermore, during the cises into a strength and conditioning
games-based activities. For example, a early stages of development, children program aims to exploit these natural
crab-walk (Table 1) could be incorpo- may lack the ability to interpret infor- movements, teaching children to con-
rated into a game of “crab-soccer,” where mation in a logical way and they have trol their own bodyweight in challeng-
a ball is included and athletes are limited memory capacity (26,43); asking positions and weight bearing on
required to score goals, but the task con- ing children to “mimic or pretend” may hands, while also developing flexibility,
straint of moving like a crab is enforced. result in better outcomes. Instructing muscular strength, and muscular
The constraints based upon this activity children to impersonate familiar animal endurance (3) using developmentally
would help develop proprioception and poses and movements may assist them appropriate methods.
manipulation skills, kicking and striking in learning prerequisite fundamental Key foundation shapes and positions can
skills, as well as increasing lower-body movement form in games and activities be used to teach movement concepts
strength and core bracing in a fun- before initiating formal exercise (26). that are key to more complex training
based format. Using this training format For example, if looking to develop methods; principles including rotation,
allows children to develop movement the lower-body bilateral squat pattern, weight bearing, balance, force produc-
competency across the AMSC, while en- the coach can instruct children to “pre- tion, and absorption (3). Furthermore,
joying training in a less structured tend to be gorillas” and include 2 or 3 bodyweight management exercises will
manner. simple cues. In this example, rather help children develop kinesthetic aware-
The animal shapes are predominantly than attempting to highlight the intri- ness, which is vital for more advanced
designed to enhance locomotion skills, cacies of reaching full squat depth, or training and sports performance (3,45).
but these are integrated with manipula- creating thoracic extension of the Bodyweight management exercises help
tion and stabilization requirements. Ani- spine, child-friendly cues such as “stay develop the underpinning movements of
mal shapes are used to develop low under the branches” and “proud more advanced sport-specific move-
rudimentary motor skills such as crawl- chest” will typically lead to a better ments skills; for example, a rugby player
ing, rolling, and balancing. Although it movement outcomes and retention. will need to dive to make a tackle, safely
may be expected that all youth should By using memorable cues and land, roll away from the tackle, and jump
56 VOLUME 42 | NUMBER 6 | DECEMBER 2020

Table 1
A-Z of animal shapes
Animal shapes
Purpose
Exercise AMSC Adaptation Description Progression Technical points Coaching cues (external)
Alligator Upper-body Shoulder stability, Low crawl on Alligator roll 1. Move close to Keep low in the water
pushing, core strength, all fours ground and move slow to
core coordination, hip 2. Keep belly off catch the prey
bracing mobility floor
3. Opposite arm
and leg
movement
Bear Core bracing, Shoulder stability, Crawl on all Stand up + bear 1. Shoulders Keep the honey-pot still
lower- core strength, fours roar above hands, on your back
body coordination, hips above
bilateral lower-body knees
(squat) strength 2. Arms straight
3. Hips inline
Crab Lower-body Shoulder stability Belly to Lift one arm to 1. Arms straight Do not scrape your shell
bilateral and mobility, ceiling, “pincer” food 2. Fingers on the coral
(bridging), core strength, moving pointing to
core coordination, sideways feet
bracing lower-body 3. Hips high
posterior chain
strength
Duck Lower-body Lower-body Walk on feet, Jump into pond 1. Head and Pretend you are walking
bilateral strength, jump arms chest up in flippers
(squat), and land tucked for 2. Knees out
plyometric mechanics wings, wide and
abilities waddle weight on
close to heels
floor 3. Butt close to
floor
Elephant Core bracing Shoulder stability, Walk slowly Trumpet + 1. Arms and legs Do not sway into the
core strength, using 3 startled run straight trees
coordination, points of 2. Flat back
hamstring contact, 3. Hips high
mobility one arm
acts as
trunk
Flamingo Lower-body Single-leg balance, Walk slowly Single leg 1. Controlled Move slowly, do not
unilateral core strength, on tip-toes balance on flat movement disturb the water!
(hinging), coordination, foot and reach 2. Straight legs
core hamstring down for food 3. Flat back
bracing mobility
Gorilla Core bracing, Hip mobility, lower- Walk on feet Stand tall and 1. Chest and Stay low under branches
lower- body strength with arms beat chest head up with a proud chest
body in between 2. Straight back
bilateral legs 3. Knees out
(squat) wide and
weight on
heels
(continued)
57
Table 1
(continued )
Hedgehog Core bracing, Shoulder stability, Crawl on all Squeak + 1. Shoulders Make yourself as small as
lower- core strength, fours forward roll above hands, possible to avoid the
body coordination, hips above prey

3. Hips inline
Inchworm Lower-body Shoulder stability, Walk hands Straight-leg 1. Straight arms Make yourself as long as
bilateral core strength, away from scurry and legs possible
(hinging), coordination, feet, then 2. Keep a flat
core lower-body feet to back
bracing, posterior chain hands 3. Reach as far as
upper- mobility you can
body
pushing
Jellyfish Lower-body Hip mobility, lower- Move up and Stop in squat 1. Keep moving Reach as far as you can
bilateral body strength down with shape and up and down with your tentacles
(overhead wobbly reach up to as you walk
squat) arms and sting 2. Head and
legs chest up
3. Relaxed arms
Kangaroo Lower-body Lower-body Hop forward Jump on 1. Hands tucked Chest up to keep your
bilateral strength, jump with 2 feet partners back in baby in the pouch
(squat), and land like a 2. Legs like
plyometric mechanics kangaroo springs
abilities 3. Quiet landing
Lemur Lower-body Hip mobility, Move in a Land in a squat 1. Keep hips and Bounce fast off the hot
bilateral, thoracic rotation, side- shape and torso facing floor and look for
lower- lower-body bounding rotate forward danger
body strength action, 2. Bound off
unilateral while alternating
core facing feet
bracing forward 3. Opposite arm
and leg
movement
Meerkat Lower-body Hip mobility, Squat to Lift one arm up 1. Hands holding Be tall to see as much as
bilateral thoracic rotation, stand and twist feet you can
(overhead lower-body around to look 2. Chest and
squat) strength in a different head up
direction 3. Knees out
wide and
weight on
heels
Newt Upper-body Shoulder stability, Run fast on Lift chest off the 1. Move close to Be quick to not be seen
pushing, core strength, all fours, floor to stretch ground
core coordination with belly 2 Belly on the
bracing on the floor
floor 3.Keep legs
straight

Table 1
(continued )
Orangutan Lower-body Hip mobility, lower- Walk on feet Throw food 1. Chest and Stay low under branches,
bilateral body strength with butt (tennis ball) to head up keeping quiet
(squat) close to each other 2. Straight back
floor and 3. Knees out
with arms wide and

loaping weight on
around heels
Pig Core bracing, Shoulder stability, Move on all Roll over— 1. Shoulders Squeeze your back into
lower- core strength, fours pushing back above hands, the mud and wriggle
body coordination, into floor hips above
3. Close to floor
before rolling
Queen Lower-body Lower-body Running fast Jump and land 1. Fast feet, head Land softly on the flower
bee bilateral strength, jump on feet, on flower up
(squat), and land using arms 2. Hands out
plyometric mechanics as wings wide
abilities 3. Quiet landing
Rabbit Upper-body Upper-body Feet to hands Jumping 1. Hands flat Land quietly so the
pushing, strength. Jump (bunny sideways over 2. Small jumps farmer does not hear
plyometric and land hops) farmer’s fence 3. Aim for hips you
abilities mechanics above
shoulders
Seal Upper-body Upper-body Dead legs, 3608 Rotate 1. Arms straight Use your front flippers to
pushing strength, shuffle around hands 2. Head and move
shoulder stability with and/or feet chest up
and mobility weight on 3. Legs relaxed
hands
Tortoise Core bracing Shoulder stability, Move on all Tuck into a small 1. Shoulders Make yourself as small as
core strength, fours as ball to hide in above hands, possible to not be
coordination, slow as shell and deep hips above seen
hamstring possible breathe knees
mobility 2. Arms straight
3. Hips inline
Unicorn Lower-body Coordination, single Gallop like a Jump through 1. Skipping light Land softly on the clouds
unilateral leg balance horse on 2 the clouds on feet
feet with 2. Tall as you can
hands on 3. Hands on head
head as the
horn
Vulture Lower-body Coordination, Walk, and use Swoop down for 1. Move up and Reach for the food with
unilateral single-leg a big, long food down all the your beak
balance, hip arm swing time
mobility 2. Big arm swings
3. Slow and
controlled
(continued)
59
Table 1
(continued )
Wolf Core bracing, Shoulder stability, Walk on all Sit onto back 1. Shoulders Reach toward the moon
lower- core strength, fours, with legs and howl above hands, to howl
body coordination, head up to hips above
bilateral lower-body howl knees

3. Hips inline
X-Ray fish Core bracing Core strength, Lying on side, V-sit up 1. Arms and legs Try to reach your tail with
coordination using arms straight flippers
and legs to 2. Wriggle to
wriggle move
3. Flat back when
sitting up
Yeti Lower-body Lower-body Walking with Partner 1. Tall as possible Land still on the ice
unilateral, strength, jump hands over perturbation 2. Arms high
plyometric and land head, while jumping overhead
abilities mechanics grunting 3. Quiet landing
Zebra Lower-body Coordination, Gallop like a Mirror a partner 1. Skipping light Glide over the grass
unilateral single-leg horse on 2 on feet
balance feet, hands 2. Tall as you can
tucked in 3. Hands tucked
in
to their feet to compete for the ball. The gymnastics-based activities can be number of environments, the inclu-
principles of all these movements are incorporated into young athletes’ pro- sion of partner balances may allow
incorporated in body management grams as part of warm ups or fun-based practitioners to progressively over-
movements and should be taught at an challenges, regardless of stages of load the young athletes, without the
early stage of development. development, training age, and ability. need to purchase equipment.
When using body management exer- As a caveat, practitioners must only
cises, coaches should design and include bodyweight management exer- GAME-BASED ACTIVITIES
deliver the exercises in a progressive cises that they are confident in deliver- The use of more chaotic and unpre-
manner, ensuring the promotion of ing in a safe manner. dictable environments can be used to
safety and technical competency of Finally, once children demonstrate teach the young athletes the AMSC.
movements remains a priority. For competency in the foundation shapes Table 2 includes a range of game-
example, foundation shapes (Figure 2) and positions, children can work based activities that practitioners can
such as the dish, arch, straight, tuck, together using partner balances use with their young athletes. Within
and pike should be prioritized before (Figure 4). Working with a partner the table, it has been highlighted where
more complex foundation positions encourages the development of social the example game has the potential to
(Figure 3) namely the squat, front sup- skills (19) such as teamwork, commu- develop a specific AMSC. However,
port, lunge, bridge, handstand are nication, and leadership. However, depending on how the game is struc-
incorporated. Once key foundation these movements also develop addi- tured and the nature of the task con-
shapes and positions have been learned tional physical qualities that are straint that is used, the majority of
in isolation, movements can be linked needed in more formal strength and games can be altered to teach any of
together. Arranging the body manage- conditioning settings, such as con- the AMSC. For example, if playing a
ment exercises into a sequence will trolling external load, proprioception, game of “Granny Footsteps,” the
help children express creativity. and stabilization. The advanced movement constraint may be to reach
Coaches can encourage children to nature of the partner balances allows “Granny” using a gorilla walk, which
develop their own routine of move- practitioners to expose children to will develop the lower-body bilateral
ments, to develop and emphasize prob- external loads in the absence of squat position. However, if the con-
lem solving, inventiveness, originality, equipment. Considering that equip- straint was changed to moving like
and versatility (3). Furthermore, ment may often be limited in a an inchworm, lower-body bilateral

Figure 2. Key foundation shapes.
hinging, core bracing, and upper-body as stuck-in-the-mud, children will have start before another attempt. This task
pushing will be developed. opportunities to develop perceptual and constraint will result in the need for a
The game-based activities will require decision-making qualities that are of vital neutral spine and proper lumbopelvic
the young athletes to produce move- importance in sports performance control to ensure balance of the object.
ments in a more unpredictable envi- (18,50), and have transference to more This task constraint provides the athletes
ronment. This may be of benefit explicit athletic qualities such as speed with knowledge of performance, which
because completing all repetitions cor- and agility. An added benefit of introduc- promotes self-correction by the athlete
ing game-based activities will be the ele- and reduces the need for detailed indi-
responding to one variation of a move-
ment of competition included within vidual feedback from the coach. This
ment before performing another
these tasks. Previous research has dem- may be beneficial for programs with high
variation may result in low variability
athlete numbers, or during chaotic and
of performance, but poorer retention. onstrated that incorporating a form of
open tasks.
Using more random practice, where competition within tasks can encourage
there is constant variation of move- a greater amount of effort (11). However,
OBSTACLE COURSES
ments (e.g., using a game of “Simon a caveat of this is that with increased
Another method of introducing the
Says”) will produce a higher variability effort and competition comes the poten-
AMSC to young athletes is through
of movement, but will likely produce tial for poor movement patterns because the use of obstacle courses, which can
greater retention results (41). children naturally focus more on win- be incorporated to further develop crea-
Including playground games within ning. Therefore, coaches can help to tivity and expression of movement.
practice will also help to develop tradi- ensure optimal movement patterns are Obstacle courses have been used in pre-
tional fundamental movement skills, still achieved by using relevant task con- vious research to evaluate functional
such as locomotion, manipulation, and straints. For example, if playing noughts mobility in children due to the require-
stabilization, that often do not receive and crosses using a bear crawl, a cone or ments for balance and kinesthetic aware-
as much attention during more struc- bean bag can be positioned on the back ness (22). The use of obstacle courses
tured training. Furthermore, with the of the participants when travelling. If the can encourage children to perform loco-
inclusion of evasion-based games such cone falls, they will have to return to the motive movements such as running,
61
Figure 3. Key foundation positions.
Figure 4. Sports acrobatics.

Table 2
Example games-based activities and targeted AMSC
Exercise Classification
Athletic motor skill competency
Horizontal Horizontal Vertical Vertical Lower-body Lower-body Antirotation

pull push pull push bilateral split/unilateral and trunk
Game Task Constraint bracing
Simon says Perform AMSC shapes on Random variation of AMSC ✓ ✓

command “Simon says. lunge”
Example
Noughts and Three in a row—using cones Keep object on body while ✓ ✓ ✓
crosses Example traveling
Crab-walk with cone on belly
Granny Try to reach granny using Use animal shapes to move - be ✓ ✓
footsteps specified movement. still when “granny” turns
Move back to start if around
caught Gorilla walks
Example
Stuck-in-the- Taggers catch as many as AMSC position when caught ✓ ✓
mud possible. When tagged, When “tagged” hold press up
hold a specified position position
Example
Rock, paper, Loser chases winner in Use AMSC to travel—pair ✓ ✓ ✓
scissors chosen movement decide before game what
race pattern movement
Example Inchworm to chase/escape
Tug of war Each team needs to pull the Pulling from varied positions ✓ ✓ ✓
other over a specified line Standing pulling position
Example
Hungry Team collects cone from the AMSC to travel—keep cone on ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
hippos center and returns to body
“base” Partner wheel-barrow
Example
Obstacle Team races around obstacle Carry object on body ✓ ✓ ✓
course course Partner wheel-barrow relay
Example over obstacles-cone on back
63
crawling, hopping, and jumping, as well overall good posture could and should patterns in the gym setting. Therefore,
as requiring children to use a wide range be reinforced where appropriate. to reduce injury risk, practitioners can
of manipulation and stabilization skills all focus on developing relevant athletic
within a single aspect of the session. Fur- TARGETING ATHLETIC MOTOR qualities within the spectrum of
thermore, obstacle courses can also be a SKILL COMPETENCIES IN THE AMSC, using integrative neuromuscu-
more creative method for developing LATER STAGES—RESISTANCE lar training that consists of fundamen-
TRAINING
children’s cardiovascular fitness (21), if tal movement skills, general strength,
appropriate duration and density are Once young children have learned to and joint stabilization (42). Third,
applied to the activity. control their own bodyweight using less young athletes with a lower training
structured activities, more recognized age require less specific training to
A variety of obstacles (e.g., bosu balls, strength and conditioning activities (i.e.,
cones, soft pads, benches, hoops, and bean elicit transfer to sport-specific tasks
dumbbell and barbell exercises) should (54). As athletes gain a greater training
bags) can be set out to form the “course.” be incorporated to enhance physical
The random variation in obstacles will age, more specific methods may be
qualities and further develop the AMSC. required to achieve an increased trans-
frequently change the task, including dif- With improvements in technical compe-
ferent landing surfaces, different direction fer to sport performance (7), but this is
tency and increased psychosocial matu- beyond the scope of the current arti-
of movement, and different use of body rity, youth should be encouraged to
parts, all of which will help develop greater cle. Strength and conditioning profes-
participate in more recognized forms of sionals working with pediatric
kinesthetic awareness and enhanced neuromuscular training involving a
retention of learning. The numerous task populations should initially attempt
range of resistance training equipment to develop a breadth and depth of
constraints will require the children to situated within appropriate strength
problem solve quickly and come up with AMSC before advancing them to
and conditioning facilities. more advanced modes of training
diverse movement solutions.
During more structured training, practi- (34). It is imperative that the pre-
When using obstacle courses, there tioners should use the AMSC to develop scribed training is part of a holistic
needs to be a balance between coaches gross athleticism that has relevance to training program that is appropriate
just setting a challenge and letting chil- sports performance, rather than simply for the developmental stage of the
dren explore, versus actively coaching attempting to load movement patterns athlete (17).
and correcting movement. If there is that closely mirror those movements
insufficient input from a coach, there is seen in the sport (32). The rationale for THE AMSC RESISTANCE TRAINING
the potential exposure to injurious CURRICULUM
this is 3-fold. First, low motor skill pro-
movements; however, too much coach ficiency may be attributed to early sport To assist coaches and practitioners
intervention can restrict child creativity specialization resulting in a blunted with programming for the develop-
and exploratory learning. Therefore, it is movement portfolio (27). This limited ment of the AMSC, a progression
advised that practitioners maintain a proficiency can be made worse by mim- scheme has been designed to help pro-
degree of verbal cueing that supports, icking the specific movement patterns gress each AMSC in movement com-
but does not dominate, the constraints- displayed in an athlete’s chosen sport. plexity and intensity. The resistance
led approach to developing movement Developing global athleticism would training curriculum is designed to offer
competency. For example, children can enhance the young athlete’s movement a comprehensive approach to the pro-
be asked to carry an object on their body portfolio, allowing them to have more gression of AMSC (Figure 5). It is ex-
while completing the obstacle course chance of succeeding in any sport they pected that the curriculum will provide
that requires them to move in the opti- wish to partake in at a later stage, rather practitioners with a framework to help
mal way (e.g., balancing a bean bag on than being limited by the sport they develop AMSC in children.
their lower back to avoid excessive pel- chose at an early age. In addition, given Within the curriculum, each AMSC is
vic shift while crawling). In addition, that many movement skills are generic to listed in the left-hand column. The
although the open nature of the obstacle many sports and share the commonality intensity of the exercise for each specific
course may lead to more varied move- of being underpinned by an ability to AMSC increases in conjunction with the
ment patterns, there still needs to be an express force in a range of coordinative levels, progressing in intensity from level
appropriate level of coaching to ensure movement patterns, general strength 1 (Bronze) through to level 4 (Platinum).
proper mechanics are maintained by the training using the AMSC is often For example, the lower-body unilateral
children. For example, when jumping deemed sufficient to support transfer AMSC can be increased in intensity
over a bench, children may find their (7,36). Second, there is a risk of injury from an isometric split squat hold, to a
own movement solution to the task con- when young athletes partake in sport bottom up split squat, to a DB split
straints presented to them; however, re- programs, especially those that involve squat, and finally to a barbell split squat.
inforcing correct landing mechanics, early specialization (24); this risk may In addition, within each level of the spe-
including absorbing force through hip be increased when training simply cific AMSC, technical demand increases
and knee flexion, and maintaining mimics sport-specific movement from exercise A to C. For example,

Figure 5. Athletic motor skill competency (AMSC) curriculum.
technical demand of the lower-body For any given AMSC, it is advised that prevents this. However, it is important to
bilateral AMSC can be increased within young athletes should become proficient note that the levels are specific to each
level 1 from an isometric bodyweight in all 3 exercises within the specific level, AMSC, and some children will move
squat, to an isometric glute-bridge hold, before progressing to the next level, across the levels for each specific AMSC
to an isometric dowel hinge hold. unless some form of individual restriction at a different rate. For example, a child
could be on level 1 lower-body unilateral,
while also being on level 3 upper-body
vertical push. Although all children will
develop competency at different rates,
and some will find certain movement
patterns easier than others, it is advised
that there is no more than a two-level
difference between each AMSC. For
example, if the young athlete is on level
1 for any AMSC, it is encouraged that
training is biased toward developing this
competency over progressing any other
AMSC to level 4. Although coaches
should not “hold back” on developing
an athlete’s strengths, this advice aims
to encourage coaches to promote holistic
athletic development, by focusing more
training time on the lower-scoring
AMSC. The schematic below (Figure 6)
highlights a sequential approach to
AMSC development, whereby move-
ment competency is central to the deci-
sion of whether to progress or regress the
exercise. This schematic is to be used in
situ with coaches’ expertise and under-
Figure 6. Schematic of coaching AMSC. AMSC 5 athletic motor skill competencies. standing of what proper movement
65
mechanics look like and where discrep- dowels, partners, or racks). In addition, competency with bodyweight for 3 sets
ancies in competency present a greater within this level, it is appropriate to load of 10–12 repetitions in all 3 exercises,
risk. However, it is not a formal screen, some exercises with a light resistance they can be progressed to the next level.
but rather a process to assist with decision (e.g., bands) to progressively overload
making when it comes to progression the movement. For example, the standing LEVEL 4—PLATINUM
and regression of exercises. The princi- band row hold can be progressed into a During the final stage of the progres-
ples of the AMSC Resistance Training full ROM standing band row. When the sion scheme, more recognized
Curriculum are described below. young athletes can consistently demon- strength exercises can be incorporated.
strate competency for 3 sets of 10–12 Once young athletes have demon-
LEVEL 1—BRONZE repetitions in all 3 exercises, they can be strated competency in the previous
The coaching process starts by assessing progressed to the next level. stages, heavier loads can be introduced
if the child can demonstrate a compe- with the use of full-size, 20-kg barbells.
tent shape, which typically refers to the LEVEL 3—GOLD However, the load should not be
extreme ranges of an exercise (e.g., bot- Once the child can achieve technical increased at the detriment of technical
tom of a squat). Within level 1, children competency with assistance or light competency. During this stage, it may
are challenged to hold the shape isomet- resistance, the next stage would be to be appropriate for some exercises to
rically. This will allow the child to challenge the young athlete to repeat- include a ballistic element, where the
develop muscular strength using an edly perform the movement throughout young athlete’s bodyweight is pro-
exercise with low complexity, as well the full ROM using their own body- jected into the air, allowing force devel-
as increasing their familiarity with the weight, or with a heavier resistance for opment throughout the full ROM.
positions. However, if the child cannot upper-body exercises. This heavier resis-
COACHING PRACTICES TO
demonstrate the position competently, tance could be in the form of 5-kg train-
OPTIMIZE THE DEVELOPMENT OF
practitioners should begin by using dif- ing bars, light dumbbells, or thicker ATHLETIC MOTOR SKILL
ferent coaching cues to ensure the bands. When adding external load, COMPETENCIES
young athletes know what was being dumbbells can be introduced at this Although fundamental underpinnings in
asked of them. If different cues do not stage because in a number of instances, pediatric exercise science and a sound
help the athlete achieve competency, technical competency may be easier to grasp of training methodologies are para-
coaches should manipulate the task con- achieve with dumbbells providing resis- mount to appropriately plan and deliver
straint (e.g., use of an external object) tance in comparison to a barbell. For training sessions (30), the “glue” that holds
before finally exploring limiting factors example, adding dumbbells to a split a training program together is the ability
(e.g., mobility, stability, strength, and squat where the load can be held down to coach (12). Arguably, the most effective
awareness) and introducing corrective by the child’s side may be easier to practitioners will be those who blend sci-
exercises if deemed necessary. Children achieve technical competency rather entific knowledge with pedagogical and
should be able to demonstrate compe- than adding a barbell to the back. Posi- coaching skill. Moreover, interventions
tency across multiple sets and repetitions tioning a barbell on the back requires a are more likely to have optimal effects if
(e.g., 3 sets, 3–5 seconds holds) for each large amount of thoracic spine extension qualified professionals who have previous
exercise within the specific AMSC, and external shoulder rotation, to pre- experiences of working with youth design,
before progressing to the next level. vent excessive lumbar extension. Anec- implement, and coach the programs (30).
dotally, a number of children present Although coaches will possess unique
LEVEL 2—SILVER excessive lumbar extension and increas- philosophies that influence their coaching
The next stage would be to determine if ing the frequency in which they are in styles, there are key themes that all
the young athlete can repeatedly perform this position may increase injury risk. In coaches should consider when it comes
the movement in a fluent and technically addition, using dumbbells has the poten- to planning and delivering strength and
competent manner with assistance (e.g., tial to maintain a lower center of mass conditioning programs for youth (31).
3 3 5–10 repetitions). The level of assis- (COM), making balance and stabiliza-
tance here could be supporting through- tion easier. Similar principles are used PLANNING AMSC SESSIONS
out the full range of movement (ROM) with the inclusion of a goblet squat dur- Due to the complexities of youth devel-
(e.g., band assisted squat) or through the ing this stage. A light resistance can be opment, training prescription for the
concentric phase alone, allowing the added in the form of a kettlebell or AMSC should be individualized wher-
child to complete the eccentric phase dumbbell, where the load can act as a ever possible. There are a multitude of
on their own (e.g., eccentric only supine counterbalance to assist the child in factors that could influence an individ-
row) because eccentric muscle actions are achieving key positions, such as knees ual’s specific training program design
stronger (23). During this stage, assistance tracking the toes and weight being dis- (e.g., training history, sex of the individ-
during the movements can come from tributed toward the rear of the foot. Sim- ual, growth and maturation, fitness,
any object that reduces the resistance ilar to the previous level, once the young fatigue, well-being, scheduling, goal set-
or load of the movements (e.g., bands, athletes can consistently exhibit ting, and psychosocial maturity), and

these should be considered when design- effectively use instructions and feedback their head, encouraging an upright torso
ing the training program (6,37,39). For to help children optimize retention of position. To this end, it is important that
coaches working with a single athlete, movement (35). The coach is responsible coaches revisit their cueing library and,
individualized programming will natu- for identifying errors in athletes’ tech- where necessary, refine their cues to meet
rally occur. However, it is more challeng- niques, and designing appropriate solu- the unique needs and demands of the
ing for coaches who are responsible for tions to help athletes correct these individual athlete. Coaches may find cer-
the programming of a large number of errors. The earlier these movement errors tain cues to be very effective for some
young athletes (e.g., in a high-school set- can be identified and corrected by a young athletes and conversely, not at all
ting). Programming can still be differen- coach, the better, because errors in tech- for others. Furthermore, cues that were
tiated within these large groups, for nique can become engrained and effective in the early stages of learning
example manipulating typical prescrip- changes can be frustrating for the athlete movements or worked with young and
tion variables within a given session and coach, with the potential to limit immature athletes may not continue to
(e.g., exercise variation, volume, intensity, future development. From a training per- work as those athletes develop.
rest, and range of motion). There may be spective, if an athlete acquires an effective
an overriding “theme” for a session, technique at an early stage, there will be WHEN TO USE THE LESS-
where all children are working on the more time to maximize the stimulus in- STRUCTURED FORMS OF
same AMSC, but the AMSC resistance TRAINING
tended for the training effect (56).
training curriculum can be used to divide The nonstructured forms of training
One of the key skills of coaching is the should not only be used with young chil-
the children into smaller groups based ability to use verbal cues that are under-
on their technical competency. In this dren in mind because they can still be
standable and effective in improving or used regardless of stages of development,
scenario, all children may be working
correcting the performance of an AMSC. training age, and ability. Once young ath-
on lower-body bilateral squatting, but a
The processes of communication can letes have transitioned into more formal-
small group may be on level 1—isometric
assist or hinder learning (2), motivation, based resistance training, nonstructured
bodyweight squat, and another group on
and goal achievement (46), especially in forms of training can still be included as
level 2—assisted squat.
youth. A number of errors that young ‘engagement tasks’ at the start of training
Most children will progress through the children may present in the AMSC can sessions (32), before a more structured
sequences in order; however, some chil- be simply due to a lack of understanding warm-up. These tasks can be brief activ-
dren may skip elements of the develop- of what has been asked of them. When ities (,5 minutes) that require minimal
mental sequences, or the coach will need communicating with young athletes, dia- instruction and can provide a degree of
to reorder them uniquely to their pre- logue should be clear, concise, and lan- physical and mental challenge at the
ferred learning style or stage of develop- guage should be appropriate for the beginning of a session. For example, ani-
ment. Although the progression scheme athlete’s stage of development (e.g., mal shapes can be used as part of a warm-
can be used to assist the coach in the young, immature children versus older, up, before more structured training, and
logical process of selecting exercises mature adolescents) (31). When provid- then an obstacle course may be used at
based on technical competency, it should ing instruction or feedback to the young the end of a session, as an opportunity for
only be used as a framework and not athlete, external cues may be preferential movement creativity and exploration.
strict guidelines. Although the exercises
over internal cues (10,47,59) because In addition, for children who are not
selected within an intervention program
internal cues usually contain explicit infor- exposed to strength and conditioning
are limited only by the imagination of
mation that may encourage conscious early in childhood, using the nonstruc-
the coach, it should be reiterated that
thought, reducing performance (25). tured methods as a warm-up may be ben-
at all times task complexity should not
External cues can help direct focus of eficial to learn the rudimentary
be increased at the expense of the quality
attention away from the body, allowing movements. A number of the playground
or safety of movement.
information to be processed at a subcon- games may not be appropriate for older
USE OF CUEING, CONSTRAINTS, scious level thus enhancing performance athletes who are new to strength and con-
ERROR DETECTION, AND (59). In addition, the use of analogies and ditioning because they may perceive these
FEEDBACK metaphors may help children process games to be too immature. However, the
Although it is important to design and information more effectively because the inclusion of bodyweight management
plan sessions, it is also key to “coach what content is more relatable to them and a movements during the warm-up, more
you see in front of you” (31). It can be number of task-relevant rules can be con- structured AMSC training as the main
argued that exercises are just that, exer- densed into a single metaphor (40). For session, followed by partner balances at
cises, and the real skill is in the coaching example, when trying to execute a squat, the end of a session, may achieve a bal-
of those skills and the decisions associ- rather than asking a child to “extend your ance between structure and exploration at
ated with the coaching process. Effective thoracic spine,” a coach might ask them an appropriate level for their age and
motor skill development depends on the to “show off their Superman badge” or maturity status. Furthermore, as children
abilities of a trained practitioner to maintain the balance of a bean bag on experience growth spurts, coaches should
67
be aware of the likely disproportionate schemes that are context-specific for their
Nakul T. A.
growth rates of muscle and skeletal tissue own training environments.
Kumar is cur-
within both males and females. During Conflicts of Interest and Source of Funding: rently reading for
this period, children can experience
The authors report no conflicts of interest a PhD in Paedi-

potential breakdowns in motor coordina- and no source of funding. atric Strength
tion as a consequence of learning to use
and Conditioning
longer limbs, a process that is often
and is a coach in
referred to as “adolescent awkwardness” John M. the Youth Physi-
(51). If this occurs in young athletes, Radnor is a coach cal Development
coaches should consider revisiting the in the Youth Centre at Cardiff
nonstructured methods of AMSC devel- Physical Devel- Metropolitan University.
opment because these may be the most opment Centre at
suitable methods to help children relearn Cardiff Metro-
basic body control with their longer limbs. politan Ben J. Pullen is
University. a PhD student in
SUMMARY Paediatric
This article has provided a resistance Strength and
training curriculum to improve the Conditioning in
AMSC in children, helping to develop Sylvia the Youth Physi-
global athleticism and reduce injury risk. Moeskops is a cal Development
Aiming to take advantage of the height- PhD student and Centre at Cardiff
ened neuromuscular maturation during coach for the Metropolitan
childhood, the authors propose the acqui- Youth Physical University.
sition of motor skill development com- Development
mences early in childhood. At this stage, Centre at Cardiff
training should be based around enjoy- Metropolitan Robert W.
ment and challenge, in the form of animal University. Meyers is a
shapes, bodyweight management exer- principal lecturer
cises, games-based activities, and obstacle in Strength and
courses. Although this stage encourages Stephanie J. Conditioning and
children to explore movement, practi- Morris is cur- principal lead for
tioners should also understand the need rently reading for Undergraduate
to provide simple instruction, to ensure a PhD in Youth Programme in
objectives of the session are reached. As Weightlifting and Sport at Cardiff
children develop both physically and is a coach in the Metropolitan
mentally, more recognized strength and Youth Physical University.
conditioning activities should be incorpo- Development
rated to enhance physical qualities. The Centre at Cardiff
AMSC resistance training curriculum has Metropolitan Jason S.
been proposed as a comprehensive University. Pedley is pro-
approach to developing the AMSC in gramme director
children and adolescents. The curriculum of the Sports
progresses from level 1–—Bronze through Thomas A. Conditioning,
to level 4–Platinum, with each AMSC Mathews is a Rehabilitation
increasing in intensity throughout the coach in the and Massage
curriculum. It should be acknowledged Youth Physical degree at Cardiff
that the exercises presented in the current Development Metropolitan
curriculum are to be used as a flexible Centre at Cardiff University and a
framework, and it is the underlying prin- Metropolitan strength and conditioning coach within
ciples of these progressions that will enable University. the Youth Physical Development Centre
coaches to develop their own progression at Cardiff Metropolitan University.

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Developing Athletic

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Motor Skill Competencies

opment of movement competency is

larly practice these skills with or without

When using animal movements and

versatile and creative to present fun,

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(squat) strength 2. Arms straight

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with arms wide and

(squat) strength 2. Arms straight

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Figure 2. Key foundation shapes.

Figure 3. Key foundation positions.

Figure 4. Sports acrobatics.

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Athletic motor skill competency

Horizontal Horizontal Vertical Vertical Lower-body Lower-body Antirotation

Simon says Perform AMSC shapes on Random variation of AMSC ✓ ✓

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Figure 5. Athletic motor skill competency (AMSC) curriculum.

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The authors report no conflicts of interest a PhD in Paedi-

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Conditioning at performance. In: The Child and Adolescent

students’ social skills. J Appl Sport Psychol

In: Strength and Conditioning for Young

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