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Falaj Indigenous knowledge in Oman and Iran

Article in AlterNative An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples · May 2023

DOI: 10.1177/11771801231168668

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Abdullah Al-Ghafri Majid Labbaf Khaneiki

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ALN0010.1177/11771801231168668AlterNativeAl-Ghafri et al.

Article

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Falaj Indigenous knowledge in 1­–11

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https://doi.org/10.1177/11771801231168668
DOI: 10.1177/11771801231168668
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Abdullah Saif Al-Ghafri1, Majid Labbaf Khaneiki1 ,

Nasser A Al Saqri1,2 and Khalifa M Al-Kindi1

Abstract
Both Oman and Iran possess a harsh environment where people’s survival and development entail a deep knowledge
about their surroundings. A considerable part of this knowledge has crystallized around the falaj, a hydraulic technique that
transfers water from a groundwater source or seasonal runoffs to cultivated lands, in Omani and Iranian oases, that has
historically served as the only water source in an otherwise barren arid land. This article argues that the spatial extent of
the falaj confronts local communities with a variety of questions to be solved. This article also tries to answer how the falaj
system contributed to the development of modern sciences in a broader context. The article concludes that a transition
from Indigenous knowledge to modern sciences has changed the position of local communities from coexistence to over-
exploitation in terms of their water resources, and this transition can explain their current water problems.

Keywords
human ecology, Indigenous knowledge, Iranian qanat, Omani falaj, water management

Introduction
A falaj is a gently sloping subterranean tunnel or open
channel that drains out groundwater or valley runoffs, and
conveys it to farmlands (Al-Ghafri, 2018). This traditional
water mining system has proved to be the most crucial
water source across the Iranian plateau and Oman over the
past millennia (Cremaschi et al., 2018). In Oman, all falaj
systems fall into three groups: iddi (aquifer) falaj, ayni
(spring) falaj and ghaili (stream) falaj (Al-Marshoudi &
Sulong, 2022; Simonen, 2021) (Figure 1).
Iddi (aquifer) or dawoodi (attributed to King Solomon,
son of David) falaj is characterized by a relatively long and
deep tunnel that has been dug through the layers of
sediment to drain out the groundwater seeping into the
tunnel (Al-Ghafri, 2013; Qasimi, 2015). A combination of
drainage tunnel and several wells creates a structure that
bears a close resemblance to the Iranian qanat (subterranean
conduit). An ayni falaj transfers water from natural springs
in mountainous areas. The Omani ayni falaj is called a
cheshma-qanat in Iran. A ghaili falaj is of vital importance
to the sustainability of human settlements along the wadi
(valley). This type of falaj gets its water from a surface
stream that meanders down a valley or wadi. Each village
builds a small qabīl (dam) that diverts a given portion of
the stream and takes it into a canal or an underground
tunnel leading to their farmlands (Al-Ghafri, 2013). The
word falaj for both iddi falaj and qanat, which refer to the
same hydraulic system.
There is still a controversy about the antiquity and origin
of falaj, but it seems that falaj came into existence as a
collective response to climate change around 500 BC when
both Oman and Iran experienced a dramatic decline in their
precipitations, and accordingly, many ancient communities
shifted from disappearing surface streams to groundwater
(Al-Jahwari, 2011; Castel et al., 2020; Yule, 1999). While
aflaj (plural of falaj) are seemingly simple hand-dug tunnels
that collect groundwater seepage, the construction and
maintenance of the tunnel demand a high level of knowledge
that has been amassed over centuries and handed down
from generation to generation (Al-Sulaymi & Nabil, 1997).
This Indigenous technique paved the way for local
communities to develop a special cognition of their natural
and social environments. A falaj is an extended hydraulic
system that may stretch tens of kilometers, spanning
different areas with diverse geological, botanical and social
conditions. Along the course of such a hydraulic system,
local communities may come across different issues in
terms of water quality, soil crumbling, workers’ safety,
1UNESCO Chair on Aflaj Studies–Archaeohydrology, University of
Nizwa, Oman
2History Department, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman

ghaili falaj is called a qomesh in Iran and is commonplace

in the region of Dezful (Attarian & Najar, 2019). This
article is mostly focused on the iddi type of falaj in Oman
and the qanat in Iran, which enjoy the same physical
structure and hydraulic function. From here on, we use the
Corresponding author:
Majid Labbaf Khaneiki, UNESCO Chair on Aflaj Studies–
Archaeohydrology, University of Nizwa, 616 Birkat Al Mouz, Nizwa,
Oman.
Email: labbaf_majid@unizwa.edu.om

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