List of poetry groups and movements

Poetry groups and movements or schools may be self-identified by the poets that form them or
defined by critics who see unifying characteristics of a body of work by more than one poet. To
be a 'school' a group of poets must share a common style or a common ethos. A commonality of
form is not in itself sufficient to define a school; for example, Edward Lear, George du Maurier
and Ogden Nash do not form a school simply because they all wrote limericks.

There are many different 'schools' of poetry. Some of them are described below in approximate
chronological sequence. The subheadings indicate broadly the century in which a style arose.

Prehistoric

The oral tradition is too broad to be a strict school but it is a useful grouping of works whose
origins either predate writing, or belong to cultures without writing.[1]

Second century BC (100-200BC)

China: Zenith of Han poetry, a movement away from the ancient Chinese poetry of the Classic of
Poetry and the Chu Ci.[2]

Third century (200–300)

China: Jian'an poetry, a poetic movement occurring during the end of the Han dynasty, in the
state of Cao Wei.

China: Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, a group of poets active during the late Cao Wei to
early Jin dynasty era, poets incorporating the Wei-Jin Xuanxue movement.

China: Start of Six Dynasties poetry (220–589).

Fourth century (300–400)

China: Six Dynasties poetry period (220–589).

China: Emergence of Midnight Songs poetry.

China: Orchid Pavilion Gathering of 353, which led to the publication of the Lantingji Xu and the
related movement in Classical Chinese poetry.
and 1266 headed by Giacomo da Lentini.[3][4]

Fourteenth century (1300–1400)

China: Emergence of Ming poetry (1368–1644).

Fifteenth century (1400–1500)

Scotland: The Makars were a diverse genere of Scottish poets who wrote during the Northern
Renaissance.

Sixteenth century (1500–1600)

Mannerism was a movement and style that emerged in the later Italian High Renaissance.
Mannerism in poetry is notable for its elegant, highly florid style and intellectual
sophistication.[5][6][7] The style involved poetry of Michelangelo, Clément Marot, Giovanni della
Casa, Giovanni Battista Guarini, Torquato Tasso, Veronica Franco, and Miguel de Cervantes.

Petrarchism was a trans-European movement of Petrarch's style followers, partially coincident

with Mannerism, including Pietro Bembo, Michelangelo, Mellin de Saint-Gelais, Vittoria Colonna,
Clément Marot, Garcilaso de la Vega, Giovanni della Casa, Thomas Wyatt, Henry Howard,
Joachim du Bellay, Edmund Spenser, and Philip Sidney.[8][9]

Scotland: Castalian Band.

England: Areopagus.[10]

Seventeenth century (1600–1700)

The Baroque poetry replaced Mannerism and includes several schools, especially most artificial
poetic style of the early 17th-century.[11][12] It involved Giambattista Marino, Lope de Vega, John
Donne, Vincent Voiture, Pedro Calderón de la Barca, Georges de Scudéry, Georg Philipp
Harsdörffer, John Milton, Andreas Gryphius, and Christian Hoffmann von Hoffmannswaldau.

Classical poetry movement echoes the forms and values of classical ancient Greek and Latin
literature, favouring formal, restrained forms. Major dramatist and other genres figures include
Pierre Corneille, Molière, Jean Racine, John Dryden, William Wycherley, William Congreve, and
Joseph Addison.[13]

Marinism was Italian Baroque poetic school and techniques of Giambattista Marino and his
followers was based on its use of extravagant and excessive extended metaphor and lavish
descriptions.[14][15] Among Giambattista Marino's followers were Cesare Rinaldi, Bartolomeo
Tortoletti, Emanuele Tesauro, Francesco Pona, Francesco Maria Santinelli, and others.

Conceptismo was a Baroque poetic school in the Spanish literature, a similar to the
Marinism.[16][17] Major figures include Francisco de Quevedo and Baltasar Gracián.

Culteranismo was another Spanish Baroque movement, in contrast to Conceptismo,

characterized by an ornamental, ostentatious vocabulary and a highly latinal syntax.[18][19] It
involved such poets as Luis de Góngora, Hortensio Félix Paravicino, Conde de Villamediana, and
Juana Inés de la Cruz.

The Précieuses was a French Baroque movement, similar to the Spanish culteranismo. Its main
features are the refined language of aristocratic salons, periphrases, hyperbole, and puns on the
theme of gallant love.[20] Poets associated with the Précieuses were Vincent Voiture, Charles
Cotin, Antoine Godeau, and Isaac de Benserade.

Metaphysical poets was an English Baroque school using extended conceit, often (though not
always) about religion.[21][22] They include such figures as John Donne, George Herbert, Andrew
Marvell.

Cavalier poets in England were Baroque royalist group, writing primarily about courtly love, called
Sons of Ben (after Ben Jonson) and included Richard Lovelace with William Davenant.[23]

The Pegnesischer Blumenorden (1644 – present) is a German Baroque literary society

represented the Nuremberg Poetic School of Georg Philipp Harsdörffer and other figures.

Emergence of Qing poetry (1644–1912) in China.

Danrin school in Japan.

Eighteenth century (1700–1800)

The 17th-century Classicism has recurred in various Neoclassical schools and poets such as
Voltaire and Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock since the eighteenth century.[24]

Augustan poets such as Alexander Pope.[25]

Rococo, also known as Late Baroque, is the final expression of the Baroque movement that
began in France in the 1730s and characterized by a cheerful lightness and intimacy of tone, and
an elegant playfulness in erotic light poetry and principally small literary forms.[26][27] The poets
associated with style are Paolo Rolli, Pietro Metastasio, Friedrich von Hagedorn, P. J. Bernard,
Johann Wilhelm Ludwig Gleim, Johann Uz, Johann Nikolaus Götz, Christoph Martin Wieland,
Alexandre Masson de Pezay, Abbé de Favre, Évariste de Parny, Ippolit Bogdanovich, and others.
The Sturm und Drang was a from 1767 till 1785 literary group, precursor to the Romanticism. Its
literature often features a protagonist which is driven by emotion, impulse and other motives that
run counter to the enlightenment rationalism.[28][29] The key members were Johann Wolfgang von
Goethe with Friedrich Schiller, among other poets Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg, Christian
Friedrich Daniel Schubart, and Gottfried August Bürger.

Nineteenth century (1800–1900)

Romanticism started in the late 18th century Western Europe, but existed largely within the
nineteenth. Wordsworth's and Coleridge's 1798 publication of Lyrical Ballads is considered by
some as the first important publication in the movement. Romanticism stressed strong emotion,
imagination, freedom within or even from classical notions of form in art, and the rejection of
established social conventions. It stressed the importance of "nature" in language and
celebrated the achievements of those perceived as heroic individuals and artists. Romantic
poets include William Blake, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Lord Byron, Percy
Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats (those previous six sometimes referred to as the Big Six, or the
Big Five without Blake); other Romantic poets include James Macpherson, Robert Southey, Emily
Brontë, Adelbert von Chamisso, Alexander Pushkin, and Mikhail Lermontov.[30]

The Lake Poets was a group of Romantic poets from the English Lake District who wrote about
nature and the sublime. Among them were William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and
Robert Southey.[31]

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a primarily English art and poetic school, founded in 1848,
based ostensibly on undoing innovations by the painter Raphael. Some members were both
painters and poets.[32] Most significant figures include Dante Gabriel Rossetti and Christina
Rossetti.

The Fleshly School was realistic, sensual school of poets.

The Transcendentalists were from the mid-19th-century American movement: poetry and
philosophy concerned with self-reliance, independence from modern technology.[33] It includes
Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.

The Aesthetes were an artistic and literary movement of Victorian era from 1860s related to the
Decadent Movement that cultivated beauty, rather than didactic purpose, and illustrated by the
slogan "art for art's sake." The poets most strongly associated with the aestheticism are Dante
Gabriel Rossetti, Algernon Charles Swinburne, Oscar Wilde, and A. E. Housman.[34][35][36][37]

The Parnassians were a group of the 1860s–1890s French poets, named after their journal, the
Parnasse contemporain. They included Charles Leconte de Lisle, Théodore de Banville, Sully
Prudhomme, Paul Verlaine, François Coppée, and José María de Heredia. Non-French
parnassians were Felicjan Faleński, Alberto de Oliveira, Olavo Bilac, and others. In reaction to the
looser forms of romantic poetry, they strove for exact and faultless workmanship, selecting
exotic and classical subjects, which they treated with rigidity of form and emotional
detachment.[38]

Symbolism started in the late 19th century in France and Belgium. It included Paul Verlaine,
Tristan Corbière, Arthur Rimbaud, and Stéphane Mallarmé. Alexandru Macedonski was a
prominent Romanian symbolist. Symbolists believed that art should aim to capture more
absolute truths which could be accessed only by indirect methods. They used extensive
metaphor, endowing particular images or objects with symbolic meaning. They were hostile to
"plain meanings, declamations, false sentimentality and matter-of-fact description".[39][40]

Russian symbolism arose enough separately from West European symbolism, emphasizing
mysticism of Sophiology and defamiliarization. Its most significant poets included Alexander
Blok, Valery Bryusov, Fyodor Sologub, Konstantin Balmont, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Dmitry
Merezhkovsky, Zinaida Gippius, and Andrei Bely.[39][40][41]

Modernist poetry is a broad term for poetry written between 1890 and 1970 in the tradition of
Modernist literature.[42][43] Schools within it include already 20th-century Acmeist poetry,
Imagism, Objectivism, and the British Poetry Revival.

The Fireside Poets (also known as the "Schoolroom" or "Household Poets") were a group of
American poets from New England. The group is usually described as comprising Henry
Wadsworth Longfellow, William Cullen Bryant, John Greenleaf Whittier, James Russell Lowell,
and Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.

Twentieth century (1900–2000)

The Mahjari poets (émigré school) was a neo-romantic movement within Arabic-language poets
in the Americas (Ameen Rihani, Kahlil Gibran, Nasib Arida, Mikhail Naimy, Elia Abu Madi), that
appeared at the turn of the 20th century.[44][45][46][47]

The Futurists were an avant-garde, largely Italian and Russian, movement codified in 1909 by the
Manifesto of Futurism. They managed to create a new language free of syntax punctuation, and
metrics that allowed for free expression. Poets involved with Futurism Filippo Tommaso
Marinetti, Giovanni Papini, Mina Loy, Aldo Palazzeschi, Velimir Khlebnikov, Almada Negreiros,
Vladimir Mayakovsky, Stanisław Młodożeniec, and Jaroslav Seifert.[48][49][50]

The Cubo-Futurists were an avant-garde art and poetry movement within Russian Futurism in the
1910s with practice of zaum, the experimental visual and sound poetry.[51][52][53] Their major
figures include David Burliuk, Velimir Khlebnikov, Aleksei Kruchyonykh, and Vladimir Mayakovsky.
The Ego-Futurists were another poetry school within Russian Futurism during the 1910s, based
on a personality cult.[51][54] Most prominent figures among them are Igor Severyanin and Vasilisk
Gnedov.

The Acmeists were a Russian modernist poetic school, which emerged ca. 1911 and to symbols
preferred direct expression through exact images.[55][56][57][58] Figures involved with Acmeism
include Nikolay Gumilev, Osip Mandelstam, Mikhail Kuzmin, Anna Akhmatova, and Georgiy
Ivanov.

The Imagists were (predominantly young) modernist poets working in England and America in
the early 20th century (from 1914), including F. S. Flint, T. E. Hulme, Richard Aldington and Hilda
Doolittle (known primarily by her initials, H.D.). They rejected Romantic and Victorian
conventions, favoring precise imagery and clear, non-elevated language.[59] Ezra Pound
formulated and promoted many precepts and ideas of Imagism. His "In a Station of the Metro"
(Roberts & Jacobs, 717), written in 1916, is often used as an example of Imagist poetry:

The apparition of these faces in the crowd;

Petals on a wet, black bough.

The Dada avant-garde movement touted by its proponents (Jean Arp, Kurt Schwitters, Tristan
Tzara) as anti-art, dada focused on going against artistic norms and conventions.[60]

The Imaginists were avant-garde post-Russian Revolution of 1917 poetic movement that created
poetry based on sequences of arresting and uncommon images.[61] The major figures include
Sergei Yesenin, Anatoly Marienhof, and Rurik Ivnev.

The Proletarian poetry is a genre of political poetry developed in the United States during the
1920s and 1930s that endeavored to portray class-conscious perspectives of the working-
class.[62] Connected through their mutual political message that may be either explicitly Marxist
or at least socialist, the poems are often aesthetically disparate.[63]

The Harlem Renaissance was a cultural movement in the 1920s involving many African-
American writers from the New York Neighbourhood of Harlem.[64]

The OBERIU was a short-lived influential Soviet Russian avant-garde art group in Leningrad from
1927 to repressions in 1931, which held provocative performances, that foreshadowed the
European theatre of the absurd, nonsensical illogical absurd verse and prose. Members
associated with it were Daniil Kharms, Alexander Vvedensky, Nikolay Zabolotsky, Nikolay
Oleynikov, Konstantin Vaginov, Igor Bekhterev (ru), and Yury Vladimirov (ru).[65]

The Objectivists were a loose-knit group of second-generation Modernists from the 1930s. They
include Louis Zukofsky, Lorine Niedecker, Charles Reznikoff, George Oppen, Carl Rakosi, and
Basil Bunting. Objectivists treated the poem as an object; they emphasised sincerity, intelligence,
and the clarity of the poet's vision.[66]

The "Apollo Society" with the magazine Apollo was a neo-romantic group, formed in Cairo, Egypt
in 1932. Its members were Ahmed Zaki Abu Shadi (founder), Ibrahim Nagi, Ali Mahmoud Taha,
and Abu al-Qasim al-Shabbi.[67][68][47]

The Black Mountain poets (also known as the Projectivists) were a group of the mid-20th-
century (from the 1950) avant-garde and postmodern poets associated with Black Mountain
College in the United States.[69]

The San Francisco Renaissance was initiated by Kenneth Rexroth and Madeline Gleason in
Berkeley in the 1950s. It included Robert Duncan, Jack Spicer, and Robin Blaser. They were
consciously experimental and had close links to the Black Mountain and Beat poets.[70]

The Beat Generation poets or the Beats met in New York in the 1950s–1960s. The core group
were Jack Kerouac, Allen Ginsberg, and William S. Burroughs, who were joined later by Gregory
Corso.[71]

The New York School was an informal group of poets active in 1950s New York City whose work
was said to be a reaction to the Confessionalists. Some major figures include John Ashbery,
Frank O'Hara, James Schuyler, Kenneth Koch, Barbara Guest, Joe Brainard, Ron Padgett, Ted
Berrigan and Bill Berkson.[72]

The Concrete poetry was an avant-garde movement started in Brazil during the 1950s,
characterized for extinguishing the general conception of poetry, creating a new language called
''verbivocovisual''.[73] its significant figures are Augusto de Campos, Haroldo de Campos, and
Décio Pignatari.

The Movement was a group of English writers including Kingsley Amis, Philip Larkin, Donald
Alfred Davie, D. J. Enright, John Wain, Elizabeth Jennings and Robert Conquest. Their tone is anti-
romantic and rational.[74] The connection between the poets was described as "little more than a
negative determination to avoid bad principles."

The "Modernist School", the "Blue Star", and the "Epoch" were modernist, including avant-garde
and surrealism, Chinese poetic groups founded in 1954 in Taiwan and led by Qin Zihao (1902–
1963) and Ji Xian (b. 1903).[75][76]

Confessional poetry was an American movement that emerged in the late 1950s and the 1960s.
They drew on personal history for their artistic inspiration. Poets in this group include Sylvia
Plath, Anne Sexton, John Berryman, and Robert Lowell.[77]
Soviet nonconformism was a dissident, stylistically diverse art "movement" in the post-Stalinist
era Soviet Union from 1950s to 1980s in opposition to official socialist realism.[78][79][80] Poets
involved with it Evgenii Kropivnitsky, Varlam Shalamov, Yury Dombrovsky, Aleksandr Galich, Igor
Kholin, Naum Korzhavin, Yury Aikhenvald, Genrikh Sapgir, Vilen Barskyi, Roald Mandelstam,
Gennadiy Aygi, Vsevolod Nekrasov, Yuliy Kim, Anri Volokhonsky, Andrei Bitov, Igor Sinyavin,
Joseph Brodsky, Alexei Khvostenko, Dmitry Prigov, Kari Unksova, Ry Nikonova, Oleg Grigoriev,
Eduard Limonov, Viktor Krivulin, Sergey Stratanovsky, Vladimir Erl, Serge Segay, Lev Rubinstein,
Aleksandr Mironov, Elena Shvarts, and Sergey Gandlevsky.[80][81]

The Liverpool poets, also known as the Mersey Beat poets, were Adrian Henri, Brian Patten and
Roger McGough from the 1960s. Their work was an English equivalent to the American Beats.

The Hungry generation was a group of about 40 poets in West Bengal, India during 1961–1965
who revolted against the colonial canons in Bengali poetry and wanted to go back to their roots.
The movement was spearheaded by Shakti Chattopadhyay, Malay Roy Choudhury, Samir
Roychoudhury, and Subimal Basak.

The Language poets were American avant garde poets who emerged in the 1960s-1990s; their
approach started with the modernist emphasis on method.[82][83] They were reacting to the
poetry of the Black Mountain and Beat poets. The poets included: Leslie Scalapino, Bruce
Andrews, Charles Bernstein, Ron Silliman, Barrett Watten, Lyn Hejinian, Bob Perelman, Rae
Armantrout, Carla Harryman, Clark Coolidge, Hannah Weiner, Susan Howe, and Tina Darragh.

The British Poetry Revival was a loose wide-reaching collection of groupings and subgroupings
during the late 1960s and early 1970s. It was a modernist reaction to the conservative The
Movement. The leading poets included J. H. Prynne, Eric Mottram, Tom Raworth, Denise Riley,
and Lee Harwood.[84][85]

The Misty Poets are a group of Chinese poets whose style is defined by the obscurity of its
imagery and metaphors. The movement was born after the Cultural Revolution, mainly from the
1970s. Leading members include Bei Dao, Duo Duo, Shu Ting, Yang Lian, Gu Cheng, and also Hai
Zi.[75][86][87]

The Martian poets were English poets of the 1970s and early 1980s, including Craig Raine and
Christopher Reid. Through the heavy use of curious, exotic, and humorous metaphors, Martian
poetry aimed to break the grip of "the familiar" in English poetry, by describing ordinary things as
if through the eyes of a Martian.

The Nuyorican poets of the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s wrote and recited dramatic poetry in
Spanish, Spanglish, and English with humor and rage about social injustice, ethnic and racial
discrimination, and U.S. colonialism in Latin America and the Caribbean. Leaders of the
Nuyorican poetry movement include Pedro Pietri, Miguel Algarín, and Giannina Braschi.[88][89] The
Nuyorican movement gave rise to Poetry slams, a performing arts practice developed at open
mic venues such as the Nuyorican Poets Cafe in Loisada of New York City.[90]

The Moscow Conceptualists were a movement within Soviet nonconformist art emerged during
the 1970s and related to western conceptual and neo-conceptual art in which the concept(s)
involved in the work are prioritized equally to or more than traditional aesthetic or material
concerns. The Moscow group included not only artists but also poets Vsevolod Nekrasov, Dmitry
Prigov, Lev Rubinstein, Anna Alchuk, and Timur Kibirov.[91][92][93]

The Metarealists, namely metaphysical realists, in the 1970s–90s unofficial postmodern Soviet
and Russian poetry, who all used complex metaphors which they called meta-metaphors. Their
representatives are Konstantin Kedrov, Viktor Krivulin, Elena Katsyuba, Ivan Zhdanov, Elena
Shvarts, Vladimir Aristov, Aleksandr Yeryomenko, Yuri Arabov, and Alexei Parshchikov.[92][94][95]

The New Formalism is a movement originating ca. 1977 in American poetry that promotes a
return to metrical and rhymed verse.[96][97] Rather than looking to the Confessionalists, they look
to Robert Frost, Richard Wilbur, James Merrill, Anthony Hecht, and Donald Justice for poetic
influence. These poets are associated with the West Chester University Poetry Conference, and
with literary journals like The New Criterion and The Hudson Review. Associated poets include
Dana Gioia, X.J. Kennedy, Timothy Steele, Mark Jarman, Rachel Hadas, R. S. Gwynn, Charles
Martin, Phillis Levin, Kay Ryan, Brad Leithauser.

The New Sincerity is a cultural movement and trend that matured in the 1990s within
Postmodernism, primarily in America, preferring sincerity ethos to the hegemony of
postmodernist irony and cynicism.[98][99] Poets named as associated with this movement have
included David Berman, Catherine Wagner, Dean Young, Miranda July, Tao Lin, Steve
Roggenbuck, Frederick Seidel, Arielle Greenberg, Karyna McGlynn, and Mira Gonzalez.[100]

Alphabetic list

This is a list of poetry groups and movements.

Absurdism[101] British Poetry Revival

Acmeist poetry Cairo poets

Aestheticism Chhayavad

Alabama State Poetry Society Classical Chinese poetry[2]

Apollo Society[47][67][68] Conceptismo

Arizona State Poetry Society Conceptual writing

Black Arts Movement[102] Confessional poetry

Columbine Poets of Colorado Iowa Poetry Association

Concrete poetry Impressionism[106]

Connecticut Poetry Society Jindyworobak movement[107]

Crescent Moon Society Kentucky State Poetry Society

Cubo-Futurism Lake Poets

Culteranismo La Pléiade

Cyclic Poets League of Minnesota Poets

Dada Liverpool poets

Danrin school Los Contemporáneos

Deep image[103] Louisiana State Poetry Society

Della Cruscans Mahjar

Dymock poets Maine Poets Society

Ego-Futurism Mannerism

Expressionism[104] Marinism

Florida State Poets Association Massachusetts State Poetry Society

Fugitives (poets) Metarealism

Futurism (literature) Mississippi Poetry Society

Generation of '27 Missouri State Poetry Society

Georgia Poetry Society Misty Poets

Georgian poets[105] Modern Chinese poetry[75]

Goliard Modernist poetry

Graveyard poets Modernist School (Taiwan)[75][76]

The Group (literature) Moscow Conceptualists

Harlem Renaissance The Movement

Harvard Aesthetes National Federation of State Poetry Societies

Heptanese School (literature) Naturalism[108]

Illinois State Poetry Society Négritude[109]

Imaginism Neotericism

Imagism Net-poetry
 Nevada Poetry Society Postmodernism[110]

New Apocalyptics Précieuses

New Formalism Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood

New Mexico State Poetry Society Realism[111]

New Peasant Poets Rhymers' Club

New Sincerity Rochester Poets

Nijō poetic school Rococo

North Dakota State Poetry Society Scottish Renaissance

Nuyorican Movement Sicilian School

OBERIU Socialist realism[112]

OBJECT:PARADISE Poetry Slam

Ohio Poetry Association Sons of Ben

Oregon Poetry Association South Dakota State Poetry Society

Others (art group) Southern Agrarians[113]

Oulipo Soviet nonconformism

Panfuturism[51] Spasmodic poets

Pegnesischer Blumenorden Spectrism

Pennsylvania Poetry Society Sturm und Drang

Petrarchism Surrealist poets[114]

Poets Roundtable of Arkansas The poets of Elan

Poetic transrealism Transcendentalism

Poetry Society of Indiana Uranian poetry

Poetry Society of Michigan Utah State Poetry Society

Poetry Society of Oklahoma Vitalist poetry

Poetry Society of Tennessee WyoPoets

Poetry Society of Texas

See also

List of literary movements