INSIGHTS IAS

MODERN INDIAN HISTORY

Social and Religious Reform Movements

• India in the 19th century witnessed a series of reform movements oriented toward a re-
structuring of the Indian society along modern lines.

• Western educated thoughtful Indians began to look for the defects of their society and for
ways and means of removing them with the help of modern science and the doctrines of reason
and humanism ⇒RATIONALISM

• Attempts to explore India’s past by the first generation of British rulers helped to sharpen
educated classes’ consciousness of their own existence.

MAJOR FACTORS/CAUSES RESPONSIBLE FOR THE SOCIO - RELIGIOUS REFORM

MOVEMENTS

1. CASTE SYSTEM & CASTE BASED DISCRIMINATION

Since ancient times, Indian society had a caste system which was originally occupation based.
Over a period of time, interpretation of religious texts by the upper caste and lack of access to
religious scriptures by the lower caste led to several superstitious practices in the name
of religion. This also resulted in power being concentrated in upper caste and exploitation of
the lower caste. Therefore, caste system had become a major hindrance in thedevelopment of
a healthy, democratic and progressive society

Most reformers considered the prevalent caste practices as against the original spirit of
the Vedas and other scriptures. They considered the caste system as irrational and unscientific.
They felt it was against the basic rules of humanity. The untiring and relentless efforts of the
social reformers helped people to become more tolerant towards each other.

2. CASTE BASED DISCRIMINATION & SUPERSTITIONS

Several inhuman practices (sati, female infanticide, child marriage

etc.), superstitious beliefs and complex rituals made life of commoners miserable. Reformers
realized the social practices were highly influenced by religion and no progress is
possible unless religion is purified.

On the basis of this understanding, they challenged the rigidity and superstitious practices in
religion. They cited the scriptures to show that the practices prevalent during nineteenth
century find no sanction in them.

The enlightened and the rationalistic amongst them questioned the popular religion which was
full of superstitions and was exploited by the corrupt priests. The reformers wanted society
to accept the rational and scientific approach.

They also believed in the principle of human dignity and social equality of all men and
women. They worked for abolition of castes and untouchability,purdah system, sati, child
marriage, social inequalities and illiteracy. They realised such practices are unscientific, anti-
social, inhuman and block all round development of society.

3. IMPACT OF WESTERNISATION & WESTERN EDUCATION

The spread of western education led to the spread of the western

Concepts of democracy, liberty, equality and nationalism.

There is no denying the fact that Indian nationalism and modernism are largely the result of the
efforts of the English educated Indians in different fields of life. Some of these reformers were
supported directly or indirectly by the British officials and some of the reformers also
supported reformative steps and regulations framed by the British Government.

Also, Christian missionaries made all possible attempts to spread Christianity particularly
among the poor and the oppressed. Educational institutions, hospitals, charity services and
official support were also made use for this purpose. Therefore, both the Hindus and the
Muslims made efforts to protect their religions.

4. THE COLONIAL RULE, POLITICAL UNITY & GROWTH OF AWARENESS AMONG

INDIANS

India was politically united due to the expansion and consolidation of British rule. It led to the
understanding of many common problems of the Indians. The nature of the British
rule and economic policies provoked many educated Indians to find out the causes of their
misery and degradation.

5. REDISCOVERY OF INDIA’S GLORIOUS PAST

Many western scholars like Max Muller and William Jones rediscovered India’s
past. They studied the scholarly works of Indians of the ancient period. They brought to light
the rich cultural heritage of India which was even superior to the western culture.

They translated many literary and religious texts. These works received worldwide recognition.
It made the educated Indians develop faith in their culture. They wanted to establish the
superiority of Indian culture against the western culture.

NATURE OF MOVEMENTS

Reformist movements Revivalist movements

Brahma samaj Arya samaj
Prarthana samaj Theosophical movement
Aligarh movement Deoband movement

Both the reformist and revivalist movements depended on a varying degree on an appeal to
the lost purity of the religion they sought to reform. The only difference between one reform
movement and the other lay in the degree to which, it relied on tradition or on reason and
conscience.

COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL REFORM MOVEMENTS

REDISCOVERY OF INDIA’S GLORIOUS PAST from the late 19th century provided to the Indian
people a sense of pride in their civilization. It also helped the reformers in their work of
religious and social reform for their struggle against all types of inhuman practices,
superstitions etc. Since they had become associated with religious beliefs, therefore most of
the movements of social reform were of a religious character.

These social and religious reform movements arose among all communities of the Indian
people. They attacked bigotry, superstition and the hold of the priestly class. They worked
for abolition of castes and untouchability, purdah system, sati, child marriage, social
inequalities and illiteracy. Some of these reformers were supported directly or indirectly by the
British officials and some of the reformers also supported reformative steps and regulations
framed by the British Government.

DIFFERENT METHODS TO REFORM

1. CREATION OF AWARENESS AMONG PEOPLE

These movements adopted various methods for bringing changes in the society. First was
the creation of awareness among people by publishing articles, journals and books as well as
organizing debates and discussions on various issues.

Raja Ram Mohan Roy was a pioneer in this field. In 1818 and 1819he published his famous
pamphlets on sati which received widespread public attention. Originally written in Bengali,
these were later translated into English under the title, “A Conference Between An Advocate
For and An Opponent of, The Practice Of Burning Widows Alive” and “A Second Conference
Between An Advocate For and An Opponent Of, The Practice of Burning Widows Alive”.
“Sambad Kaumudi” was one of his notable journals. Similarly, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar also
published pamphlets on widow remarriage which had profound impact on the Indian society.

2. SEEKING LEGISLATIVE INTERVENTION

Second method was by seeking legislative intervention against prevalent social evils. Reformers
like Keshab Chandra Sen in Bengal, Mahadev Govind Ranade in Maharashtra
and Veersalingam in Andhra Pradesh believed that social reforms could be taken up only with
the support of the state. These reformers appealed to the colonial rulers for enacting suitable
legislation.

Although, they were successful in some cases and legislation banning sati and allowing widow
remarriage were passed, these reformers failed to understand that primary intention of the
British in India was not to reform or enlighten Indian society but to govern it for their own
benefit and hence their support was likely to come only when it suited their own interests.
3. REPRESENTING THEMSELVES AS SYMBOLS OF CHANGE

Third method was that of representing themselves as symbols of change through non-
conformist individual activity and an uncompromising attitude towards social evils. However,
this group was limited only to ‘Derozions’ or ‘Young Bengal’.

They were highly influenced by the West and stood for rejection of all tradition. However, their
uncompromising attitude failed to impress people.

4. SOCIAL SERVICE

Last method adopted by some of the reformers was through social service. Arya Samaj and
Ramakrishna Mission also tried to propagate ideas of social reform through social service.

HINDU REFORM MOVEMENTS/ BENGAL RENAISSANCE

Reform movements which took deep roots within Bengal have often been also termed as
Bengal Renaissance. Bankim Chandra Chatterji and Bipin Chandra Pal referred to developments
in 19th century Bengal as a period of Renaissance.

Raja Rammohan Roy and Brahmo Samaj

• He is considered as the first ‘modern man’ as he was the pioneer of socio-religious and
political reform movements in modern India.
• He studied numerous languages – Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, English, French, Latin, Greek,
Hebrew, etc. in order to study the various religious scriptures in their original.

SOCIO-RELIGIOUS ISSUES:

He wished to purify Hinduism by removing all kinds of evils that had crept into it over centuries.

● He believed in monotheism i.e, doctrine of the unity of God-head and opposed idol-
worship.
● In 1803, he published a Persian treatise named ‘Tuhfat-ul Muwahhidin’ or ‘A Gift to
Monotheists’ wherein he explains his concept of monotheism (firm belief in the
concept of one God). He found Upanishads as the basis of true Hinduism.
● He started touching upon many burning social issues of the time including the widely-
prevalent practice of becoming sati. He rallied support to the efforts of William Bentinck
(Governor General) for abolition of this custom and wrote extensively for the cause.
 ● In 1829, the custom of sati was formally abolished. He also condemned polygamy and
many other forms of subjugation of women.
● Roy was also an advocate of modern education. He opened an English school as well as
a Vedanta college (1825).

POLITICAL ISSUES:

• He was among the first to bring political questions in the ambit of public debate.
• His Atmiya Sabha, founded in 1814, discussed important social and political questions of the
time. In 1828, its enlarged edition was called the Brahmo Sabha which was renamed Brahmo
Samaj later on.

• After Roy’s death in 1833, the Brahmo Samaj started getting disorganized.

Brahmo Samaj After Roy’s death

Debendranath Tagore

• He joined Brahmo Samaj in 1842 & he gave a definite shape and popularized it beyond the
city of Calcutta
• In 1843, he wrote Brahmo Covenant. This Covenant was a statement of the creed of the
Samaj and made a list of the duties and obligations of its members.

Keshab Chandra Sen (1838-84)

• He joined the Samaj in 1858 took the activities of the Samaj beyond Bengal and into UP,
Punjab, Madras and Bombay.
• Keshab Chandra Sen radicalized the Samaj by attacking the caste system, underlining
women’s rights, promoting widow remarriage and raising the issue of caste status of Brahmo
preachers which was earlier reserved for Brahmans.
• He laid stress on universalism in religion.
• His radicalism brought him into opposition with Debendranath.
• In 1866, the Samaj was formally divided into Adi Brahmo Samaj (headed by Debendranath)
and the Brahmo Samaj of India (headed by Keshab Chandra).

Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar

• He was a Bengali reformer who actively raised the issues related to women.
• He was an active proponent of education of girl children as he believed that lack of
education was the real cause underlying all their problems.
• With the help of an Englishman named Bethun, he set up many schools devoted especially to
girl child.
• He attacked child marriage and polygamy.
• He was a strong advocate of widow remarriage & It was due to his active mobilization of
support that the Widows’ Remarriage Act was passed in 1856, legalizing all widow
remarriages. He arranged many such remarriages & even his son Narayan also married a
widow.

• In 1849 J.E.D. Bethune founded a girl’s school in Calcutta.

YOUNG BENGAL MOVEMENT

• Founded by Henry Vivian Derozio, teacher at the Hindu college between 1826 and 1831.
• His followers were known as the Derozians and their movement as the Young Bengal
Movement.
• The movement attacked old traditions and decadent customs, advocating women’s rights
and education and educating the public on the current socio-economic and political questions
through press and public associations.
• They carried on public agitation on public questions like freedom of the press, trial by jury
and protection of peasants, etc.

Arya Samaj

• It was founded by Dayanand Saraswati (1824-83) & it was a revivalist movement in the late
19th century India.
• It started in the western India and Punjab, and gradually spread to a large part of the Hindi
heartland.
• In 1875, he wrote Satyarth Prakash (or the light of truth) and in the same year founded the
Bombay Arya Samaj.
• The Lahore Arya Samaj was founded in 1877. Subsequently, Lahore became the epicentre of
the Arya movement.
• Dayanand opposed a ritual-ridden Hindu religion and called for basing it on the preaching of
the Vedas. Only Vedas, along with their correct analytical tools, were true.
• He attacked puranas, polytheism, idolatry and domination of the priestly class.
• He adopted Hindi for reaching out to the masses.
• He also opposed child marriage.
• He was fiercely opposed to multiplicity of castes which he thought was primarily
responsible for encouraging conversion of lower castes into Christianity and Islam.
• After Dayanand’s death in 1883, the Samaj lay scattered.

ARYA SAMAJ after Dayanand’s death

• Most important attempt to unite the Samaj and its activities was the founding of the
Dayanand Anglo Vedic Trust and Management Society in Lahore in 1886.
• In 1886, this society opened a school with Lala Hansraj as its principal. However, some leaders
of the Samaj like Munshi Ram (Swami Shraddhanand), Gurudatt, Lekh Ram and others were
opposed to Anglo Vedic education.
• They argued that the Arya Samaj’s educational initiative must focus on Sanskrit, Aryan
ideology and Vedic scriptures and should have little space for English learning.
• This militant wing thought that Dayanand’s words were sacrosanct and his message in
Satyarth Prakash could not be questioned.
• While the moderate wing led by Lala Hansraj and Lajpat Rai pointed out that Dayanand was
a reformer and not a rishi or sadhu.
• Conflicts also arose over the control of the DAV Management Society.
• These differences finally led to a formal division of the Arya Samaj in 1893 when Munshiram
broke away along with his supporters to initiate a gurukul-based education. Therefore, after
1893 the two wings of the Arya Samaj were – DAV group and Gurukul group.
• Munshi Ram and Lekh Ram devoted themselves to popularizing of the teachings of the Vedas
and began an Arya Kanya Pathshala at Jalandhar to safeguard education from missionary
influence.
• In 1902, Munshi Ram founded a Gurukul at Kangri in Haridwar. This institute became the
centre of the gurukul education wing of the Arya Samaj in India. It was here that Munshi Ram
adopted sanyas and became Swami Shraddhanand.
• The two wings of the Arya Samaj, i.e. DAV wing and the Gurukul wing had differences on the
question of education but were united on important political and social issues of the time.
• The Arya Samaj as a whole opposed conversion of Hindus to Islam and Christianity and
therefore advocated re-conversion of recent converts to Hinduism. This process was called
shuddhi.
• They also advocated greater usage of Hindi in Devanagari script.
• In the 1890s, the Arya Samaj also raised the issue of cow slaughter and formed gaurakshini
sabhas (or the cow protection societies) for protection of cows.
• The Arya Samaj led a prolonged movement against untouchability and advocated dilution of
caste distinctions.

SHUDDHI MOVEMENT

It means the reconversion of those Hindus who had once been willingly or forcibly converted
into other religions, but were now willing to come back into the fold of Hinduism also it
prevented further conversion. It was considered by the Arya Samajists as a potent instrument
for effecting socio-religious and political unity of India.
 PRARTHANA SAMAJ

• Founded in 1867, in Bombay by Dr. Atmaram Pandurang & It was an off-shoot of Brahmo
Samaj.
• It was a reform movement within Hinduism and Justice M.G. Ranade and R.G. Bhandarkar
joined it in 1870 and infused new strength to it.
• Mahadev Govind Ranade, also ran the Deccan Education Society.
• Several members of the Prarthana Samaj had earlier been active in the Paramhansa Mandali.
• This Samaj denounced idolatry, priestly domination, caste rigidities and preferred
monotheism.
• It also concentrated on social reforms like inter-dining, inter-marriage, widow remarriage
and uplift of women and depressed classes.
• Apart from Hindu sects, it also drew upon Christianity and Buddhism & It sought truth in all
religions.
• Drew inspiration from the Maratha Bhakti saints of the medieval period, Ranade sought to
establish the concept of one compassionate God.

PARAMHANSA MANDALI

• Many important reform movements arose during the 19th century western India.
• Reformers like KT Telang, VN Mandalik and RG Bhandarkar glorified India’s past.
• There were some who led a direct attack on social evils like caste system and encouraged
widow remarriage, e.g., Karsondas Mulji and Dadoba Pandurang. They formed Manav
Dharma Sabha in 1844 and Paramhansa Mandali in 1849.
• The Mandali carried its activities secretly.
• Its members took a pledge that they would abandon all caste distinctions.
• The Mandali declined after 1860 as its membership and activities lost secrecy.

Ramakrishna Mission

Another notable reform movement in Bengal, which soon spread to other parts of the country,
during the late 19th century, was the Ramakrishna Mission. The movement began under an
ascetic and priest Gadadhar Chatterjee or Swami Ramakrishna Paramhansa (1836-86).
He preached universality of all religions and favoured preserving beliefs and rituals of
Hinduism.
• Among his important disciples was Narendra Nath or Swami Vivekananda who accepted
Ramakrishna as his guru in 1885.

Swami Vivekananda
• He spread the message of spiritual Hinduism in America and Europe during his tour of 1893-
97.
• He established Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 and set up a Math at Belur.
• Vivekananda was opposed to degeneration in religion, manifold divisions, caste rigidities,
practice of untouchability, superstitions etc.
• He pointed out that the present condition of Hindus was due to their ignorance which was
helped by their being a subject race.
• He attempted to establish Hindu spiritual supremacy vis-à-vis the selfish civilization of the
West.
• He believed that India had to learn work ethics, forms of organization and technological
advances from the West.

THEOSOPHICAL SOCIETY

• Madam H.P. Blavatsky laid the foundation of the movement in the United States in 1875 and
later Colonel M.S. Olcott joined her.
• In 1882, they shifted their headquarters to India at Adyar with three main objectives:

● To form a universal brotherhood of man

● To promote the study of ancient religions and philosophies

● To make a systematic investigation into the mystic potencies of life and matter, this is
called occultism.

• The members of this society believe that a special relationship can be established between a
person’s soul and God by contemplation, prayer, revolution.
• The theosophical movement came to be allied with Hindu renaissance.
• The society believes in reincarnation, Karma and draws from the philosophy of the
upanishads and Samkhya, yoga and vedanta schools of thought.
• After the death of Olcott in 1907, Annie Besant was elected as its President.

• The society under Besant concentrated on the revival of Hinduism and its ancient ideas and
in order to provide Hindu religious instruction.
• She founded the Central Hindu University at Varanasi in 1898, which was later developed
into the Benaras Hindu University by Madan Mohan Malaviya.

Satya Shodhak Samaj & movement

It was launched by Jyotiba Phule in Maharashtra, in 1873, to save the lower castes from the
Brahmins. He wrote ‘Gulamgiri’ and ‘Sarvajanik Satyadharma Pustak’. His theory of
exploitation of lower castes was focused on cultural and ethnic factors rather than on
political and economic one.

OTHER REFORM MOVEMENTS IN BRIEF

Prof D.K. Karve

He took up the cause of widow remarriage and in Madras Veerasalingam Pantulu made
Herculean efforts in the same direction.
• Prof. Karve opened a widow’s home in Poona in 1899. He set up the Indian Womens
University at Bombay in 1916.

B.M. Malbari

He started a crusade against child marriage and his efforts were crowned by the enactment of
the age of consent Act, 1891.

Justice movement

It was started in 1915-16 by C.N. Mudaliar, T.M. Nair and P. Tyagaraja Chetti in Madras. It was
against the predominance of the Brahmins in education, government services and politics.

Ezhava movement

It was launched by Sri Narayan Guru. He started the movement of untouchable Ezhava against
the Brahmin dominance in Kerala. He rejected the caste system and developed the concept of
one caste, one religion and one God for mankind.

His disciple Ayappan made it into no religion, no caste and no God for mankind.

Self-Respect Movement (1925)

Led by EV Ramasamy Naicker (Periyar) opposed Brahmanical religion & started it in the mid-
1920s. The movement aimed at nothing short of a rejection of brahminical religion and culture
which Naicker felt was the prime instrument of exploitation of the lower castes.

He took an active part in the anti-liquor movement and Vaikom Satyagraha, in 1924.

Self-respect movement had two aims:

• Demanding the sanction of more concessions and privileges (which would cause
discrimination against the Brahmins) to surpass Brahmins in education and social status.
• Achieving ‘Swayam Maryada’ or self-respect.
• The main objectives of this movement were inculcation and dissemination of knowledge of
political education; Right to lead life with dignity and self-respect and do away with the
exploitative system based on superstitions and beliefs.
• Abolition of the evil social practices and protection of women rights. Establishment and
maintenance of homes for orphans and widow and opening of educational institutions for
them.
• This movement gained popularity in no time and became a political platform.
• He attacked the laws of Manu, which he called the basis of the entire Hindu social fabric of
caste.
• He founded the Tamil journals Kudiarasu, Puratchi and Viduthalai to propagate his ideals.
• In 1938, the Tamil Nadu Women’s Conference appreciated the noble service rendered by
E.V.R. and he was given the title “Periyar”.
• On 27th June 1970, the UNESCO organisation praised and adorned him with the title
“Socrates of South Asia”

Vaikom Satyagraha

Led by K P Kesava, was launched in Kerala. It demanded throwing open of Hindu Temples and
roads to untouchables. Again, in 1931, when the Civil disobedience Movement was suspended,
temple entry movement was organized in Kerala.

Mahar Movement
• The Mahars were organised by Gopal Baba Walangkar, during late 19th century against
Brahmins in Maharashtra. Ambedkar became their leader in the 20th century. Under his
leadership, the Mahars started burning Manusmriti and tried to break with the Hinduism.
• In 1932, Gandhiji founded the Harijan Sevak Sangh.
• Ambedkar founded the Scheduled Castes Federation.

REFORM MOVEMENTS AMONG MUSLIMS

• There was a sense of loss of power among educated and elite Muslims of India. This
happened mainly because of-

● Transfer of power from Mughals to British, and

● Replacement of Persian by English as the language of employment and advancement in
the new bureaucracy.

Farazis Movement

• It arose among the peasants of early 19th century Bengal, it advocated return to pure Islam.
• They followed the teachings of Shah Walliullah of Delhi (1703-63) who had, a century earlier,
talked about regaining purity of Islam and objected to infiltration of non-Islamic customs
among Muslims.
• Founding leader of the Farazis, Shariat Ullah (1781-1839) preached religious purification and
advocated return to the faraiz, i.e. obligatory duties of Islam. He also preached tawhid or
monotheism.
• Another movement which arose among Muslims of Bengal was the Tariqah-i-Muhammadiyah
under the leadership of Titu Mir who was initiated by Sayyid Ahmad Barelwi. This movement
also talked about return to past purity.
• Another movement which was more concerned about the decline in power of the ulema class
(Muslim priestly class) arose at Deoband in the United Provinces.
• Delhi School of Islamic Thought was derived from the Delhi College (currently Zakir Husain
College) which had begun imparting a parallel education – Islamic as well as English.
• Beginning 1830s, the college helped to foster a modern consciousness in the Muslim
community.
• The revolt of 1857 and consequent crackdown by the British forces ended this intellectual
excitement. However, the urge for modernization could easily be felt among a section of
Muslims.

Wahabi Movement

• The spread of Christianity and the Western culture were viewed as a threat to Islam. They
resisted English education and remained aloof from Western influences.
• It was introduced in India by Syed Ahmed of Rae Bareilly in Uttar Pradesh.
• The Wahabi movement aimed at the purification of Islam and to return to the simplicity of
religion.
• In India the Wahibis did not restrict to religious reforms only. Rather, they aimed at the
replacement of the British rule by the rule of the true believers & it took the nature of the
political revolt.

Sayyid Ahmad Khan

• He propagated modern education as the most important path for improvement in the
condition of Indian Muslims & called for the study of European science and technology.
• He pointed out that there was no fundamental contradiction between Quran and Natural
Science and the new circumstances demanded dissemination of English language within an
Islamic context.
• He founded the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875 which went on to
become the most important seminary for modern higher education among Muslims.
• At the elementary level, students followed the standard government curriculum in a carefully
constructed Islamic environment. In 1878, the college classes were also started and non-
Muslims were also enrolled.
• In 1886, Sayyid Ahmad Khan founded the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental Educational
Conference.
• The Muslim graduates of Aligarh who numbered 220 during 1882-1902, provided lot of
excitement to the Muslim intellectual world and in due course of time provided an able and
modern leadership to the community.

The Deoband School

• The orthodox section among the Muslim ulema organised the Deoband Moovement. It was a
revivalist movement whose twin objectives were:

i) To propagate among the Muslims the pure teachings of the Koran and the Hadis &
ii) To keep alive the spirit of jihad against the foreign rulers.

• The new Deoband leader Mahmud-ul-Hasan (1851-1920) sought to impart a political and
intellectual content to the religious ideas of the school.
• The liberal interpretation of Islam created a political awakening among its followers.
 Ahmadiya Movement

• It was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahamad of Qadiyan (1839-1908) in 1889, who began his
work as a defender of Islam against the polemics of the Arya Samaj and the Christian
missionaries.
• In 1889, he claimed to be Masih and Mahdi and later also to be an incarnation of the Hindu
god Krishna and Jesus, returned to earth.
• The Ahmadiya movement based itself, like the Brahmo Samaj, on the principles of at
universal religion of all humanity.
• Ghulam Ahmad was greatly influenced by western liberalism theosophy, and the religious
reform movements of the Hindus.
• The Ahmadiyas opposed Jihad or sacred war against non-Muslims and stressed fraternal
relations among all people.
• The movement spread western liberal education among Indian Muslims and started a
network of schools and colleges for that purpose.

Ahrar Movement

• Founded in 1910, under the leadership of Maulana Muhammad Ali, Hakim Ajmal Khan,
Hasan Imam, Maulana Zafar Ali Khar and Mazhar-ul-Haq

• Opposed the loyalist policies of the Aligarh movement.

• Moved by modern ideas of self-government its members advocated active participation in
the nationalist movement.

SIKH REFORM MOVEMENTS

Nirankaris

• Baba Dayal Das (1783-1855) was the founder of this movement of purification and return.
• In the 1840s, he called for the return of Sikhism to its origin and emphasized the worship of
one God and nirankar (formless).
• Such an approach meant a rejection of idolatry and also prohibition of eating meat, drinking
liquor, lying, cheating, etc.
• It laid emphasis on Guru Nanak and on Sikhism before the establishment of Khalsa by Guru
Gobind Sing at Anandpur and this separated them from the Namdaris.

Namdharis

• It was founded by Baba Ram Singh (1816-1885) in 1857, who in 1841 became a disciple of
Balak Singh of the Kuka movement.
• The movement was founded on a set of rituals modeled after Guru Gobind Singh’s founding
of the Khalsa with the requirement of wearing the five symbols but instead of the sword the
followers were supposed to carry a stick.
• The movement required the followers to abandon the worship of gods, idols, tombs, trees,
snakes, etc. and abstain from drinking, stealing, falsehood, slandering, backbiting, etc.
• Further the consumption of beef was strictly forbidden as protection of cattle was important.

Singh Sabha

• To strengthen Sikhism, a small group of prominent Sikhs led by Thakur Singh Sandhawalia and
Giani Gian Singh founded the Singh Sabha of Amritsar on October 1, 1873.
• The objectives of the Sabha were to restore Sikhism to its pristine purity, to publish historical
religious books and periodicals, to propagate knowledge, sing Punjabi, to return Sikh apostles to
their faith and to involve Englishmen in the educational programme of the Sikhs.
• Later the Singh Sabha Amritsar was emulated by a new organization, the Lahore Singh Sabha,
more democratic in nature.
• After a while, the Singh Sabhas were overwhelmed by other organisations such as Khalsa
Diwani and in 1920, by a struggle for control over Sikh places of worship.

Gurudwara Reform Movements

• Before 1920, the Sikh Gurudwara were governed by the Udasi Sikh mahants, who treated the
Gurdwara offerings and other income of the Gurudwaras as their personal income.
• The British government supported these mahants as a counterpoise to the rising tide of
nationalism among the Sikhs.
• Matter came to such a pass that the priest of the golden temple issued a hukamnama
(injunction) against Ghadarites, declaring them renegades, and then honored General Dyer, the
butcher of Jallianwala massacre with a saropa.
• The Gurdwara Reform Movement launched an agitation for freeing the Gurudwaras from
these corrupt mahants and for handing over the Gurudwaras to a representative body of Sikhs.
• Under the growing pressure of the nationalist and Gurudwara agitators, the Gurudwaras
came under the control of an elected committee known as the Shiromani Gurdwara
Prablandhalk Committee, in November 1920.
• The movement for liberation of Gurudwaras soon turned into Alkali movement, which later
on got divided into three streams, namely moderate nationalist reformers, pro-government
loyalists and political organ of Sikh communalism.

PARSI REFORM MOVEMENT

• The Parsi Religious Reform Association was founded at Bombay by Furdunji Naoroji and S.S.
Bengalee, in 1851, with funds provided by K.N. Kama.
• Furdunji Naoroji became its President and S.S. Bengali its secretary.
• Naroji Furdunji edited in 1840s the Fam-i-Famshid, a journal aimed at defending the cause of
Zoroastrianism.
• He also wrote a number of pamphlets and published the book Tarika Farthest in 1850.
• All these events led to the formation of a socio-religious movement designed to codify the
Zoroastrian religion and reshape Parsi social life.
• In 1851, a small group of educated Parsis formed the Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha (Parsi
Reform Society)
• In 1850, Bengali started publishing a monthly journal Jagat Mitra and the Jagat Premi in 1851.
• The sabha’s journal Rast Goftar was the main voice of the movement.
• The leaders criticized elaborate ceremonies at betrothals, marriages and funerals and
opposed infant marriage and the use of astrology.
• But, the activities of the sabha divided the Parsis into two groups: those who advocated
radical change and those who wished only limited altercations in rituals and customs, organized
under the Raherastnumi Mazdayasnan in opposition to the radicals.

IMPACT OF REFORM MOVEMENTS

• Reform movements helped the growth of a modern middle class which was conscious of its
rights.
• Some Indian reformers also protested British attempts to pass those laws which they thought
interfered with their religion and society.
• This was evident in the case of the Age of Consummation of marriage by raising the age of
consent from 10 to 12.
• Some of these reform movements, by raising issues which were in conflict with interests of
other communities or were revivalist in nature, also worked towards polarization along
communal lines.

Read about Pandita Ramabai in western part, Sister Subbalakshmi in Madras and Rokeya
Sakhawat Hossain in Bengal.