ABSTRACT

Huge quantities of natural soils and rock materials are required for the construction of many
civil engineering structures like roads, embankments, reclamation of grounds etc., as a
foundation material such as sub-grade, sub-buse and as a contractive material in embankments,
filling of low-lying areas. Presence of plastic materials the silt and slay in soil causes excess
deformations make the structures not durable which proves to be a costly affair in the
maintenance of structure. Keeping this in mind industrial wants like crusher dust and pond ash
have been selected as a geotechnical material in the construction of embankments as a sub-
grade and fill material. Crusher dust is a waste product obtained for crushing stone plants and
pondash from ash ponds of thermal power plants for the bulk utilization of these wastes, various
percentages of pond ash was added to the crusher dust and tested for gradation, compaction,
strength and seepage characteristics. From the test to identified that crusher dust-pond ash
mixes attained high densities (1.0g), high CBR values (>10%), high shear parameters (36) and
maintained pervious characteristics (10 cm/sec) in addition to non-plastic and incompressibility
characteristics. From the test concluded that 30-40% addition of pond ash to crusher dust yields
satisfactory results and can be used as sub-grade and fill materials in various geotechnical
constructional activities
 CHAPTER-1

1.0 Introduction:

Soils are being the cheapest and readily available construction material foe civil engineering
structures. Due to its poor performance under saturated condition lost it requirements as a
geotechnical material. Embankments, bridges, abutments, retaining structures, sub-grades
require good quality of fill material which is free from plastic fines and has good frictional
resistance and drainage characteristics. To keep in mind that stabilization of natural soils is
difficult and fail to meet the design standards necessitates going for alternate material to meet
the above standards. In this connection crusher dust and pond ashes are such materials which
are producing abnormal quantities required thousands of acres of land for their disposal.
Crusher dust is a waste product obtained from stone crusher plants with annual production of
23 lakh tonnes where as pond ash is obtained from burning of coal in thermal power plants and
other industrial units which turns about 100 million tonns annually.

A number of researchers have made their contributions for the utilization of above said
materials in various geotechnical applications, Soosan et al (2000, 2001) identified that crusher
dust exhibited high shear strength and beneficial for its use as geotechnical material. Sridharan
A et.al (2005, 2006) reported that high CBR and shearing resistance values can enhance their
potential use as sub-base material in flexible pavements and also as an embankment material.
Praveen Kumar et.al (2006) conducted CBR tests on stone dust as a sub-base material. Wood
etal (1993) identified that the physical properties, chemical composition and mineralogy of
quarry dust varies with aggregate type and source. Collins RJ et al (1994) studied quarry dust
in highway constructions. Studies on pond ash in various applications are Bera A.K. et al
(2007), Raju Sarkar et.al (2009) have studied the compaction and strength characteristics of
pond ash. Amalendu Ghosh et.al (2005), Venkatappa Rao G et al (2011), Kumar. R. etal (2007),
Temel Yetimoglu et al (2005) have studied the behaviour of pond ash with Geosynthetics and
reinforced with randomly distributed fibres. Kolay P.K. et.al (2011) have used pond ash as
stabilizer of peaty soil. Sridharan et al (1996,1999) studied gootechnical characteristics of pond
ash as a structural fill. The results showed that the use of pond ash increase the peak friction
angle, peak compressive strength, CBR value. In the present investigation various
percentage ofcrusher dust and pond ash were mixed and tested for geotechnical
characterization such as compaction, strength, drainage, etc., to study the performance

1.1 OBJECTIVES OF PRESENT STUDY:

The main objective of the present study is the performance of Crusher dust with pond ash and
their mixes as a geotechnical material,

To know the geotechnical Characterization of Crusher Dust and pond ash.

To know the Compaction and strength characteristics of Crusher Dust- pond ash mixes af
various percentages of pond ash.

Suitability of the mechanically stabilized Crusher dust as Sub-grade and fill material in
accordance with MORTH specifications.

1.2 SCOPE OF STUDY:

In the present study Crusher dust was collected from Crushing stone plants and pond ash from
Srikakulam and NTPC, Parwada, Visakhapatnam respectively. These industrial wastes were
tested for Geotechnical Characteristics such as Gradation, Plasticity, Compaction, CBR, etc.
To study the performance of Crusher Dust- pond ash mixes various percentage of pond ash was
added to these Crusher dust and studied plasticity and strength characteristics. Based on the
results of CBR, angle of shearing resistance and compaction the stabilized materials were
checked as sub-grade and fill materials in accordance with MORTH specifications.
2.1 Road Network:

India has a road network of 4,236,000 kilometers (2,612,000 mi) in 2011, the third largest road
network in the world. India has 0.66 km of mads per every square kilometer of land. The
quantitative density of India's road network is similar to that of the United States (0.65) and far
higher than that of China (0.16) or Brazil (0.20). However, qualitatively India's roads are a mix
of modern highways and narrow, unpaved roads, and are undergoing drastic improvement. As
of 2008, 49 per cent about 2.1 million kilometers of Indian roads were paved

Adjusted for its large population, India has less than 4 kilometers of roads per 1000 people,
including all its paved and unpaved roads. In terms of quality, all season, 4 or more lane
highways, India has less than 0.07 kilometers of highways per 1000 people, as of 2010. These
are some of the lowest road and highway densities in the world. For context, United States has
21 kilometers of roads per 1000 people, while France about 15 kilometers per 1000 people
predominantly paved and high quality in both cases. In terms of all season, 4 or more lane
highways, developed countries such as United States and France have a highway density per
1000 people that is over 15 times as India.

India in its past did not allocate enough resources to build or maintain its road network. This
has changed since 1995, with major efforts currently underway to modernize the country's road
infrastructure. India has planned to spend approximately US $70 Billion by 2013 to modernize
its highway network.

The rate of new highway construction across India has accelerated in recent years. As of
October 2011, the country was adding 11 kilometers of new highways, on average, every day.
The expected pace of project initiations and completion suggests that India would add about
600 kilometers of modern highway per month, on average, through 2014.

Since 1995, the authority has privatized road network development in India, and delivered by
December 2011, over 70,000 kilometers of National Highways, of which 16,500 kilometers are
4-lane or 6-lane modern highways.
2.1.1 Overview:

Road Transpon is vital to India's economy. It enables the country's transportation sector which
contributes 4.7 percent of India's gross domestic product, in comparison to railways that
contributed 1 percent, in 2009-2010 Road transport has gained importance over the years
despite significant barriers and inefficiencies in inter-state freight and passenger movement
compared to railways and air. The government of India considers road network as critical to
the country's development, social integration and security needs of the country.

Various government authorities, given India's federal form of government, administer Indian
road network. The table below describes the regulating bodies

Table 2.1 Classification of Road Network

Road classification Authority responsible Total kilometres(as of 2011)

National Highways Ministry of Road Transport& 70,934 plus 40,000 kilometres

Highways (central government
of under implementation
India

State Highways State government(state's public 1,54,522

works department)
Major and other district Local governments,Panchayat
roads and 25,77,396
municipalities
Local governments,Panchayat
Rural roads and 14,33,577
municipalities

2.2 Types of Pavements:

The pavement carries the wheel loads and transfer the load stresses through a wider area on the
soil subgrade below. Thus, the stresses transferred to the subgrade soil through the pavement
layers are considerably lower than the contact pressure or compressive stresses under the wheel
load on the pavement surface. The reduction in the wheel load stress due to the pavement
depends both on its thickness and the characteristics of the pavement layers. Apavement layer
in considered more effective or superior, if it is able to distribute the wheel bond stross through
a larger ares per unit depth of the layer However, there will be a mall amount of temporary
deformation even on od pavement surface when heavy wheel loads an applied One of the
objectives of a well designed and constructed persensent in therefore to keep thin clastic
deformation of the pavenment within the permissible limits, so that the pevement can sustain
a large number of repeated loud applications during the design life.

Based on the vertical alignment and the environmental conditions of the site, the pavement may
be constructed over an embankment, cut or almost at the ground level itself It is always
desirable to construct the pavement well above the maximum level of the ground water to koop
the sub grade relatively dry even during monsoons

2.2.1 Types of Pavement Structure:

Based on the structural behavior, pavements are generally classified into two categories

 Flexible pavements.
 Rigid pavements.
 Semi Rigid pavements.

2.2.1.1 Flexible Pavements:

Flexible pavements are those, which on the whole have low or negligible flexural strength and
are rather flexible in their structural action under the loads. The flexible pavement layers reflect
the deformation of the lower layers on to the surface of the layer. Thus if the lower layer of the
pavement or soil subgrade is undulated, the flexible pavement surface also gets undulated.

Flexible pavements are commonly designed using empirical design charts or equations taking
into account some of the design factors. There are also semi empirical and theoretical
design methods.
 Fig: 2.1 Flexibis Pavement layers

2.2.1.2 Rigid Pavements;

Rigid pavements are those which possess noteworthy flexural strength or fles, rigidity. The
stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the lower layers as ease of flexible pavement
layers. The rigid pavements are made of Portland cement concrete either-plain, reinforced or
pre-stressed concrete. The plain cement Concrete slabs are expected to tuke-up about 40 kg/cm³
flexural stress. The rigid pavement has the Slab action and is capable of transmitting the wheel
load stresses through a wider area below The main point of difference in the structural behavior
of rigid pavement as the flexible pavement is that the critical condition of stress in the rigid
pavement is the maximum flexural stress occurring in the slab due to wheel load and
temperature changes where-as in the flexible pavement it is the distribution of compressive
stresses As the rigid pavement slab has tensile strength, tensile stresses are developed due to
the bending of the slab under wheel load and temperature variations. Thus the types of stresses
developed and their distribution within the cement concrete słab are quite different. The rigid
pavement does not get deformed to the shape of the lower surface as it can bridge the minor
variations of lower layer.
 Fig: 2.2 Rigid Pavement Layers

The cement concrete pavement slab can very well serve as a wearing surface as well an
effective base course. Therefore usually the rigid pavement structure consists of a cement
concrete slab, below which a granular base or sub-base course may be provided (Fig-3.1).
Though the cement concrete slab can also be laid directly over the soil subgrade, this is not
preferred particularly when the subgrade, consists of fine grained soil. Providing a good base
or sub-base course layer under the cement concrete slab, increases the pavement life
considerably and therefore works out more economical in the long run. The rigid pavements
are usually designed and the stresses are analyzed using the elastic theory, assuming the
pavement as an elastic plate resting over elastic or a viscous foundation.

2.2.1.3 Semi rigid Pavements:

When bonded materials like the pozzolanic Concrete (lime-fly ash aggregate mix), lean cement
concrete or soil-cement are used in the base course or sub-base course layer the pavement layer
has considerably higher flexural strength than the common flexible pavement layers. However
these bonded materials do not possess as much flexural strength as the cement Concrete
pavements. Therefore when this intermediate class of materials is used in the base or sub-base
course layer of the pavements, they are called semi rigid pavements. This third category of
semi-rigid pavements are either designed as flexible pavements with some correction factors
to find the thickness requirements based on experience, or by using a new design approach
These semi-rigid pavement materials have low resistance to impact and abrasion and therefore
are usually provided with flexible pavement surface course.

2.3 Components of Flexible Pavements:

A typical flexible pavement consists of four components

 Soil subgrade.
 Sub base course.
 Base course.
 Surface course.

Fig: 2.3 Components of Pavements.

The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to the lower layers
by grain to grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure. A well
compacted granular structure consisting of strong graded aggregate (interlocked aggregate
structure with or without binder materials) can transfer the compressive stresses through a
wider area and thus forms a good flexible pavement layer. The load spreading ability of this
layer therefore depends on the type of the materials and the mix design factors. Bituminous
concrete is one of the best flexible pavement layer materials. Other materials which fall under
the group are, all granular materials with or without bituminous binder, granular base and sub-
base course materials like the Water Bound Macadam, crushed aggregate, gravel, soil-
aggregate mixes etc. The vertical compressive stress is maximum on the pavement surface
directly under the wheel load and is equal to the contact pressure under the wheel. Due to the
ability to distribute the stresses to a larger area in the shape of a truncated cone, the stresses get
decreased at the lower layers. Therefore by taking full advantage of the stress distribution
characteristics of the flexibl
Pavement, the layer system concept was developed. According to this, the fleshte pavement
say the constracted in a number of layers and the top layer has to be the strongest as the highest
compressive stresses are to be sustained by this layer, in addition to the wear and tear dar to the
raffic. The lower layers have to take up only lesser magnitudes of stressed deres d weanng
action due to traffic loads, therefore inferior materials with lower cost can be used in the Jower
layers. The lowest layer is the prepared surface consisting of the local soil itself, called the sab
grade. Typical cross section of a flexible pavemert structure is shown in Fig 3.1 this commists
of a wearing surface at the top, below which is the base course followed by the sub base cosume
and the lowest layer consists of the soil sub grade which has the lowest stability among the four
typical flexible pavement components. Each of the flexible pavement layers above the sub
grade, siz. sub-base, base course and the surface course may consist of one or more number of
layers of the same or slightly different materials and specifications.

2.4 Functions of Pavement Components:

2.4.1 Soil Sub-grade and its Evaluation:

The soil sub-grade is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of pavement materials
placed over it. The loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the soil sub-grade for
dispersion to the earth mass. It is essential that at no time, the soil sub-grade is overstressed. It
means that the pressure transmitted on the top of the sub-grade is within the allowable limit,
not to cause excessive stress condition or to deform the same beyond the elastic limit. Therefore
it is desirable that at least top 50 cm layer of the sub-grade soil is well compacted under
controlled conditions of optimum moisture content and maximum dry density. It is necessary
to evaluate the strength properties of the soil sub-grade. This helps the designer to adopt the
suitable values of the strength parameter for design purposes and in case this supporting layer
does not come up to the expectations, the same is treated or stabilized to suit the requirements
Many tests are known for measuring the strength properties of the sub grades. Mostly the test
is empirical and is useful for their correlation in the design. Some of the tests have been

The common strength tests for the evaluation of soil sub-grade are:

 California bearing ratio test.

 California resistance value test.
  Triaxial compression test.
 Plate bearing fest

These tests have been explained in detail in Chapter 6 and in the book Highway Materials
Testing by the authors. California Bearing Ratio (CIR) test is a penetration test, evolved for the
empirical method of flexible pavement design. The CBR test is carried out either in the
laboratory on prepared specimens or in the field by taking in-situ measurements. This test is
also carried out to evaluate the strength of other flexible pavement component materials

California resistance value is found by using Hveem stabilometer. This test is used in an
empirical method of flexible pavement design based on soil strength.

Though tri-axial test is considered as the most important soil strength test, still the test is not
very commonly used in structural design of pavements. This is because only a few theoretical
methods make use of this tri-axial test results.

The plate bearing test is carried out using a relatively large diameter plate to evaluate the load
supporting capacity of supporting power of the pavement layers. The plate bearing test is used
for determining the elastic modulus of subgrade and other pavement layers. The results of the
plate bearing tests are used in flexible pavement design method like McLeod method and the
method based on layer system analysis by Burmister. Also the test is used for the determination
of modulus of subgrade reaction in rigid pavement analysis by Westergaard's approach.

2.4.2 Sub base and Base Courses and their Evaluation:

These layers are made of broken stones, bound or unbound aggregate. Some times in sub base
course a layer of stabilized soil or selected granular soil is also used. In some places boulder
stones or bricks are also used as a sub base or soling course. However at the sub base-course,
it is desirable to use smaller size graded aggregates or soil aggregate mixes or soft aggregates
instead of large boulder stone soling course of brick on edge soling course, as these have no
proper interlocking and therefore have lesser resistance to sinking into the weak subgrade soil
when wet. When the subgrade consists of fine grained soil and when the pavement carries
heavy wheel loads, there is a tendency for these boulder stones or bricks to penetrate into the
wet soil, resulting in the formation of undulations and uneven pavement surface in
flexible pavements.
Sub base course primarily has the similar function as of the base course and is provided with
inferior materials than of base course. The functions of the base course vary according to type
of pavement

Base course and sub-base courses are used under flexible pavement primarily to improve the
load supporting capacity by distributing the load through finite thickness Base courses are used
under rigid pavement for

Preventing pumping

Protecting the sub-grade against frost action.

Thus the fundamental purpose of a base course and sub base course is to provide a stress
transmitting medium to spread the surface wheel loads in such manner as to prevent shear and
consolidation deformations.

The sub base and base course layers may be evaluated by suitable strength or stability test like
plate bearing, CBR or stabilometer test. Each test has its own advantages and limitations.
Sometimes these layers are evaluated in terms of pressure distribution characteristics.

2.5 Pavement Failures:

A flexible pavement failure is defined by formation of pot holes, ruts, cracks, localized
depressions and settlements. The localized depression normally is followed with heaving in the
vicinity. The sequence develops a wavy pavement surface. The failure of any one or more
components of the pavement structure develops the waves and Corrugations on the pavement
surface or longitudinal ruts and shoving. Pavement unevenness may itself be considered, as a
failure, when it is excessive.

The subject of pavement distress and failure is considered complex as several factors contribute
to the pavement deterioration and failure. The aging and oxidation of bituminous films lead to
the deterioration of bituminous pavements. Detrimental actions in pavements are rapidly
increased when excess water is retained in the void spaces of bituminous pavements or in the
cracks and joints of the cement concrete pavements.
The cement Concrete pavements may develop cracks and deteriorate due to repeated loads and
fatigue effects. A rigid pavement failure is observed by the development of structural crack of
break resulting in progressive subsidence of some portions of pavement. Moderate inegularities
in the supporting layers bencath the cement concrete pavements are sustained due to inherent
bending strength of these pavements. Rigid pavements are therefore capable of withstanding
slight variations in the underlying support and they bridge the localized gaps moderately. It is
the combinations of many factors induce the failure condition in the rigid pavement. Due to
temperature effects, the newly constructed cement concrete pavementa may also crack even if
no vehicle moves on them. Often failure of rigid pavements starts from joints, corners and
edges of slabs.

2.5.1 Failures in Flexible Pavements:

As stated above, the localized settlement of any one component layer of the flexible pavement
structure could be enough to cause pavement failure. This demands that each one of the layers
should be carefully designed and laid. Thus to maintain the stability of the pavement structure
as a whole, each a layer should be stable within itself and thereby make the total pavement
maintain its stability, Figure 10.1 illustrates the above concept. Figure 10.1-a, b and c illustrates
the failures in the soil subgrade, base Course and the surface or wearing course. It may be seen
that ultimately there is surface deformation when failure takes place either in subgrade or
base or surface.
(a) Failure in subgrade (b)Failure in base course

(c) Failure in wearing course

 Fig;2.5 Load distribution factor of Flexible pavement

2.5.1.1 Failures in Sub-grade:

One of the prime causes of flexible pavement failure is excessive deformation in sub- grade
soil. This can be noticed in the form of excessive undulations or waves and corrugations in the
pavement surface and also depressions followed by heaving of pavement surface. The lateral
shoving of pavement near the edge along the wheel path of vehicles is due to insufficient
bearing capacity or a shear failure in sub-grade soil. Excessive unevenness of pavement surface
is considered as pavement failure.

The failure of sub-grade may be attributed due to two basic reasons:

 Inadequate stability.
 Excessive stress application.

Inadequate stability may be due to inherent weakness of the soil itself or excessive moisture or
improper compaction. Stability is the resistance to deformation under the stress. Excessive
stress application is due to inadequate pavement thickness or loads in excess of design Value.
The deformation of soil sub-grade and other pavement materials are found to increase with
increase in number of load repetitions.
If the applied stress on the sub-grade or pavement is very low when compared to its bearing
capacity, the deformation due to the load would be elastic or fully recovered when the load is
released. If the compaction of the layers is not adequate with reference to subsequent loading,
part of the deformation may be permanent due to compaction of soil this may be called
consolidation deformation. But if the applied stress is excessive with respect to the stability
and if plastic flow takes place as in the case of wet clayey soil, this deformation is called plastic
deformation and is not even partly recoverable. These have been illustrated in Fig 3.2
 Fig 2.6 Soil Deformation under Loads

The type of damage in flexible pavement that can be caused by traffic due to subgrade failure
or due to inadequate and improper compaction of subgrade and other pavement layers has been
illustrated in Fig 3.3

2.5.1.2 Failures in Sub base or Base Courses:

Following are the chief types of sub base or base course failures:

Inadequate stability or strength.

Loss of binding action.

Loss of base course materials.

Inadequate wearing course.

Use of inferior materials and crushing of base course materials

Lack of lateral confinement for the granular base course.

 Fig 2.7 Failure due to Improper Compaction of Subgrade and Pavements Layers

Inadequate stability or strength: Poor mis proportioning or inadequate thickness is main reasons
for the lack of stability or strength of sub-base or base course. Soft varieties of stone aggregates
also make the base course layer weak. Improper quality control during the construction results
in poor buse course.

Loss of binding action: Due to the internal movements of aggregate in sub base or base course
layers under the repeated stress applications, the composite structure of the layers gets
disturbed. This results in loosening of the total mass and formation of alligator cracks on the
bituminous surfacing of flexible pavements. There is also loss of binding action resulting in
low stability and poor load transmitting property of the pavement layer. Excessive permanent
deformations are thus caused in this layer

Loss of base course materials: The loss of base course materials is only possible when either
the base course is not covered with a wearing course or the wearing course has completely
worn est. Due to the fast moving vehicles plying on road, there is a suction caused between the
pneumatic tyres and the exposed base course material. This causes removal of binding material
WIM base and the stone aggregates are left in a loose state.

The exposed aggregates of the base course also may form dust due to abrading action and
attrition. With further use of such pavement sections, there is loss of stone aggregates forming
pot boles. The removal of materials is called raveling. Dust nuisance also develops under these
crcumstances. The preventive measures include, repair of the pot holes and by painting the
surface with dust palliative or providing a suitable surface treatment. In WBM roads, it is
conventional to spread a thin layer of soil to serve as the binding material after the rains, which
also forms a suitable cushion to prevent the raveling of stones.

Inadequate wearing course: Absence of wearing course or inadequate thickness or stability of

wearing course exposes the base course to the damaging effects of climatic variations mainly
due to rains, frost action and the traffic.

Depending upon the type, intensity and volume of traffic, a suitable type and thickness of
wearing Course is provided over the base course. Bullock can traffic causes damaging effects
to the surface course. Pervious wearing course also permits the surface water to seep, through
and sotten the base course thus weakening it.

Use of inferior materials: Many failures, mainly structural failures are attributed due the use of
inferior materials in the paving jobs. Some materials exhibit satisfactory characteristics
initially, but show rapid deterioration due to weathering. The suitability of paving materials
should be judged by the number of test is to be considered for Highway Materials and
specifications for constructions.

Failure of wearing course: Failure of wearing course is observed due to lack of proper mis
design. Improper gradation of aggregates, inadequate binder content and inferior type of binder
result in a poor bituminous surfacing. Besides the design aspect, the bituminous construction
requires a high degree of quality control, since over or under estimated binder content, are both
greatly damaging to the resulting paving mix including temperature controls.
Volatilization and oxidation of binder also make the bituminous surfacing brittle and cause
cracking of the pavement surface which further allows seepage of rain water to the underlying
layers.

2.6 Typical Flexible Pavement Failures:

Following are some of the typical flexible pavement failures:

 Alligator (map) cracking

 Consolidation of pavement layers.
 Shear failure.
 Longitudinal cracking.
 Frost heaving.
 Lack of binding (keying) to the lower course.
 Reflection cracking.
 Formation of waves and corrugation.

2.6.1 Alligator (Map) Cracking:

Fig 2.8 shows the general pattern of alligator or map cracking of the bituminous surfacing. This
is the most common type of failure and occurs due to relative movement of pavement layer
materials. This may be caused by the repeated application of heavy wheel loads resulting in
fatigue failure or due to the moisture variations resulting in swelling and shrinkage of sub-
grade and other pavement materials. Localized weakness in the underlying base course would
also cause a cracking of the surface course in this pattern.

Fig;2.8 Map Cracking

2.6.2 Consolidation of pavement Layers:

Formation of ruts is mainly attributed to the consolidation of one or more layers of pavement.
The repeated application of loads along the same wheel path cause cumulative deformation
resulting in consolidation deformation or longitudinal ruts. Shallow ruts the surfacing course
can also be due to wearing along the wheel path. Depending upon the depth- and width of ruts,
it can be estimated whether the consolidation deformation has been caused in the subgrade or
in subsequent layers. A typical section of the pavement surface showing such failure is
given in Fig 2.9.

Fig 2.9 Formation of Ruts

2.6.3 Shear Failure & Cracking:

Shear failures are associated with the inherent weakness of the pavement mixtures, the shearing
resistance being low due to inadequate stability or excessively heavy loading. The shear failure
causes upheaval of pavement materials by forming a fracture or cracking. Fig 2.10 is a typical
section showing this type of failure.
 Fig 2.10 Shear Failure Cracking

2.6.4 Longitudinal Cracking:

Due to frost action and differential volume changes in sub-grade longitudinal cracking is
caused in pavement traversing through the full pavement thickness. Settlement of fill and
sliding of side slopes also would cause this type of failure.

Fig2.11Longitudinal Cracking
2.6.5 Frost Heaving:

Frost heaving is often misunderstood for shear or other types or failures. In shear failure, the
upheaval of portion of pavement is followed with a depression. In the case of frost heaving.
there is mostly a localized heaving-up pavement portion depending upon the ground water and
climatic conditions. See Fig 2.12

Fig 2.12 Failure due to Frost Heave

Fig: 2.13 Failure of Pavement surface due to Frost heave action

2.6.6 Lack of Binding with Lower Layer:

Slipping occurs when the surface course is not keyed bound with the underlying base. This
results in opening up and loss of pavement materials forming patches or pot holes. Such
conditions are more frequent in case when the bituminous surfacing is provided over the
existing cement concrete base course or soil cement base course. This condition is
more pronounced.
when the prime/tack coat in between two layers is lacking. The typical failure is shown in Fig

214

Fig 2.14 Failure due to Lack of Binding

2.6.7 Reflection Cracking:

This type of cracking is observed in bituminous overlays provided over existing cement
concrete pavements. The crack pattern as existing in cement concrete pavements is mostly
reflected on bituminous surfacing in the same pattern. Structural action of the total pavement
section is not much influenced by the presence of reflection cracks but since the cracks appear
at the surface, these allow surface water to seep through and cause damage to the soil subgrade
or result in mud pumping.

1.7 Typical Expected Component Layers Failures in Flexible Pavements and Their
Remedial Measures:

 Failure in sub grade.

 Failure in base course.
 Failure in wearing course.

2.7.1 Failure in Sub Grade:

 Inelastic deformation: This is due to inherent weakness of soil, excessive moisture

content.
 Waves and corrugations: this is due to improper compaction and more number of lood
repetitions.

2.7.2 Failure in Sub Base or Base Course:

Loss of binding action: Is due to poor mix proportioning, inadequate thickness, and soft stone
aggregate, improper quality control.

Formation of alligator cracks: Is due to internal moment of aggregates under repeated stress
application

Loss of base course material and permanent deformation: Is due to non-provision of wearing
course over base courses or complete wearing course, suction caused between pneumatic tyres,
abrasion and attrition.

Structural Failure: Is due to usage of inferior materials, inadequate pavement thickness, and
lack of proper mix design.

2.7.3 Failure of Wearing Course:

Cracking of the pavement surface is due to improper gradation of aggregate.

Inadequate binder content and inferior type of binder.

2.8 Remedial Measures for Defects in Flexible Pavements:

According to code of practice for maintenance of bituminous surface of highways the defects
of bituminous surfacing can be grouped under four categories

1.5.1 Surface Defects:

These are the defects observed on the surface of the pavement such as fine cracks, loss of course
aggregates and smooth surface. These are associated with surfacing layer and may be due to
excessive or deficient quantities of bitumen in those layers.

2.8.1.1 Identification:

 Fatty surface, bituminous binder collects as a film on surface is spread by traffic,

becomes slippery and causes accidents.
 Smooth surface, low skid resistance value, slippery when wet.
 Streaking: Alternative lean and heavy bitumen lines appearance in longitudinal and
transverse directions.

2.8.1.2 Cause:

 Non uniform application/bitumen distribution, too low binder temperature

 Excessive binder in a premix surfacing, loss of cover aggregate, poor quality
aggregates, excessive heavy axle loads.
 Excessive binder.

2.8.1.3 Treatment:

 Sand blotting or Sand blinding, open graded pre mix surfacing with low bitumen content
can absorb excess binder.
 Resurfacing with a surface dressing course or pre mix carpet.
 Use of slurry seal 2 to 5 mm.

2.8.2 Cracks:

A common defect in bituminous pavement is formation of cracks. The crack pattern can in
many cases, indicate the cause of the defeat. As soon as the cracks are observed, it is necessary
to study the pattern in detail. Cracks are very serious defects because it is vulnerable for ingress
of water through the cracks and of the formation of pot holes and raveling.
28.2.1 Identification:

 Hair line cracks, short and fine at close interval on the surface
 Alligator cracks, interconnected cracks forming series of small blocks.
 Longitudinal cracks appear in straight lines along roads.
 Shrinkage cracks appear in transverse direction.

1.8.2.2 Cause:

 Insufficient bitumen, excessive filler, improper compaction.

 Excessive deflection of surface over sub grade, sub base or base, inadequate pavement
thickness, over heating of bitumen.
 Poor drainage, water stagnation, weak lane joint between adjoining spreads.
 Shrinkage of bitumen layers with age,

2.8.1.3 Treatment:

 If the pavement remains structurally sound for all types of cracks then the crack should
be filled with low viscosity bitumen binder, cut back or emulsion are generally suitable.
 If the cracks are wider sand bituminous premix patching, a slurry seal can be used to
fill the cracks.

2.8.3 Deformation:

Deformation may be defined as attrition in the shape or disfigurement. Slippage, rutting,

corrugations and shoving are some examples for deformation. Inadequate tack or prime coat,
inadequate mix compaction, soft binder and fine aggregates form the causes for deformation
in flexible pavements.

The treatment measures aim at removal of the causes and bringing to the original level by fill
material or by removing the entire affected part and replacing it with new material.

2.8.3.1 Identification:

 Slippage Relative movement between surface layers and layers beneath.

 Rutting longitudinal depression or groove.
  Corrugations Undulations across bituminous surface. Shoving Localized bulging of
pavement surface in points
 Settlement and upheaval causes deformation of the pavement followed by extensive
cracks.

1.8.3.2 Causes:

 Unusual wheel thrust, lack of bond between surface and lower courses.
 Bullock cart traffic, Improper mix design, inadequate mix design.
 Excessive binder, too soft binder.
 Excessive binder, too soft binder,
 Inadequate compaction, inadequate thickness

2.8.3.3 Treatment:

 Remove the localized surface area and patch work with premis material, after the tack
 coat.
 Patching and compacting to the desired level.
 Surface course scarified and the scarified material is re-compacted.
 Remove the materials in the affected areas and lay a stable premix patch.
 Excavate the defective, fill and do fresh embankment.

2.8.4 Disintegration:

Certain defects, if not returned immediately result in disintegration of pavement into small,
loose fragment. Disintegration if not arrested in the early stages, may necessitate complete
rebuilding of the pavement. Disintegration is caused primarily due to the failure of the binder
to hold the materials together. Adding adequate quantities of binder, proper mixing and
effective rolling are a few remedial measures.
1.9 Rock Flour:

Rock flour, also called as Stone dust or crusher dust is generated during the processing of course
aggregates from the rock at rock crushing plant sand is available as a waste material. The rock
flour is a granular material like sand with a larger number of angular particles. Rock four is a
stable material under varying moisture conditions since it contains inert rock materials such as
quartz, feldspar and silica. At present, rock flour is being used in basement filling of buildings,
mechanical stabilization of sub base courses and pavements to improve roughness of
bituminous surface courses.

1.9.1 Quantification of Rock Flour:

The quantification of the rock flour has been done by means of the data gathered from Andhra
Pradesh Pollution Control Board. The total quantity of rock flour that is being generated from
crushing plants spread over all the Districts of Andhra Pradesh has been analyzed from the
collected data. The details of rock flour estimated are present in subsequent section.

Total quantity of rock flour generated from the state of Andhra Pradesh is 23, 21,820 tons per
annum. The amount of rock flour produced at crushing plants is about 15% of weight of rock
crushed. The districts of Visakhapatnam, Guntur, East Godavari, West Godavari, Prakasam and
Ananthapur constitutes to about 50% of the total rock flour generated from the state of Andhra
Pradesh.

2.9.2 Details of crushing plants in Andhra Pradesh:

It is essential to quantify the availability of rock flour before assessing its possible use in large
scale in different civil engineering activities. For this purpose the details of availability of rock
flour from each crushing plant exist in Andhra Pradesh are presented below.
 Table :2.2 List of Crusher Plants and Their Production In Andhra Pradesh

S.NO DISTRICT Quantity of stone crushed (t/a) No.of crushers

1 Visakhapatnam 1084800 113

2 Vijayanagaram 432000 54
3 Srikakulam 996000 83
4 Medak 715000 65
5 Adilabad 54000 9
6 Nizamabad 216000 18
7 Nalgonda 650000 65
8 Karimnagar 917000 131
9 Kadapa 819000 99
10 Chittoor 406000 58
11 Warangal 420000 68
12 Ranga Reddy 240000 48
13 Guntur 1390000 139
14 East Godavari 1092000 91
15 West Godavari 1000000 100
16 Nellore 304000 38
17 Krishna 945000 105
18 Prakasam 1150000 115
19 Ananthapur 1656000 138
20 Kurnool 400000 550
21 Khammam 400000 50
Mahaboob
22 nagar 12000 20
23 Hyderabad 0 0

Quantity of stone crushed (t\d) is 77,394tons

Quantity of stone crushed (t\a) is 1,51,18,800 tons

2.10 Stabilization:

Stabilization is the process of blonding and mixing motorials with a soil to improve the wat's
strength and durability. The process may include blonding restor gradation or mixing
comunercially available aditives may alter prot rength and durability, or act as a binder to
cement the soul.

2.10.1 Uses of Stabilization:

Pavement design is based on the premise that specified levels of quality will be achieved for
cach soil layer in the pavement system. Each layer must

 Resist shearing within the layer.

 Avoid excessive elastic deflections that would result in fatigue cracking within the
layer or in overlying layers.
 Prevent excessive permanent deformation through densification.

As the quality of a soil layer is increased, the ability of that layer to distribute the load over a
greater area is generally increased enough to permit a reduction in the required thickness of the
soil and surface layers.

2.10.2 Improve Quality:

Stabilization is commonly used for better soil gradation, reduction of the PI or swelling
potential, and increased durability and strength. Soils stabilized by additives often provide an
all- weather working platform for construction operations. These types of soil-quality
improvements are referred to as soil modifications.

2.11 Reduce Thickness:

A soil layer's tensile strength and stiffness can be improved by using additives and can thereby
reduce the thickness of the stabilized layer and overlying layers within the pavement system.
Before a stabilized layer can be used to reduce the required thickness in the design of a
pavement system, the stabilized material must meet the durability requirements of various types
of additive stabilization and the minimum strength requirements.
2.11.1 Methods of Stabilization:

The two general stabilization methods are mechanical and additives. The effectiveness of
stabilization depends on the ability to obtain uniformity in blending the various materials
scarifies, ploughs, disks, graders, and rotary mixers) have been satisfactory. The soil-
stabilization Absing in a stationary or travelling plant is preferred. However, other means of
mixing uchun method is determined by the amount of stabilizing required and the conditions
encountered on the project An accurate soil description and classification are essential for
selecting the correct materials and procedure.

Mechanical:

Mechanical stabilization is accomplished by mixing or blending two or more gradations of

material to obtain a mixture meeting the required specifications The blood of these materials
may take place at the construction site, at a central plant, or at a borrow area. The blended
material is then spread and compacted to the required densities by conventional means. If after
blending these materials, the mixture does not meet the specifications, then stabilization with
an additive may be necessary.

Additive:

Additive refers to a manufactured commercial product that, when added to the soil in the proper
quantities, will improve the quality of the soil layer. The two types of additive stabilization
discussed mainly about chemical and bituminous. Chemical stabilization is achieved by the
addition of proper percentages of Portland cement, lime, lime-cement-flyash (LCF), or
combinations of these materials to the soil. Bituminous stabilization is achieved by the addition
of proper percentages of bituminous material to the soil. Selecting and determining the
percentage of additives depend on the soil classification and the degree of improvement in the
soil quality desired. Smaller amounts of additives are usually required to alter soil properties
(such as gradation, workability, and plasticity) than to improve the strength and durability
sufficiently to permit a thickness-reduction design. After the additive has been mixed with the
soil, spreading and compacting are achieved by conventional means.
Modification:

Modification refers to the stabilization process that results in the improvement in some property
of the soil but does not, by design, result in a significant increase in the soil's strength and
durability. Soil modification usually results in something less than a thoroughly cemented.
hardened, or semi hardened material. This type of stabilization may be accomplished by

 Compacting.
 Blending mechanically.
 Adding cementing material in small amounts
 Adding chemical modifiers.

Cement and lime modifiers (cement-modified and lime-modified soils) are used in quantities
too small to provide high-strength cementing action. They reduce the plasticity of clay soils.
Sodium silicate chloride or sodium chloride are added to the soil to retain moisture (and also
control dust), to hold fine material for better compaction, and to reduce frost heave by lowering
the freezing point of water in the soil. Bituminous materials are used to waterproof the soil's
surface and to control dust.

 2.12 Reviews on Utilization of Rock Flour in Civil Engineering Constructions:

 Ahmed, E. Ahmed and Kourd'. A.E., (1989) studied the properties if concrete with
crushed stone and very fine sand in rigid pavements.

Shankar and Ali" (1992) have studied engineering properties of rock flour and reported that the
rock flour can be used as alternative material in place of sand in concrete based on grain size
data. Kanakasabai and Rajashekaran (1992) investigated the potential of ceramic aggregate can
be used to produced lightweight concrete, without affecting strength. Further, Rao, et al (1996)
have reported that sand can be replaced fully with rock flour. However, a slight loss in
Workability has been noticed with increase in replacement of sand by rock flour.

Collins R.J et.al, (1994) studied Crusher dust in highway construction.

Nagaraj and Bhanu (1996) have studied the effect of mck dust and pebble as aggregate in
cement and concrete. It has been reported that crushed stone dust can be used to replace the
natural sand in concrete.

Rao and Andal" (1996) also have reported that sand can be replaced fully by rock flour
without much loss of workability. Nearly 20% of rock is converted into rock flour whole
crashing rock into aggregate at stone crushing plants. Rock flour can be used as fine aggregate
in place of conventional river sand, in concrete. Use of rock flour as fine aggregate in concrete
results increase of compressive strength, split tensile strength and modulus of rupture. Rock
flour can be advantageously used in construction of reinforced soil construction such as
reinforced earth retaining walls, reinforced soil beds and reinforced flexible pavements as a fill
material due to its stability, free draining nature and good frictional characteristics with
synthetic reinforcement

The Consumption of cement content, workability, compressive strength and cost of concrete
made with Crusher Rock Dust were studied by researchers Babu K.K.et.al, Nagaraj T.Setal,
and Narasimahan et.al (1996). The mix design proposed by Nagaraj et.al (1996) shows the
possibilities of ensuring the workability by wise combination of rock dust and sand, use of
super plasticizer and optimum water content using generalized lyse Rule. liangovan and
Nagamani (1996) reported that Natural Sand with Crusher Dust as full replacement in concrete
as possible with proper treatment of Crusher Dust before utilization. Satyanarayana Reddy
CN.V and MoorthyN.V.R. (2002) have studied the interaction of usage of rock flour with
geotextiles and reported the potential areas of application. Sahu, ET al. (2003) has reported that
sand can be replaced by rock flour up to 40% without affecting strength and workability.

Soosan O.G et.al, (2001) studied Crusher dust in embankment and sub-base material in
highway construction.

Sahu A.K.et.al (2003) reported significant increase in compressive strength, modulus of

rupture and split tensile strength when 40 percent of sand is replaced by Crusher Rock Dust in
concrete.

Raman et.al, (2005) studied the effect of Crusher dust and found that the partial replacement
of the river sand with the Crusher dust without the inclusion of flyash resulted in a reduction
in the compressive strength of concrete specimen.
Soosan et.al, (2005) studied the effect of Crashet dust on three type of soils (Rod earth,
kaolinite and Cochin marine clay) to improve geotechnical properties of soils for highway
Detection. He found that, addition of Crusher dust improved the CBR value of soil and
optimum proportion being 40% of Crusher dust to 60% of sod

Sridharan" et.al (2005, 2006) studied Crusher dust in high constructions and also studied
shear strength characteristics of soil-Crusher dust mixtures.

Praveen Kumar et.al, (2006) conducted California Bearing ratio CBR and static cyclic tests
on flyash, coarse sand, stone dust and River bed material (IRBM) for their use in sub base layer
of flexible pavement.

Nagaraj T.S" (2006) also studied Crusher dust as fine aggregate in Concrete.

Praveen Kumar etal, (2006) studied Crusher dust as sub-base material.

Reddy and Reddy" (2007) reported an increasing compressive strength by use of rock flour
as fine aggregate instead of river sand. flangovana et al, 2008 reported the strength of Crusher
dust concrete was comparably 10-12% more than that of the similar mix of conventional
concrete.

Satyanarayana Reddy C.N.V and M.V.Reddy (2007), "An Experimental Study on Use of
Rock Flour and Insulator Ceramic Scrap in Concrete". Thesis submitted by D. Jyothi Swaroop
on "A study on interaction of rock flour with woven and non-woven Geotextiles".

Hameed and sekar", (2009) studied the effect of crasher stone dust as fine sand and found the
flexural strength increases than the concrete with natural sand but the value decreases as
percentage of crusher dust increases.

2.13 Pond ash:

2.13.1 Introduction:

Pond ash is a residue collected from ash pond near thermal power plant. It is a non-plastic and
fight weight material having the specific gravity relatively lower than that of the similar graded
conventional earth material. Fine coarse, glass powder recovered from the games of burning
coal during the production of electricity. Massive generation of pond ash by thermal power
plants has become a major cause of concern for people living in and around thermal power
plant. Rate of generation of coal ash in India has reached 130 million tons per annum with
about 75,000 acres of precious land under the cover of abandoned ash ponds. Pond
ash from coal fired generation units in India will reach 170 million tons per annum by the year
2012 whereas, the current rate of utilization of ash is about 35%. Some research works has
been carried out to find the stability of compacted pond ash in geotechnical construction like
embankments, retaining walls, structural fills, etc. However, these structures are to be protected
from getting wet in order to preserve the inherent strength of compacted pond ash which is
difficult task in Geld situations. The pond ash sample has been modified the stress-strain
behaviour of destabilized material

Pond ash is by-product of thermal power plants, which is considered as a waste material and
its disposal is a major problem from an environmental point of view and also it requires a lot
of disposal areas. Actually, there are three types of ash produced by thermal power plant, viz.

 Fly ash
 Bottom ash
 Pond ash

Pond ash is collected by mechanical or electrostatic precipitators from the flue gases of power
plant; whereas, bottom ash is collected from the bottom of the boilers. Then these two types of
ash, mixed together, are transported in the form of slurry and stored in the lagoons, the deposit
is called pond ash. Besides this steel, copper and contribute a substantial amount of pond ash.

2.13.2 Factors affecting properties of pond ash:

Meyer (1976) and Despande (1982) represent that the chemical and physical composition of a
pond ash is a functional several variables.

 Coal source
 Degree of coal pulverization
 Design of boiler unit
 Loading and firing condition
 Handling and storage methods.
 The chemical composition of some of the Indian pond ash is given in below table.
 Table 2.3 Chemical Composition of some of the Indian pond ash

Thermal plant Si03 AI20 Fe203 Ca0 MgO so3 LOI TIO2
3
Ukkai 52.44 28.12 6.18 3.48 5.44 - 3.88 -
Tuticorn 53.44 22.72 4.48 7.25 3.33 1.34 1.5 -
Bokara 56.5 25.3 4.1 1.3 1.6 - 18-26 0.5
Delhi 60.1 18.6 6.4 6.3 3.6 - 18-26 -
Hardua 60.78 23.63 6.48 15.59 1.54 - 18-26 -
Kobra 58.3 24.64 4.4 5.4 3.9 - 18-26 1
Obra 56.15 28.87 8.13 2.29 1.45 1.37 18-26 -
Durgapur 50.65 19.65 18.8 2.2 1.49 - 18-26 -
Satpur 59.7 25.69 7.31 2 2.89 1.02 18-26 -
Talcher 47.57 18.31 18.69 0.67 0.28 Trace 1.26 -
18-26
Rourkela 45-51 20.25 7.95 2.0- 1.0- - 18-26
3.0 1.5 -
Nellore 60.18 18.44 16.28 2.08 1.28 0.58 1.05
Neyveli 45-59 23.33 0.6- May- 1.5-5 2.5 01-Feb -
4.0 16
Panki 53.44 22.72 6.56 3.22 4.48 - 4.21 0.5-1
Chandrapur 56.7 23.8 4 2.1 1.4 - 7.4-11.4 -
Bandel 50-95 24.25 9.95 2.59 3.7 2.91 7.1
-
Panipat 60.64 15.7 2.36 0.8 0.25 - 18.86 -
Paras 55.3 27.81 5.09 3.4 3.08 1.2 3.85 -
Kanpur 49.2 22 7.5 2.84 0.98 0.24 15.81 -
2.13.4 Environmental impact of pond ash:

Some of the current methods of ash disposal can have adverse impact on the environment,
including: land use diversion and resettlements; water resources allocation and pollution, and
human health.

 The construction of large ash disposal areas results in resettlement issues, and loss of
agricultural production, grazing land and habitat, as well as other land use impacts from
diversion of large areas of land to waste disposal. The current practice in some power plants
is to use large ash ponds, sometimes in excess of 7000 acres, which usually involves
resettlement issues. Since land holdings are typically small in size, a large ash pond
development can cause hardships through loss of land-based substance and livelihood for
literally thousands of people.
 The design of the ash disposal areas themselves is frequently inefficient in terms of
economy of land areas usage. There is no uniformity in ash pond engineering practice in
India some plants are accumulating ash in shallow ponds by diking off natural low lands,
resulting in inefficient usage of land areas for accumulation of high-volume waste. In these
instances, large areas are inundated and taken out of service for other uses; but the depth of
inundation over much of the areas in shallow, and the proportion of land areas usage to
disposal storage volume are high. Some power generation organizations are piling up the
ash to elevation of 20-30 meters by using the ash itself a pond embankment material, or a
combination of earthwork and ash for elevated storage of ash; this method results in a
greater storage volume over a smaller area, and therefore a more efficient usage of the area
devoted to waste disposal. The ash generated in the power plant is typically mixed with
water to form slurry which is pumped to an ash pond and is allowed to settle. Some ash
ponds are being operated as one unit. This makes management of ash distribution, water
coverage, ash slurry water recycling and minimization of water losses almost impossible
 The disposal of ash may pollute water resources, including the contamination of
groundwater from leachate and the contamination of surface water from discharge of ash
pond effluent. Ash pond effluent may be used as a source of irrigation water or potable
supply by locals, leakage in ash slurry pipelines is exploited for irrigation and potable
supply, since local water resources are scarce, and distribution system almost non-existent.
Direct consumption of ash-pond effluent can result in the uptake of heavy metals and other
toxins. Indirect consumption of ash-pond effluent contaminations can result from the
ingestion of food crops that have been
 irrigated with ash-slurry effluent, and the consumption of lively stock that have been
irrigated with ash-slurry effluent, and he consumption of ash-pond effluent does not meet
Indian standards five total suspended solids (TSS) due to poor management of the ash-pond
for settling. The release of ash contaminated (high TSS) water, slurry contaminated with
high total dissolved solids, can result in contamination of the food chain with heavy metals
and other toxin, presents as contaminants in the effluents.
 There may be air pollution from fugitive dust, when ash deposits dry without water of
vegetation cover. Typically, most of the area of large ash ponds area ash dikes are not
covered by water or wetted. The ash dries up is an excellent source for fugitive dust
emissions. In some instances, reclamation of the dried areas has mitigated fugitive dust
emissions. Most areas where the ash pond is located already have ambient air
concentrations of respirable particulates. High level of respirable particulars is associate
with upper increased incidence of respiratory disease. Fugitive emissions from poorly
managed ash disposal areas can contributed local concentrations of respirable particulates,
and adversely impact human health.
 Operation of once through slurry disposal system puts additional strain on scarce fresh
water resources. The slurry water could be recycled to avoid water resources pollution and
conserve water. Unfortunately, this is not often implemented. Only recently, some state
pollution control boards have become aware of water quality and conservation issues and
are demanding recycling of ash slurry water in the annual consent order issued to the power
plants within their jurisdiction.
 Reclamation of the ash disposal area is often forestalled by engineering and operational
practice, extending the time the land use is devoted to non-productive waste disposal. Some
ash ponds are being operated as one unit. Operation as one large settling pond means that
reclamation will start, if at all, only at the end of the lifetime of power plant, which is at
least 20- 30 years. The eventual reclamation has to be performed over a large area.
Management of a large area associated with resettlement and rehabilitation (R&R) requires
special attention. The use of reclaimed areas for production of food crops and livestock has
the potential to introduce bio- accumulative contaminants into the food chain. Various non-
food production reclamation techniques have been tried with success, including wood and
silkworm production. The choice of reclamation techniques in subsequent use of the
reclaimed areas have the potential to offset the hard ships of land ousters and project
affected people.
 Earth dam failures present a safety and pollution hazard loss of life could occur from
catastrophic failure of the dam. In addition, any release of ash from such a failure would
impact local aquatic resources, thereby potentially contaminating and eliminating habitat.
Poor maintenance of earth dams can be observed, with many earth dams in a state of
progressive failure, and little observated for monitoring of conditions of earth dam
structures.

2.13.5 Use of pond ash:

Pond ash Fly ash can is used for multifarious applications. Some of the application areas are
the following:

 In Land fill and dyke rising.

 In Structural fill for reclaiming low areas.
 Manufacture of Portland cement
 Lime-Flyash Soil Stabilizing in Pavement and Sub-base
 In Soil Conditioning
 Manufacture of Bricks
 Part replacement in mortar and concrete.
 Stowing materials for mines.

2.13.6 EARLIER STUDIES ON REINFORCED POND ASH:

Digioa (1972) says that with drainage, the ash can be effectively and economically utilized as
a fill material to construct stable embankment for land reclamation on which structure can be
safely founded.

Leonards (1972) reported that untreated pulverised coal ash with no cementing quantities was
used successfully as a material for structural fill. Although, the ash was inherently variable, it
could be compacted satisfactorily, if the moisture content was maintained below the optimum
obtained from standard laboratory tests and if the percentage of fines (passing the No.200 sieve)
was below 60%.

Gray and Maher (1989, 1990), have shown significant improvement in shear strength
parameters.

Kumar et al. (1999) gives the results of laboratory investigations conducted on silty sand and
pond ash specimens reinforced with randomly distributed polyester fibres. The test
results reveal that the inclusion of fibres in soils increases the peak compresive strength, CHR
value, peak friction angle, and ductility of the specimens. It is concluded that the optimum
fibere content for both silty sand and pond ash is approximately 0.3 to 0.4% of the dry unit
weight.

Pandey et al. (2002) attempted to devise the ways for the use of this mixed ash for
manufacturing mixed ash clay bricks successfully. The bricks thus made are superior in
structural and aesthetic qualities and portents huge saving in the manufacturing costs with
better consumer response.

Bera et al. (2007) presented the study on compaction characteristics of pond ash. Three
different types of pond ash have been used in this study. The effects of different compaction
controlling parameters, viz compaction energy, moisture content, layer thickness, mold area,
tank size, and specific gravity on dry density of pond ash are highlighted herein. The maximu
dry density and optimum moisture content of pond ash vary within the range of 8.40-12.25
IN/m3 and 29-46%, respectively.

Bera' et al. (2007) implemented on the effective utilization of pond ash, as foundation modium.
A series of laboratory model tests have been carried out using square, rectangular and strip
footings on pond ash. The effects of dry density, degree of saturation of pond ash, size and
shape of footing on ultimate bearing capacity of shallow foundations are presented in this
paper...

Bera' et al (2007) presented the effect of compaction on the strength characteristics of pond
ash. The change in strength due to different compaction, controlling parameters such as layer
thickness, compaction energy tank size moisture content, mould area and specific gravity on
the dry unit weight of pond ash are obtained. Some tests were carried out for three different
types of pond ash.

It was found that the MDD of pond ash varied within the range of 8.40-12.35 KN/m² and the
OMC of pond ash varied within the range of 29-46% whereas the degree of saturation at OMC
was found to vary within the range of 63-89%

Using multiple regression analysis, an empirical model has been developed for the estimation
of dry density of pond ash in terms of specific gravity, compaction energy, and moisture
content. To estimate MDD and OMC in the field at any level of compaction energy, numerous
linear empirical models have also been developed. These models may be helpful for the field
compaction control and for the permeability estimation of MDD and OMC without much
difficulty.

Chand et al. (2007) presented the effects of lime stabilization on the strength and durability
aspects of a class F pond ash, with a lime constituent as low as 1.12%, are reported. Lime
contents of 10 and 14% were used, and the samples were cured at ambient temperature of sound
30°C for curing periods of 28, 45, 90, and 180 days. Samples were subjected to confined
compression tests as well as tests that are usually applied to rocks such as point load strength
tests, rebound hammer tests, and slake durability tests. Unconfined compressive strength
(UCS) values of 4.8 and 5.8 MPa and slake durability indices of 98 and 99% were achieved
after 180 days of curing for samples stabilized with 10 and 14% lime, respectively. Good
correlations, that are particularly suitable for stabilized materials of low density and low
strength, have been derived for strength parameters obtained from UCS tests, point load
strength tests, and Schmidt rebound hammer tests, and also between UCS and slake durability
index.

Kumar et al (2007) reported the results of laboratory tests conducted on pond ash & silty sand
specimens with randomly distributed polyester fibers. The results showed that the use of fiber
as a reinforcing material in soils increases the peak friction angle, peak compressive strength,
CBR value, and ductility of specimens. It is also obtained that the optimum fiber content to be
used for both pond ash & sand is approximately 0.3%-0.4% of the dry density.

Sudeep Kumar Chand" et.al, (2007) have attempted in-place stabilization of pond ash
deposited by hydrated lime columns and concluded that, this technique was effective in
increasing the unconfined compressive strength and decreasing the permeability. In addition,
the contamination potential of the ash Leachates was reduced. AmberishGhosh et, al. have
attempted stabilization of pond ash using lime and phosphor gypsum and found that, the content
of stabilizers and the curing period are influential on the bearing ratio values.

Bera et al. (2009) have studied the shear strength response of reinforced pond ash; a series of
unconsolidated undrained (UU) Triaxial test has been conducted on both unreinforced and
reinforced pond ash.

Ghosh et al. (2010) presents the laboratory test results of a Class F pond ash alone and
stabilized with varying percentages of lime (4, 6, and 10%) and PG (0.5, and 1.0), to study the
suitability of stabilized pond ash for road base and sub-base construction. Standard and
modified Proctor compaction tests have been conducted to reveal the compaction
characteristics of the stabilized pond ash. The experimental results indicate that pond ash-line-
PG mixes have potential for applications ay road base and sub Isome materials.

Jakka et al. (2010) studied carried on the strength and other geotechnical characteristics of
pound ash samples, collected from inflow and outflow points of two ash ponds in India, are
presented. Strength characteristics were investigated using consolidated drained (CD) and
undrained (CU) Triaxial tests with pore water pressure measurements, conducted on loose and
compacted specimens of pond ash samples under different confining pressures

Limited studies are have studied the compaction characteristics of pond ash. Amalendu,
Ghoshet Gautham Kumar pothal and G.Venkatappa Rao have studied the bearing capacity of
Geosynthetic reinforced pond ash. Kumar R, et al, Temel Yetimogluctal have studied the
behavior of pond ash reinforced with randomly distributed fibres. Kolay, P.K. et.al.have used
pond ash as stabilizer of peaty soil.

Jakka et al. (2010) studied the geotechnical characteristics of pond ash samples, sampled from
the outflow and inflow points of two ash pond areas in India. Strength characteristics were
obtained using CD (Consolidated drained) and CU (Consolidated undrained) triaxial tests with
pore water pressure measurements, conducted on loose and compacted specimens of pond ash.
Pond area exhibited similar behavior to sandy soils in many aspects. Their strength were higher
than the reference material (Yamuna sand), through their specific gravity and MDDs are
significantly lower than sands. Ash samples from the outflow point of ash pond area exhibited
significant differences in their values and properties as compared to the samples from the
inflow point head low shear strength particularly in loose state in which case static liquefaction
is observed.

CBR value is the widely adopted as basis for the design of pavements, Improvement in CBR
value results in economizing the unit cost of pavement.

Sharan A.(2011) conducted various tests on pond ash and found that the dry density of
compacted specimens changed from 10.90 to 12.70 KN/m' with the change in the compaction
energy from 357 to 3488 KJ/m', whereas the OMC decreased from 38.82 to 28.09%.It is also
concluded that by reducing the percentage of water content from the OMC, the Unconfined
compressive strength value will be increased at a sustained DOS of 13% and 14% and then will
be decreased in standard proctor density as well as in modified proctor density due to the
lubrication of the surface of ash particles.
 CHAPTER -III

3.0 METHODOLOGY.

1 Introduction:

In this chapter a brief description of the experimental procedures adopted in this investigation
and the methodology adopted during the course of the study are briefly presented.

3.2 Material Used:

The materials used in this investigation are:

 Pond ash
 Crusher Dust

13 Laboratory Testing:

13.1. Properties of Material:

The following tests were conducted on the soil. The index and engineering properties of soil
were determined.

1. Grain size analysis confirming (IS: 2720-part 4, 1985)

2. Consistency limits or Atterberg's Limits using Uppals method confirming (IS: 2720-part 5.
1985)

3. Compaction test confirming (IS: 2720- Part 8: 1983)

4. California bearing ratio test confirming (IS: 2720- Part 16: 1987)

13.1.1 Grain Size Analysis: (IS: 2720- part 4, 1985):

Sieve analysis was carried out using a set of standard L.S.Sieves. The sample was oven dried
and placed on the top of the sieve set and shaken by hand. The fine fraction that passed through
15 micron sieve was taken and hydrometer analysis was carried out in 1000 ml for using the
required quantity of sodium Hexametaphosphate as dispersing agent. The test was carried out
according to IS: 2720- part 4, 1985.

A known quantity of oven dried sample has taken in a set of devices i.e., 4.75mm, 2.36, 1.18
mm, 600 μ, 425μ, 300μ, 150μ, 75μ arranged in an ascending order and shake for 10 minutes to
15 minutes on a sieve shaker. The weight retained on each sieve has obtained and their
corresponding percentage finer has detrmined. Therefore from the graph plotted between
percentage finer as Ordinate and Particle size (D in mm) as abcissa, mean particle size D_{10}
Dis D_{x} , D sG D_{50} D_{85} D_{10} are determined similarly the Coefficeint of
Uniformity (Ca) and Coefficient of Curvature (C_{e}) also be determined.

Fig:3.1 Sieve Shaker

331.2 Consistency Limits (IS: 2720-part 5, 1985);

Liquid Limit

The liquid limit test was conduted as per 1.5:2720 (part -v)-1970. The test is conducted on soil
after passing 425 micron LS. Sieve using casagrande apparatus.

(11) Plastic Limit

The plastic limit test was coducted as per L.S:2720 (part-v)-1970.

3.3.1.3 Compaction: (IS: 2720- Part 8: 1983):

A known quantity of oven-dried sample of Crusher dust-Pond ash mixes with various
percentages of water was mixed and transferred into CBR mould with a rammer of 4.89 kg, 5
layers and each layer subjected to 25 blows. For each set of results bulk unit weight, dry unit
weight and corresponding water contents. A graph has been developed between water content
and dry unit weights known as compaction curve. From the compaction curve, optimum
moisture content and maximum dry density was obtained. The same procedure is repeated for
various gradation mixes.
1.3.1.4 California Bearing Ratio (Soaked) (IS: 2720- Part 16: 1987):

The samples were prepared at their maximum dry density and saoked for four days and the test
was conducted as per 15:2720 (part-xvi), 1987.

The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter with a base plate and a
collar, a loading frame with the cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter and dial gauges for
measuring the expansion on soaking and the penetration values.

Briefly the penetration tests consists of causing a cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter to

penetrate a pavement component material at 1.25 mm/min, the load value to cause 2.5 mm and
5.0 mm penetration are recorded. These loads were expressed as percentage of standard load
value at respective deformation levels to obtain CBR values. The standard load values obtained
from average of a large number of tests on crushed stones are 1370 and 2055 kg (70 and 105
kg/cm²) respectively at 2.5 and 5.0 mm penetration.

Fig:3.2 CBR Apparatus

Two typical types of curves may be obtained. The normal curve is with convexity upwards as
per specimen number 1 and loads corresponding to 2.5 and 5.0 mm penetration values are
noted. Sometimes a curve with initial upward concavity is obtained, indicating the necessity of
the correction as per specimen number 2. In this case, the corrected origin is established by
drawing a tangent AC for steepest point on the curve. The load values corresponding top 2.5
and 5.0 mm penetration values from the corrected origin C are noted.

The causes for initial concavity of the load penetration curve calling for the correction in the
origin are due to:

 The bottom surface of the plunger or the top surface of the soil specimen not being
truly horizontal, with the result the plunger surface not being in fully contact with the
top of the specimen initially.
 The top layer of specimen being too soft or irregular.

The CBR values are calculated using the relation

[Load (or pressure)sustained by the specimen at 2.5 or 5.0 mm penetration]

(CBR% [Load sustained by standard aggregates at the corresponding penetration levels ]

Normally the CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration that is higher than that at 5.0 mm is reported
as the CBR value of the material. However, if the CBR value obtained from the test at 5.0 mm
penetration is higher than that at 2.5 mm, then the test is to be prepared for checking. If the
check test again gives similar results, the higher value obtained at 5.0 mm penetration is
reported as the CBR value. The average CBR value of three test specimens is reported to the
first decimal place, as the CBR value of material. If the variation in the CBR value between
the three specimens is more than the prescribed limits, tests should be repeated on additional
three samples and the average CBR value of six specimens is accepted.
3.4 Direct Shear Test (IS: 2720- Part 17, 1986)

Samples of Crusher Dust are taken as oven dried and weighed as per the volume of Direct
Shear mould. Now the sample is filled in three layers in the mould and compacted for 25 blows.
Before placing the sample in Direct Shear mould, porous Shearing plates are kept
perpendicularly facing their grooves at top and bottom of the sample. Entire set up is now kept
in the container seating and a proving ring is attached and a surcharge load of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 and
2.0 kg/cm² are kept simultaneously for samples at various water contents. Now a load is applied
in the horizontal direction at a strain rate of 1.25mm/min and observed for shearing in the
sample. This procedure is repeated for different normal pressures.

Fig:3.3Cross sectional view of Direct shear Apparatus

14.1 Coefficient of Permeability: Falling Head Permeability Test (IS: 2720- Part 17: 1986)

In the Falling Head Permeability test as per 18:2720- Part 17:1986, Crusher Dust samples for
various locations is allotted to saturate 100% by allowing water through the entire sample grain
to grain saturation at its Dry Density. At various heads the Coefficient of Permeability values
are calculated using the given relation:

K=(a.L/A.1) In*(h,h,)
Where:

K=coefficient of permeability (cm/sec)

A=area of burette standpipe (cm³)

L=1-length of specimen (cm)

T=Aarea of specimen (cm²)

A=elapsed time of test (sec)

Ho=head at beginning (time=0) at test (cm)

Ht=head at end (time-t) of test (cm)

14 Preparation of Pond ash and Crusher dust mixes:

Various percentages of Crusher dust such as 10%, 20%, 30% 100% were added to pond ash
and their mixes are listed below in table -3 and subjected for geotechnical characteristics like
compaction, angle of shearing resistance and CBR tests as per IS 2720.

Pond 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
ash (%)
Crusher 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Dust
Mixes M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11
4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS:

41 Introduction:

To study the performance of industrial wastes like crusher dust and pond ash as gootechnical
materials in the construction of roads as a sub-grade material. An approach has been done in
the following ways.

12 Materials and Characterization:

42.1 Crusher dust:

Table -4.1 Gradation Properties of Crusher Dust

PROPERTY VALUES
Grain size
distribution;
Gravel(%) 5
Sand(%) 87
Fines(%) 8
a.Silt(%) 8
b.Clay 0

CONSISTENCY
Liquid Limint(%) NP
Plastic Limint(%) NP
I.S Clasification SW
Specific gravity 2.64
Compaction
characteristics
Optimum moisture content 12
(OMC)(%)
Maximum dry density (MDD)(%) 2.02
Shear
Parameters:
Angle of shearing resistance(DEG) 38
California bearing ration 10
CBR(%)(soaked)
Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) 23
 Coefficient of curvature (Cc) 2.78

SIEVE SIZE(m) Finer(%)

10 100
4.75 95
2.36 52
1.18 36
0.6 26
0.3 18
0.15 12
0.075 8
0.05 0

Table 4.2 Particle Sizes of Crusher Dust

 Grain size distribution curve
120

100

80
%finer

60

40

20

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
grain size (MM)

From the test results of crusher dust, the following identifications are made. The grain size
distribution of crusher dust shows that it consists of 87% of sand size and 8% of silt size
particles. Majority of crusher dust particles are coarse to medium sand ranges with rough
surface texture. Based on BIS, it is classified as well graded particles with non-plastic fines
(SWN) with Cu as 23 and Ce as 2.78. From the consistency data it in identified as non-plastic
and incompressible. Compaction characteristics of crusher dust under modified compaction
test have an Optimum Moisture Content of 12% and Maximum Dry Density 2.02 g/cc. From
the compaction curve it can also seen that crusher dust attains higher densities with wider
variation of moisture contents and increases the workability at high moisture contents.
Regarding strength characteristics, it has an angle of shearing resistance (0) of 38 degrees under
undrained condition and CBR of 10% and coefficient of permeability as 3.4 x 10 cm/sec. From
the test data it is also identified that it has good strength characteristics and drainage
characteristics at soaked condition.

4.3 Pond ash:

The test results are shown in table 4.3 and fig 4.3 and 4.4.

4.4 Geotechnical properties of Pond ash:

Table-4.3 Geotechnical Properties of Pond Ash

PROPERTY VALUES
 Grain size distribution;
Gravel(%) 0
Sand(%) 95
Fines(%) 5
a.Silt(%) 5
CONSISTENCY
Liquid Limint(%) NP
Plastic Limint(%) NP
I.S Clasification SPN
Specific gravity 2.4
Compaction
charactristics
Optimum moisture content (OMC)(%) 14
Maximum dry density (MDD)(%) 1.4
Angle of shearing resistance(DEG) 34
California bearing ration
CBR(%)(soaked) 6
Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) 5.6
Coefficient of curvature (Cc) 0.86
Coefficient of permeability(K) 2.6*10

Compaction curve
16
14
12
dry densities(gcc)

10
8
6
4
2
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
moisture content (%)

Fig 4.3 Compaction curve of pond ash

 Table 4.4 Partical sizes of pond ash

SIEVE SIZE(m) Finer(%)

10 100
4.75 95
2.36 52
1.18 36
0.6 26
0.3 18
0.15 12
0.075 8
0.05 0

Grain size distribution curve

120
100
80
%finer

60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
grain size (MM)

Fig 4.4 Grain Size Distribution of Pond Ash

From the test results of pond ash the following identifications are made. The grain size
distribution of pond ash shows that it consists 95% of sand size particles and 5% of silt size
particles. Majority of Pond ash particles are medium to fine sand ranges. The gradation also
shows it comes under Zone III as per IS 383-1970. Based on BIS, it is classified under poorly
graded sand particles with non-plastic fines (SPN) with C., as 5.6 and Ce as 0.86. From the
consistency data it is non-plastic and incompressible. Compaction characteristics of pond ash
ander modified compaction test has an Optimum Moisture Content of 14% and Maximum Dry
Density of 1.4 g/cc. Regarding strength characteristics it has an angle of shearing resistance (0)
f34 degrees under undrained condition and CBR of 6% and coefficient of permeability as 2.6
x 10 cm/sec. Comparing the results of crusher dust and pond ash the following identifications
are made. Pond ash attained lower densities with wider variation of moisture contents and high
angle of shearing resistance and CBR and the material also exhibited semi-pervious
characteristics.

4.5 Crusher Dust and pond ash mixes:

Table -4.5 Crusher Dust and pond ash mixes

Crusher 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
dust(%)
Pond 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
ash (%)
Mixes M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11

4.6 Results and Discussions of pond ash and crusher dust:

4.6.1 Compaction characteristics:

Table-4.6 Compaction characteristics of crusher dust and pond ash

CRUSHER
MIXES DUST(%) OMC(%) MDD(g/cc)
+pond ash
M1 100+0 12 2.02
M2 90+10 12.2 1.96
M3 80+20 12.5 1.88
M4 70+30 12.8 1.8
M5 60+40 13 1.7
M6 50+50 13.2 1.62
M7 40+60 13.4 1.56
M8 30+70 13.5 1.52
M9 20+80 13.7 1.48
M10 10+90 13.9 1.44
M11 0+100 14 1.4
 1.2

0.8
OMC(%)
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
100+0
M1
Crusher dust+pond ash mixes

Fig-4.5 Variation of MDD of Crusher dust and pond ash

1.2

0.8
MDD(g\cc)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
100+0
M1
crusher dust +pond ash mixes

Fig 46 Variation of MDD of Crusher Dust and Pond Ash

From the experimental data it is observed that as a percentage of pond ash is increasing
optimum moisture content values are increasing and masitom dry density values are
decreasing A steady increase in optimum moisture content values were disedved for all mixes
and steady Jecrease in maximum dry densities were also observed in all mixes. The increase
in optimum moisture contents are due to availability of the percentage of pond ash particles
which require more water to coat pond ash particles as it depend on size and shape of pond
ash particles. Decrease in maximum dry densities is due to effective replacement of voids by
lower sizes of pond ash particles.

4.6.2 Angle of Shearing Resistance:

To obtain the shear strength values of crusher dust and pond ash mixes, the samples were
compacted at their Maximum Dry Densities under heavy compaction and Direct shear test
was performed as per IS 2720 part 17,1986. The results are shown in fig4.6 and table 4.8

CRUSHER
MIXES DUST(%) Angle of shearing Table 4.7 Angle
of shearing +pond ash restistance (O degree Resistance of
crusher dust M1 100+0 38 and ash
M2 90+10 38.5
M3 80+20 39
M4 70+30 40
M5 60+40 40
M6 50+50 39
M7 40+60 38
M8 30+70 37
M9 20+80 36
M10 10+90 35
M11 0+100 34
 1.2
angle of shearing resistance (deg)
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
100+0
M1
cd and pond ash mixes

FIG 4.7 angle of shearing resistance of crusher dust and pond ash

From the experimental data it is observed that as the percentage of pond ash is increasing in
the given crusher dust and pond ash mixes the angle of shearing resistance values are attained
at 40%. It is also observed that the angle of shearing resistance values reached to 40 degres for
40% dosage of pond ash and decreased to 34 degrees for 100 % of pond ash. A steady increase
was observed up to 20% and a rapid increase was observed in between 20% to 40% followed
by a steady decrease up to 80% dosage of pond ash, Maximum values attained at a dosage of
30% to 40%. Increase in angle of shearing resistance values are due to the development of
frictional resistance by filling up of formed voids of pond ash and crusher dust mixes by the
lower sizes of crusher dust and pond ash particles. Hence a combination of pond ash and
crusher dust particles mobilizes more frictional resistance than individual pond ash and crusher
dust particles under shearing.

4.6.3 California Bearing Ratio:

To know the CBR characteristics of crusher dust and pond ash mixes, the samples were
compacted in the CBR mould. The results are shown in table 4.8 and fig4.8.

Table-4.8 California Bearing Ratio of Crusher Dust and Pond Ash

MIXES CD(%)+POND ASH (%) CBR

 M1 100+0 10
M2 90+10 11
M3 80+20 12
M4 70+30 13
M5 60+40 14
M6 50+50 13
M7 40+60 12
M8 30+70 10
M9 20+80 9
M10 10+90 7.5
M11 0+100 6

CBR
16
14
12
10
CBR

8
6
4
2
0
100+0 90+10 80+20 70+30 60+40 50+50 40+60 30+70 20+80 10+90 0+100
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M11
Mixes

Fig -4.8 Bar Chart for CBR Values of Crusher Dust and Pond Ash

From the experimental data as shown in table-4.8 and fig-4.8, it is observed that the mixes of
crusher dust and pond ash have attained high CBR values in the range of 13-14. As the
percentage of pond ash is increasing in the mixes, frictional resistance values are increasing
reflecting in achievement of high CBR values followed by less penetration against
compression. At higher percentages of pond ash (60%) lower values of CBR were obtained
reflecting the behavior of pond ash particles. Hence a dosage of 60-70% crusher dust and 30-
40% pond ash can be effectively used for sub-grade and fill materials.
 CHAPTER-V

5.0 Conclusions :

To study the use of erasher dust and pood ash mixes as gootechnical material in construction
of made the following conclusions have been drawn based on the experimental results.

1. Based on the grain size distribution crusher dust has dominated by medium to coarse sand
size particles whereas pood ash has dominated by medium to fine sand size particles.

2. Crusher dust attained high dry densities (2.02 g/cc) by maintaining wider variation moisture
contents (12%) with high angle of shearing resistance (38 degrees) and high CBR (10%) values,
whereas pond ash has less dry densities (1.4 g/cc) at 14% moisture content with angle of
shearing resistance of 34 degrees and CBR of 6%.

3. As the percentage of pond ash is increasing in the crusher dust and pond ash mixes strength
values like angle of shearing resistance (0) as 40 degrees and CBR as 14% are increasing. High
strength values are attained due to filling up of formed voids in the mixes by lower sizes of
pond ash particles.

4. High values of CBR 10% and high angle of shearing resistance values > 38 degrees

at high moisture contents and high densities Da> 16 KN/m² of these crusher dust- pond

ash mixes can be used as sub-grade, fill and embankment material.

5. 30%-40% pond ash can be considered as effective utilization in the crusher dust - pond ash
mixes by maintaining high strength values against shear and compression.

5.1 SCOPE FOR FURTHER STUDY:

In the present study Crusher Dust and pond ash were used as materials for construction of roads
in place of natural soils as sub-grade and fill material. This study can extend for the use of
various other industrial waste materials like slag. Pond ash, Flyash, GGBS etc, as a sub-grade,
and fill material in Road construction. It can also extend this study for selection of materials as
sub-base and base courses when mixed with stone aggregate.
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