Kishan

CHAPTER-1
GOODS AND SERVICES TAX (GST)
Revision Notes
(a) Concept Notes :
1. The full form of GST is Goods and Services Tax.
2. GST is a value added tax levied at every point of sale or transfer of goods.
3. It is paid by consumers, but remitted to the government by the businesses selling the goods and services.
4. There are four main types of GST as follows :
(i) Central Goods and Services Tax (CGST)
(ii) State Goods and Services Tax (SGST)
(iii) Integrated Goods and Services Tax (IGST)
(iv) Union Territory Goods and Services Tax.
5. Intra-state means : Supply with in the same state.
6. Inter-state means : Supply from one state to another state.
7. GST is calculated on sale price obtained after deducting discount, if any, from the list price.
8. In case of intra-state sale of goods/services, or both :
If GST rate is 18%, then
CGST = 9% Sale price : SGST = 9% of Sale price
IGST = 0
9. In case of inter-state of goods or services or both :
If GST rate is 18%, then
IGST = 18% of Sale price
10. Discount is never allowed on amount including GST.
For example : Mr. Naresh is a manufacturer is Agra (U.P._ who sold goods worth ` 10,000 to Mr. Dinkar in Delhi.
We see here, it is an interstate transaction, therefore IGST will be applicable here.
\ Rate of interest for the GST = 18%
Now IGST charge by the central Government
18
= ` ×10, 000
100
= ` 1800
Hence, the cost of the product = ` (10,000 + 1800)
= ` 11,800
(b) Key Equations or Formulae :
1. Cost Price : It is the price at which a dealer purchase products. (CP)
2. List Price : It is the price at which the product is marked. It it also known as marked price. (MP)
3. Discount : When shopkeeper’s offer to sale out old stocks with certain percentage of least price, then it is termed
as discount. It is always calculated on the list price.
4. Selling Price : It is the price at which a shopkeeper sells his products with some discount. It is also called the sale
price. (SP)
Selling Price = Marked Price – Discount
5. Tax = Rate of tax × sale price

6. By the Government, GST rates are 0%, 5%, 12%, 18% and 28% applicable.

CHAPTER-2
BANKING
Revision Notes
(a) Concept Notes :
 Bank Account : An arrangement made with a bank whereby one may deposit (Credit) and withdraw money
(Debit) and in some cases be paid interest. (Credit) (debit)
2]
 Different Types of Account :
1. Current Account
2. Savings Account
3. Fixed Deposits Account
4. Money Market Account
5. Individual Retirement Account.
1. Current Account : A current account offers easy access to your money for your daily transactional needs and
helps keep your cash secure.
2. Savings Account : A saving account allows you to accumulate interest on funds you’ve saved for future needs.
Interest rates can be compounded on a daily, weekly, monthly, or annual bases.
(b) Key Equations or Formulae :
P × n ( n + 1) r
1. Interest = ×
2 × 12 100

where P = Deposits money

n = Time in months
and r = Rate of interest p.a. (p.a = per annum)
2. Maturity value =Deposited money × Time + Interest

i.e., M.V. = P × n + I
P × n ( n + 1) r
=P×n+ ×
2 × 12 100

 n+1 r 
= P × n 1 + × × 
 2 12 100 

CHAPTER-3
LINEAR INEQUATIONS
Revision Notes
(a) Concept Notes :
In an inequation, the signs >, <, ³ and £ are called signs of inequality.
Types Of Inequality
(i) Numerical inequality : An inequality which does not involve any variable is called a numerical inequality.
e.g.,
4 > 2, 8 < 21
(ii) Literal inequality : An inequality which have variables is called literal inequality.
e.g., x < 7, y ³ 11, x – y £ 4
(iii) Strict inequality : An inequality which have only < or > is called strict inequality.
e.g., x < 9, x < 10, x > 7
(iv) Slack inequality : An inequality which have only ³ or £ is called slack inequality.
e.g., x > 5 y > 4 x < 10
Linear Inequality
An inequality is said to be linear, if each variable occurs in first degree only and there is no term involving the
product of the variables.
e.g., ax + b £ 0, ax + by + c > 0, ax £ 4.
An inequality in one variable in which degree of variable is 2, is called quadratic inequality in one variable.
e.g., ax2 + bx + c ³ 0, 3x2 + 2x £ 0
Linear Inequality In One Variable
A linear inequality which has only one variable, is called linear inequality in one variable.
e.g., ax + b < 0, where a ¹ 0, 4c + 7 ³ 0
(b) Facts for Operation :
 On transposing a positive terms from one side of an inequation to its other side, the sign of the terms becomes
negative.
 On transposing a negative term from one side of an inequation to its other side, the sign of the term becomes
positive.
 If each term of an inequation be multiplied or divided by the same positive number, the sign of inequality remains
the same.
 [3
 If each term of an inequation be multiplied or divided by the same negative number, the sign of inequality
changed.
 If sign of each term on both the sides of an inequation is changed, the sign of inequality gets reversed.
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CHAPTER-4
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
TOPIC-1
Solution of Quadratic Equations

Revision Notes
 A quadratic equation in the variable x is of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are real number and a ¹ 0.
 The value of x that satisfies an equation is called the solution or root of the equation.
 Any quadratic equation can be converted to the form (x + a)2 – b2 = 0 by adding and subtracting some terms. This
method of finding the roots of quadratic equation is called the method of completing the square.
 For the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0 expression b2 – 4ac is known as discriminant. (D)
 A real number a is said to be a solution/root of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, if aa2 + ba + c = 0.
 A quadratic equation can be solved by the following algebraic methods :
(i) Splitting the middle term

(ii) Completing the squares

(iii) Quadratic formula.

 If ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0 can be reduced to the product of two linear factors, then the roots of the quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 can be found by equating each factor to zero.
 Method for splitting the middle term of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a ¹ 0.
(i) From the product “ac”

(ii) Find a pair of numbers b1 and b2 whose product is “ac”and whose sum is “b” (if you can’t find such number, it

can’t be factored)
(iii) Split the middle term using b1 and b2, that expresses the term bx as b1x + b2x. Now factor by grouping the pairs

of terms.
 Roots of the quadratic equation can be found by equating each linear factor to zero. Since product of two numbers
is zero, if either or both of them are zero.
 Method of completing the square for quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0.
b c
(i) Dividing throughout by a, we get x2 + x + = 0
a a
(ii) Multiplying and dividing the coefficient of x by 2

b c
x2 + 2 x+ =0
2a a
b2
(iii) Adding and subtracting
4 a2
b b2 b2 c
x2 + 2 x+ 2 − 2 + =0
2a 4a 4a a
2
 b b 2 − 4 ac
Þ  x +  =
2a 4 a2

 b
2  b 2 − 4 ac 
Þ  x +  = 



2a 2a

If b 2 - 4 ac ³ 0, then by taking square root

 b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Þ  x +  =
2a 2a

− b ± b 2 − 4 ac
Þ x=
2a
4]

Know the Terms

 D = Discriminant, a = coefficient of x2, b = coefficient of x, c = constant term
 The Old-Babylonians (c.a. 1700 BC) stated and solved problems involving quadratic equations.
 The Greek mathematician Euclid developed a geometrical approach for finding out roots, which are solution of
quadratic equations.
 In Vedic manuscripts, procedures are described for solving quadratic equations by geometric methods related to
completing a square.
 Brahmagupta (C.E. 598-665) gave an explicit formula to solve a quadratic equation of the form ax2 + bx + c = 0
 Sridharacharya (C.E. 1025) derived the quadratic formula for solving a quadratic equation by the method of
completing the square.
 An Arab mathematician Al-Khwarizmi (about C.E. 800) studied quadratic equations of different types.
 Abraham bar Hiyya Ha-nasi, in his book ‘Liber embadorum’ published in Europe in C.E. 1145 gave complete
solutions of different quadratic equations.
 Eden ratio f is the root of quadratic equation x2 – x – 1 = 0.

TOPIC-2
Nature of Roots

Revision Notes
 Nature of the roots of a quadratic equation :
(i) If b2 – 4ac > 0, the quadratic equation has two distinct real roots.

(ii) If b2 – 4ac = 0, the quadratic equation has two equal real roots.

(iii)If b2 – 4ac < 0, the quadratic equation has no real roots. (imaginary)

− b + b 2 − 4 ac − b − b 2 − 4 ac
 Roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0 are and , where b 2 − 4 ac > 0.
2a 2a
−b -b
 Roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, a ¹ 0 are and , where b 2 − 4 ac = 0
2a 2a
 Quadratic identities :
(i) (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2

(ii) (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2

(iii) a2 – b2 = (a + b) (a – b)

 Discriminant, D = b2 – 4ac.

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CHAPTER-5
RATIO AND PROPORTION
TOPIC-1
Ratio

Revision Notes
 Ratio : In mathematics a ratio is a relationship between two numbers indicating how many times the first
number contain the second.
x
If x and y are two quantities of same kind, then the fraction is called the ratio, here y ¹ 0. The quantities x and
y
y are called the terms of the ratio, where x is called the antecedent and y is called the consequent.
 Types of Ratio : The following are the types of the Ratio.
 [5
1. Compounded Ratio : For two or more ratios, if we take antecedent as product of antecedents of the ratios and
consequent as product of consequents of the ratios, then the ratio thus formed is called mixed or compounded
ratio as, compound ed ratio of x : y and a : b is xa : yb.
2. Duplicate Ratio : When the give Ratio is squared, then detained ratio in called duplicate ratio. The duplicate ratio
of the ratio x : y is the ratio x2 : y2
For Ex. : Duplicate ratio of 3 : 4 is 9 : 16

3. Triplicate Ratio : When the given ratio is cubed, then obtained ratio in called triplicate ratio. The triplicate ratio of
the ratio a : b is the ratio a3 : b3.
For Ex. : Triplicate ratio of 2 : 3 is 8 : 27

4. Subduplicate Ratio : The square root of any given ratio is called subduplicate ratio. The subduplicate ratio a : b is
ratio a: b.
For Ex. : Subduplicate ratio of 4 : 9 is 2 : 3

5. Subtriplicate Ratio : The cube root of any given ratio is called subtriplicate ratio. The subtriplicate ratio x : y is the
3
ratio x : 3 y
For Ex. : Subtriplicate ratio of 8 : 27 is 2 : 3

1 1
6. Reciprocal Ratio : The reciprocal ratio of the ratio m : n (m ¹ 0, n ¹ 0) is the ratio : .
m n
7. Ratio of equalities : For a ratio, if the antecedent and consequent are equal then this ratio is called ratio of equality.
For Ex. : 2 : 2 is the ratio of equality.

8. Ratio of inequalities : If the antecedent and consequent are unequal, then it is called ratio of inequalities.
For Ex. : 2 : 3 is the ratio of inequalities.

9. Ratio of Lesser inequalities : If the antecedent is less than the consequent, then it is called the ratio of lesser
inequality.
For Ex. : 7 : 9 is the ratio of lesser inequality.

10. Ratio of greater inequality : If antecedent is greater than the consequent the ratio is called the ratio of greater
inequality.
For Ex. : 13 : 11 is a ratio of greater inequality.

TOPIC-2
Proportions

Revision Notes
 Proportion : Four quantities of the same kind a, b, c and d are said to be in proportion if, a : b = c : d, we write it as
a : b :: c : d
If the quantities a, b, c and d are in proportion, then a : b : : c : d or ad = bc, i.e., product of mean = product of
extreme. Mean Proportional b
Continued Proportional : Three or more quantities are said to be in continued proportion if the ratio of the first
and the second is equal to the ratio of the second and the third and so on.
Operations of Proportion
a c b d a c a b
1. Invertendo : if = , then = 2. Alternendo : if = , then =
b d a c b d c d
a c a+b c+d a c a−b c−d
3. Componendo : if = , then = 4. Dividendo : if = , then =
b d b d b d b d
a c a c a c a+b c+d
5. Convertendo : if = , then = 6. Componendo and Dividendo : if = , then =
b d a−b c−d b d a−b c−d
a c e a + c + e Sum of antecedents
7. If = = , then each ratio = =
b d f b + d + f Sum of consequents

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6]

CHAPTER-6
FACTORISATION OF POLYNOMIALS
Revision Notes
 Factor Theorem : Let f(x) be a polynomial and ‘a’ be a real number then (x – a) is a factor of f(x) if f(a) = 0
i.e., let f(x) = x2 – 4x + 3. For x – 1 to be the factor of f(x), f(1) = 0

Þ
f(1) = (1)2 – 4(1) + 3 = 0
\ (x – 1) is a factor of f(x).

 Remainder Theorem : If a polynomial f(x) of degree greater than or equal to one is divided by one of its factor
(x – a), the remainder is f(a) for example.
If the polynomial f(x) = x2 + 2x + 1 is divided by x – 1, the remainder can be obtained by putting x = 1 in f(x)
\
f(1) = (1)2 + 2(1) + 1 = 4
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CHAPTER-7
MATRICES
Revision Notes
 “In mathematics, a matrix (plural matrices) is an rectangular array of numbers, symbols, or expressions, arranged
in rows and columns that is interpreted and manipulated in certain prescribed ways”.
Vertical lines are knows as columns and horizontal lines are known as rows.
Columns
↓ ↓ ↓
a a12 a13 ....
→  11
a a22 a23 ....
Rows →  21
a a32 a33 ....
→  31 
   

 Order of Matrix : “The number of rows (r) and columns (c) that a matrix has is called its order or its dimension. By
convention, rows are listed first, and columns, second. Thus, we would say that the order (or dimension) of the
matrix is r × c. If a matrix has 3 rows and 4 columns”. Then order of the matrix will be 3 × 4
1. Types of Matrices :
(i) Column matrix : A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix or column vector.
 0
  4 
e.g :  1  ,  
 −2  5  2 ×1
3 ×1

Where in aij, i denote the rows

j denote the columns.
General notation : A = [aij]m×1
(ii) Row matrix : A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix or row vector.
e.g : [ 2 5 − 4 ]1 × 3 ,  2 4 
1× 2

General notation : A = [aij]1×n

(iii) Square matrix : It is a matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns i.e., matrix is
said to constitute a square matrix of order n×n and is known as a square matrix of order ‘n’.
 [7
1 2 5
e.g :  3 7 − 4  is a square matrix of order 3 × 3.
0 −1 −2 
 3×3

General notation : A = [aij]n×n

(iv) Diagonal matrix : A square matrix A = [aij]m×m is said to be a diagonal matrix aij = 0, when i ¹ j and aij ¹ 0
when i = j i.e., all its non-diagonal elements are
2 0 0 
e.g :  0 5 0  is a diagonal matrix of order 3 × 3.
0 0 4 
 3×3
• Also there are more notation specifically used for the diagonal matrices. For instance, consider the matrix
depicted above, it can also be written as (2 5 4). or drag [2, 5, 4].
• Note that the elements a11, a22, a33, …, amm of a square matrix A = [aij]n×n of order m are said to constitute
the principal diagonal or simply the diagonal of the square matrix A. These elements are known as diagonal
elements of matrix A.
(v) Scalar matrix : A diagonal matrix A = [aij]m×m is said to be a scalar matrix if its diagonal elements are equal.
0, when i ≠ j
i.e., aij = 
k , when i = j for some constant k

17 0 0 
e.g :  0 17 0  is a scalar matrix of order 3 × 3.
 0 0 17 
 3×3

1, if i = j
(vi) Unit or Identity matrix : A square matrix A = [aij]m×m is said to be an identity matrix if aij =  .
0 , if i ≠ j
A unit matrix can also be defined as the scalar matrix each of whose diagonal elements is unity. We denote
the identity matrix of order m by Im or I.
1 0 0
1 0 .
e.g : 0 1 0  , I = 
0 0 1 0 1  2 × 2
 3×3
(vii) Zero matrix or Null matrix : A matrix is said to be a zero matrix or null matrix if each of its elements is ‘0’.
0 0 0 
0 0  , [0 0]
e.g : 0 0 0  ,  1×2.
0 0 0  0 0  2 × 2
 3×3
(viii) Horizontal matrix : A m×n matrix is said to be a horizontal matrix if m < n.
1 2 5 
e.g : 
 4 8 −9  2 × 3
(ix) Vertical matrix : A m×n matrix is said to be a vertical matrix if m > n.
 −5 −1
e.g :  8 −9  ,3>2
4 3  3 × 2


(x) Triangular matrix :

(a) Lower triangular matrix : A square matrix is called a lower triangular matrix if aij = 0 when i < j.
1 0 0 1 0 0
e.g :  1 2 0  ,  1 4 0 
 5 1 1  2 3 5
   
(b) Upper triangular matrix : A square matrix is called an upper triangular matrix if aij = 0 when i > j.
 1 −8 −1  1 2 1 
Eg : 0 2 1  , 0 4 3 
0 0 1  0 0 5
   
8]
2. Equality of Matrices :
Two matrices A and B are said to be equal and written as A = B, if they have the same order and their
corresponding elements are identical i.e. aij = bij i.e., a11 = b11, a22 = b22, a32 = b32 etc.
3. Addition of Matrices :
If A and B are two m × n matrices, then another m × n matrix obtained by adding the corresponding elements of
the matrices A and B is called the sum of the matrices A and B and is denoted by ‘A + B’.
Thus if A = [aij], B = [bij], Þ A + B = [aij + bij].
Properties of matrix addition :
• Commutative property : A+B=B+A
• Associative property : A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
• Cancellation laws : (i) Left cancellation : A + B = A + C Þ B = C
(ii) Right cancellation : B + A = C + A Þ B = C.
4. Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar :
If a m × n matrix A is multiplied by a scalar k (say), then the new kA matrix is obtained by multiplying each element
of matrix A by scalar k. Thus, if A = [aij] and it is multiplied by a scalar k, then kA = [kaij], i.e. A = [aij] Þ kA = [kaij].

e.g : A =  2 −4  Þ 3A =  6 −12 
 5 6  15 18 

5. Multiplication of two Matrices :

Let A = [aij] be a m × n matrix and B = [bjk] be a n × p matrix such that the number of columns in A pre matrix is

equal to the number of rows in B, then the m × p matrix (post matrix) C = [cik] such that [Cik] = Σ nj =1 aij bjk is said to be the
product of the matrices A and B in that order and it is denoted by AB i.e. “C = AB”.
Properties of matrix multiplication :
• Note that the product AB is defined only when the number of columns in matrix A is equal to the number of
rows in matrix B.
• If A and B are m × n and n × p matrices respectively, then the matrix AB will be an m × p matrix i.e., order of
matrix AB will be m × p.
• In the product AB, A is called the pre-factor and B is called the post-factor.
• If two matrices A and B are such that AB is possible then it is not necessary that the product BA is also possible.
• If A is a m × n matrix and both AB as well as BA are defined, then B will be a n × m matrix.
• If A is a n × n matrix and In be the unit matrix of order n, then In = In A = A .
• Matrix multiplication is associative i.e., A(BC) = (AB)C.
• Matrix multiplication is distributive over the addition i.e., A.(B + C) = AB + AC .
• Matrix multiplication is not commutative.
6. Transpose of a Matrix :
If A = [aij]m × n be a m × n matrix, then the matrix obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of matrix A is
said to be a transpose of matrix A. The transpose of A is denoted by A’ or AT or Ac i.e., if AT = [aji]n × m.

 3 2
For example, A =  − 1 3  , 3 − 1 7
AT = 
 7 9 2 3 9  2 × 3
  3×2

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 [9

CHAPTER-8
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSIONS
TOPIC-1
To find nth Term of the Arithmetic Progression

Revision Notes
 An arithmetic progression is a sequence of numbers in which each term is obtained by adding a fixed number d
to the preceding term, except the first term.
 The difference between the two successive terms of an A.P. is called the common difference. (d)
 Each of the number in the sequence of arithmetic progression is called a term of an A.P.
 The arithmetic progression having finite number of terms is called a finite arithmetic progression.
 The arithmetic progression having infinite number of terms is called an infinite arithmetic progression.
 A list of numbers a1, a2, a3, …… is an A.P., if the differences a2 – a1, a3 – a2, a4 – a3, … give the same value i.e., ak+1 –
ak is same for all different values of k.
 The general form of an A.P. is a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d…..
 If the A.P. a, a + d, a + 2d,………, l is reversed to l, l – d, l – 2d, ………, a, then the common difference changes to
negative common difference of original sequence.
 The general term of an A.P. is given by :
an = a + (n – 1)d,
where a is the first term and d is the common difference.
 The general term of an A.P. l, l – d, l – 2d…….. is given by :
a = l + (n – 1)(– d),
where l is the last term, d is the common difference and n is the number of terms.
 The nth term of an A.P. is the difference of the sum to first n terms and the sum to first (n – 1) terms of it.
i.e., an = Sn – Sn–1
 Solution of terms in an AP
(i) Three number can be selected as a – d, a, a + d
(ii) Four numbers can be selected as a – 3d, a – d, a + d, a + 3d.

Know the Terms

 A sequence is defined as an ordered list of numbers.
The first, second, third terms of a sequence are denoted by t1, t2, t3 respectively.
 A sequence is said to be a finite sequence if it has finite number of terms. As : 1, 3, 5, 7.
 A sequence is said to be an infinite sequence if it has infinite number of terms. As : 1, 3, 5, 7............... .
 If the terms of sequence are connected with plus (+) or minus (–), then the numbers are called as series.
Example : 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + ........ is a series.
 Arithmetic sequence were used by Babylonians 4000 years ago.
 The sequence of numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13,...... was discovered by a famous Italian Mathematician Leonardo
Fibonacci, when he was dealing with the problem of rabbit population.
 If the terms of a sequence or a series are written under specific conditions, then the sequence or series is called a
progression.
 A sequence in which the difference between any two consecutive terms is the same constant, is called an
arithmetic progression.
10 ]

TOPIC-2
Sum of an Arithmetic Progression

Revision Notes
 Sum of n terms of an A.P. is given by :
n
S n = [2 a + (n − 1)d ]
2
where a is the first term, d is the common difference and n is the total number of terms.
 Sum of n terms of an A.P. is also given by :
n
S n = [ a + l]
2
where a is the first term and l is the last term.
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CHAPTER-9
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS
TOPIC-1
To find nth term of the Geometric Progression

Revision Notes
 A sequence of non-zero number is said to be G.P., if the ratio of each term, except the first one, by its preceding
term is always the same.
We can say that, a sequence a1, a2, ........, an is called geometric progression (geometric sequence), if it follows the
a
relation k + 1 = r (constant).
ak

The constant ratio is called Common ratio of the G.P. and it is denoted by r.
 In a G.P., we usually denote the first term by a, the nth term by Tn or an.
 General Term of a G.P.
If a is the first term of a G.P. and its common ratio is r, then general term or nth term,

Tn = arn–1 or l = arn–1, where l is the last term.

1. a, b, c are in G.P. if b2 = ac
2 3
 G.P. can be written as, a, ar, ar , ar ...... and so on.

Know The Terms

 Geometric progression is said to be finite or infinite if number of terms are finite or infinite.
 mth Term of a Finite G.P. from the End :
Let a be the first term and r be the common ratio of a G.P. having n terms. Then, mth term from the end is
(n – m + 1)th term from the beginning.
\ mth term from the end = ar n − m + 1 − 1 = ar n − m where, n > m
m -1
1
Also, mth term from the end = l   , where l is last term of the finite G.P.
r
 [ 11
 Selection of terms in G.P. :
a
(i) Three numbers can be selected as , a and ar.
r
a a
(ii) Four numbers can be selected as , , ar, ar3.
r3 r
a a
(iii)Five numbers can be selected as , , a, ar, ar2.
r2 r

TOPIC-2
Sum of a Geometric Progression

Revision Notes
 Sum of First n Terms of a G.P.
If a and r are the first term and common ratio of a G.P. respectively, then sum of a terms of this G.P. is given by
a(1 − r n )
Sn = , where r < 1 (r ¹ 1)
1−r
a( r n − 1)
and Sn = , where r > 1 (r ¹ 1)
r −1

 If a and r are the first term and common ratio of a G.P. respectively, then sum of infinite G.P is given by.
a
S= , |r| < 1 (infinite series).
1-r

Relation between A.M. and G.M. is

A.M. ³ G.M.
 Let a, G, b are in G.P., then the Geometric mean,

G = ab .
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CHAPTER-10
REFLECTION
Revision Notes
 Reflection : A reflection is a kind of transformation. It is basically a ‘flip’ of a shape over the line of reflection.
(i) Reflection in the x-axis (Mx) : The general rule for a reflection in the x-axis : (x, y) becomes (x, – y)
Mx : (x, y) ® (x, – y)
In this case its abscissa (x) remains the same but the sign of ordinate (y) is changed.
(ii) Reflection in the y-axis (My): The general rule for a reflection in the y-axis (x, y) becomes (– x, y)
My : (x, y) ® (– x, y)
In this case the sign of ordinate (y) remains the same and the sign of abscissa (x) is changed.
(iii) Reflection in the line (My = x) : The general rule for a reflection in the line y = x : (x, y) becomes (y, x)
My = x : (x, y) ® (y, x)
In this case the value of abscissa (x) and the ordinate (y) are interchanged.
(iv) Reflection in the origin (M0) : The general rule for a reflection in the origin : (x, y) becomes (– x, – y)
M0 = x : (x, y) ® ( – x, – y)
12 ]
In this case the sign of abscissa (x) and the sign of ordinate (y) are changed.
 Invariant Point : When the point lies on the line then the image of that point is itself, such a point is called an
invariant point with the respect of the line.
\ Invariant point remains unchanged after a reflection.

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CHAPTER-11
AND MID-POINT FORMULA
Revision Notes
 The distance between two distinct points A (x1, y1) and B (x2, y2) = ( x 2 − x1 )2 + ( y 2 − y1 )2 .

or ( x1 − x 2 )2 + ( y1 − y 2 )2

 Co-ordinates of point which divides the line segment joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the ratio m : n
internally are :

 mx + nx1   my + ny1 
x =  2 and y =  2
 m + n   m + n 

 Co-ordinates of mid-point of the line segment joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are

 x + x1   y + y1 
x =  2 and y =  2
 2   2 

 If A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3, y3) are vertices of a triangle, then the co-ordinates of centroid are m = 1.

 x + x 2 + x3 y1 + y 2 + y3 
G =  1 ,  n = 1.
 3 3

 If A(x1, y1), B(x2, y2) and C(x3,y3) are vertices of a triangle, then the co-ordinates of incentre are :

 ax + bx 2 + cx3 ay1 + by 2 + cy3 

I=  1 ,  , where a, b and c are the sides of a triangle.
 a+b+c a+b+c 

y 2 − y1
 If the two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) are given, then the slope = .
x 2 − x1

Know the Terms

 Co-ordinate geometry is the system of geometry where the position of points on the plane is described using an
ordered pair of numbers.
 Cartesian plane was discovered by Rene Descartes .
 The other name of co-ordinate geometry is Analytical Geometry.
 Co-ordinate Geometry acts as a bridge between the Algebra and Geometry.
 Medians of a triangle are concurrent. The point of concurrency is called the centroid.
 Trisection of a line segment means dividing it into 3 equal parts, so 2 points are required.
 Centroid of a triangle divides its median in the ratio of 2 : 1.
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 [ 13

CHAPTER-12
EQUATION OF STRAIGHT LINES
TOPIC-1
Equation of Straight Lines

Revision Notes
 Different Form of the Equation of a Straight Lines :
(i) Slope Intercept Form : The equation of line with slope m and making a intercept c on Y-axis, is
y = mx + c
I f line passes through the origin, then its equation will be
y = mx (c = 0),
(ii) One Point Slope Form : The equation of a line which passes through the point (x1, y1) and has the slope of m is
given by
(y – y1) = m(x – x1)
(iii) Two Point Form : The equation of a line passing through the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) is given by
 y − y1  y 2 − y1
(y – y1) =  2  ( x − x1 ) Here m = x − x
x
 2 − x 1  2 1

 Angle between Two Lines :

Let l1 and l2 be two lines and their inclination with X-axis are a1, and a2, respectively. Then, their slopes are

m1 = tan a1 and m2 = tan a2.
l2
l1
y
f
q

a1 a2
X' X
Let q be the angle between l1 and l2, then
a2 = q + a1
 q = a2 – a1
 tan q = tan(a2 – a1)
tan α 2 − tan α 1
tan q =
1 + tan α 2 ·tan α 1
On putting tan a1 = m1 and tan a2 = m2,
m2 − m1
tan q =
1 + m1 ·m2
If f be the exterior angle between the lines, then
tan f = tan(p – q)
( m2 − m1 )
= − tan θ = −
1 + m1m2
m2 − m1 m2 − m1 m − m1
Hence, complete formula is tan q = ± or tan q = or q = tan −1 2
1 + m1m2 1 + m1m2 1 + m1m2
 If parts A, B and C are collinear, then : slope of AB = Slope of BC.
14 ]

TOPIC-2
Parallel and Perpendicular lines

Revision Notes
 Condition of Parallelism of Lines
If two lines of slopes m1 and m2 are parallel, then the angle q between them is 0°.

m2 − m1
\
tan q = tan 0° = =0
1 + m1m2

m2 – m1 = 0  m1 = m2
Thus,
two lines are parallel, if and only if their slopes are equal i.e., m1 = m2.
 Condition of Perpendicularity of Two Lines
If two lines of slopes m1 and m2 are perpendicular, then the angle q between them is 90°,
\ tan q = tan 90°
m2 − m1 sin 90° 1
Þ = =
1 + m1m2 cos 90° 0
Þ 1 + m1m2 = 0
\ m1m2 = – 1
Thus, two lines are perpendicular, if and only if their slopes m1 and m2 satisfy the condition
1
m1 ·m2 = −1 or m1 = −
m2

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CHAPTER-13
SIMILARITY
Revision Notes
 A triangle is one of the basic shapes of geometry. It is a polygon with 3 sides and 3 vertices/corners.
 Two figures are said to be congruent if they have the same shape and the same size.
 Those figures which have the same shape but not necessarily the same size are called similar figures.
Hence, we can say that all congruent figures are similar but all similar figures are not always congruent.
 Similarity of Polygons : Two polygons having same number of sides are similar, if :
(i) their corresponding sides are proportional i.e., in the same ratio.
(ii) their corresponding angles are equal.
 Similarity of Triangles : Two triangles are similar, if :
(i) their corresponding sides are proportional i.e., in same ratio.
(ii) their corresponding angles are equal.
If ∆ABC and ∆DEF are similar, then this similarity can be written as ∆ABC ~ ∆DEF.
 Criteria for Similarity of Triangles :
L P

M N Q R
 [ 15

In DLMN and DPQR, if

LM MN LN
(i) ÐL = ÐP, ÐM = ÐQ, ÐN = ÐR (ii) = =
PQ QR PR
then DLMN ~ DPQR.
(i) AAA-Criterion : If in two triangles, corresponding angles are equal, then the triangles are similar (or AA criterion).
Remark : If two angles of a triangle are respectively equal to the two angles of another triangle, then by the angle
sum property of a triangle their third angles will also be equal. Therefore, AAA similarity criterion can also be
stated as follows :
AA-Criterion : If two angles of one triangle are respectively equal to two angles of another triangle, then the two
triangles are similar.
(ii) SSS-Criterion : If in two triangles the sides of one triangle are proportional to the sides of another triangle, then
their corresponding angles are equal and hence the two triangles are similar.
(iii) SAS-Criterion : If one angle of a triangle is equal to one angle of another triangle and the sides including these
angles are in the same ratio, then the two triangles are similar.
 Some theorems based on similarity of triangles :
(i) If a line is drawn parallel to one side of a triangle to intersect the other two sides in distinct points, the other two
sides are divided in the same ratio. It is known as ‘Basic Proportionality Theorem’ or ‘Thales Theorem’.
(ii) If a line divides any two sides of a triangle in the same ratio, then the line is parallel to the third side. It is the
Converse of Basic Proportionality Theorem.
(iii) If two triangles are similar, then the ratio of areas of these triangles is equal to the ratio of squares of their
corresponding sides.
 Theorems Based on Right Angled Triangles :
(i) If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the right angle of a right triangle to the hypotenuse, then the
triangles on both sides of the perpendicular are similar to the whole triangle and also to each other.
(ii) In a right angled triangle, the square of hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. It is
known as Pythagoras Theorem.

Know the Terms

 In any triangle, the sum of the squares of any two sides is equal to twice the square of half of the third side
together with the twice of the square of the median which bisects the third side.
 Three times the sum of the squares of the sides of a triangle is equal to four times the sum of the squares of the
median of the triangle.
 Three times the square of any side of an equilateral triangle is equal to four times the square of the altitude.
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CHAPTER-14
CIRCLES
Revision Notes
 A circle is a collection (set) of all those points in a plane, each one of which is at a constant distance from a fixed
point in the plane.
 The fixed point is called the centre and the constant distance is called the radius of the circle.
 All the points lying inside a circle are called its interior points and all those points which lie outside the circle are
called its exterior points.
 The collection (set) of all interior points of a circle is called the interior of the circle while the collection of all
exterior points of a circle is called the exterior of the circle.

 In a circle, equal chords subtend equal angles at the centre.

 The chords corresponding to congruent arcs are equal.
 If two arcs of a circle (or of congruent circles) are congruent, then the corresponding chords are equal.
16 ]
 If two chords of a circle (or of congruent circles) are equal, then their corresponding arcs (minor, major or semi-
circular) are congruent.
 One and only one circle can be drawn through three non-collinear points.
 An infinite number of circles can be drawn through a given point P.
 An infinite number of circles can be drawn through the two given points.
 Perpendicular bisectors of two chords of a circle intersect each other at the centre of the circle.
 The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle subtended by it at any point on the remaining
part of the circle.
 Angles in the same segment of a circle are equal.
 An angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
 If arc of a circle subtending a right angle at any point on the remaining part of the circle, then are is said to be
semi-circle.
 If a line segment joining any two points subtends equal angles at two other points lying on the same side of the
line segment, the four points are concyclic, i.e., lies on the same circle.
 Angle subtended by an arc at centre is double the angle subtended by the same arc at circumference.
 The sum of opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral is 180° and vice versa.
 The exterior angle of a cyclic quadrilateral is equal to the opposite interior angle and vice versa.
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CHAPTER-15
TANGENTS AND ITS PROPERTIES
Revision Notes
 A tangent to a circle is a line that intersects the circle at one point only.
 The common point of the circle and the tangent is called the point of contact.
 The length of the segment of the tangent from the external point P and the point of contact with the circle is called
the length of the tangent.
 A tangent to a circle is a special case of the secant when the two end points of the corresponding chord coincide.
 There is no tangent to a circle passing through a point lying inside the circle.
 There are exactly two tangents to a circle through a point outside the circle.

Tangent Line

Radius
Point of Contact

 At any point on the circle there can be one and only one tangent.
 The tangent at any point of a circle is perpendicular to the radius through the point of contact.
 The lengths of the tangents drawn from an external point to a circle are equal.

B
In the figure, PA = PB.
 [ 17
 Alternate segment Theorem : If a line touches a circle and chord is drawn from the point of contact, the angle
between the tangent and the chord is equal to the angle in the corresponding alternate segment.
\ ÐTPQ = ÐPRQ
and ÐSPR = ÐPQR
R

30°
S P T

Know the Terms

 The word ‘tangent’ comes from the latin word ‘tangere’, which means to touch and was introduced by the Danish
mathematician Thomas Fincke in 1583.
 The line containing the radius through the point of contact is also sometimes called the ‘normal’ to the circle at
the point.
 In two concentric circles, the chord of the larger circle, which touches the smaller circle, is bisected at the point of
contact.
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CHAPTER-16
CONSTRUCTIONS
Revision Notes
 To draw the tangent to a circle at a given point on it, when
the centre of the circle is known.
Given : A circle with centre O and a point P on it.

Required : To draw the tangent to the circle at P.
Steps of construction :
(i) Join OP.

(ii) Draw a line AB perpendicular to OP at the point P.
APB is the required tangent at P.
 To draw the tangents to a circle from a point outside it (external A
point) when its centre is known.
Given : A circle with centre O and a point P outside it.
P
Required : To construct the tangents to the circle from P. M O
Steps of construction :
(i) Join OP and bisect it. Let M be the mid-point of OP. B
(ii) Taking M as centre and MO as radius, draw a circle to intersect
C (O, r) in two points, say A and B.
(iii) Join PA and PB. These are the required tangents from P to C (O, r).
 To draw tangents to a circle from a point outside it (when its centre is
not known)
Given : P is a point outside the circle.

Required : To draw tangents from a point P outside the circle.
Steps of construction :
(i) Draw a secant PAB to intersect the circle at A and B.
(ii) Produce AP to a point C, such that PA = PC.

(iii) With BC as a diameter, draw a semi circle.
18 ]

(iv)Draw PO ^ CB, intersecting the semi circle at O.

(v) Taking PO as radius and P as centre, draw arc to intersect the circle at T and T’.
(vi) Join PT and PT’, then PT and PT’ are the required tangents.
 To construct a circumscribed circle on a Triangle.
Steps of construction :
(i) Firstly draw a DABC with given data.
(ii) Draw the perpendicular bisectors of AB and BC, which intersect at O.
(iii) Taking O as centre and OA as radius, draw a circle which passes through the points A,B and C.
C

A B

 To Construct a inscribed circle in a Triangle.

Steps of construction :
(i) Firstly draw a DABC with given data.
(ii) Draw angle bisectors of ÐABC and ÐACB, which intersect at point I.
(iii) From point I, draw IN perpendicular to AB.
(iv) Taking I an centre and IN as radius draw a circle, which touches all side of a DABC

A

B N C
 Each interior angle of the regular hexagon.
 2×6 - 4 
= 
6  × 90° = 120°
 
 To construct a circumscribed circle an a Regular Hexagon.
Steps of construction :
(i) Firstly construct a regular hexagon ABCDEF with given sides and angle between them is 120°.
(ii) Draw the perpendicular bisectors of the sides AB and BC, which interest at point O.
(iii) Taking O as centre and OA as radius draw a circle which passes through point A, B, C, D, E and F.
E

F D

A C

B
 [ 19
 To construct a inscribed circle in a Regular Hexagon.
Steps of construction :
(i) Firstly construct a regular hexagon ABCDEF with given side and angle between then is 120°.
(ii) Draw bisector of two adjacent angles ÐA and ÐB, which intersect at point O.
(iii) Taking point O, draw perpendicular ON to AB.
(iv)Taking O as centre and ON as radius draw a circle which touches all side of hexagon ABCDEF.
E D

F O C

A N B

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CHAPTER-17
MENSURATION
TOPIC-1
Surface Areas and Volumes

Revision Notes
 Volume is the space occupied by the solid body. It is always represented or measured in cubic units.
 Surface area is the area of all of its surfaces together. It is always measured in sq units.
 The total surface area of the solid formed by the combination of solids is the sum of the curved surface areas of
each of the individual parts.
 When solid is melted and converted into another solid, volume of both the solids remains the same, assuming
there is no wastage during the conversions. The surface area of the two solids may or may not be the same.
 The solids having the same curved surface do not necessarily have the same volume.
 Right circular cylinder : r
Area of base or top face = πr²
Area of curved surface or lateral surface area = perimeter of the base × height = 2πrh
Total surface area (including both ends) = 2πrh + 2πr² = 2πr(h + r) h
Volume = (Area of the base × height)= πr²h
Here, r is the radius of base and h is the height.
 Right circular hollow cylinder :
Total surface area = (External surface) + (Area of ends) R
r
= (2πRh + 2πrh) + 2(πR² – πr²)
= [2πh(R+ r) + 2π(R² – r²)]
= [2π(R + r)(h + R – r)] h
Curved surface area = (2πRh + 2πrh)= 2πh(R + r)
Volume of the material used = (External volume) – (Internal volume)
= πR²h – πr²h = πh(R² – r²)
 Right circular cone :
Slant height (l) = h2 + r 2

Area of curved surface = πrl = πr h 2 + r 2

Total surface area = Area of curved surface + Area of base
20 ]
= πrl + πr² = πr(l + r)
1
Volume = πr²h
3 h l
 Sphere :
Surface area = 4πr²
4 r
Volume = πr3 r
3
 Spherical shell :
Surface area (outer) = 4πR2
4 4
Volume of material = πR3 – πr3
3 3 r
4 3 3
= π(R – r ) R
3
 Hemisphere :
Area of curved surface = 2πr²
Total surface area = Area of curved surface + Area of base
= 2πr² + πr²
= 3πr² r
2 3 r
Volume = πr
3
Total volume of the solid to be converted
 Number of solid shape =
Volume of converteed solid

Know the Terms

 The platonic solids also called the regular solids or regular polyhedra. Four such solid cubes are : dodecahedron,
icosahedron, octahedron and tetrahedron.
 Greek mathematician Plato equated tetrahedron with the ‘element’ fire, the cube with earth, the icosahedron
with water, the octahedron with air and dodecahedron with the stuff of which the constellations and heavens
were made.
 The stone of platonic solids are kept in Ashmolean Museum in Oxford.

TOPIC-2
Problem Involving Converting One Shape of
Metallic Solid into Another Shape
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CHAPTER-18
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
Revision Notes
A
 An equation is called an identity if it is true for all values of the variable(s) involved.
 An equation involving trigonometric ratios of an angle is called a trigonometric
identity, if it is true for all values of the angle.
In DABC, right-angled at B,
AB2 + BC2 = AC2 (By Pythagoras theorem) ... (1)
2
Dividing each term of (1) by AC ,

C B
 [ 21

AB2 BC 2 AC 2
+ =
AC 2 AC 2 AC 2
2 2 2
 AB   BC   AC 

i.e., + = 
 AC   AC   AC 

i.e., (sin A)2 + (cos A)2 = 1

i.e., cos2 A + sin2 A = 1
or 1 – sin2 A = cos2 A
or 1 – cos2 A = sin2 A, 0° ≤ A £ 90°
Similarly we get other trigonometric identities are
i.e., 1 + tan2 A = sec2 A
or tan2 A = sec2 A–1
or sec2 A – tan2 A = 1, 0° £ A < 90°
And cot2 A + 1 = cosec2 A
or cot2 A = cosec2 A – 1
or cosec2 A – cot2 A = 1, 0° < A £ 90°
 Other relations is trigonometric functions :
1 sin A 1 cos A
tan A = = , cot A = = .
cot A cos A tan A sin A
1 1 1 1
sec A = or cos A = , cosec A = or sin A =
cos A sec A sin A cosec A

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CHAPTER-19
HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES
Revision Notes
 The line of sight is the line drawn from the eye of an observer to a point in the object viewed by the observer.
 The angle of elevation of an object viewed is the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when it is
above the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we raise our head to look at the object.
(Object)
Height of object

Line of sight

Angle of elevation
(Observer)
Horizontal
 The angle of depression of an object viewed is the angle formed by the line of sight with the horizontal when it is
below the horizontal level, i.e., the case when we lower our head to look at the object.
(Observer)
Horizontal

Angle of depression

Line of sight

(Object)
 Ratio of the sides of the right triangle with respect to the acute angles is called trigonometric ratios of the angle.
 The height or object above the water surface is equal to the depth of its image below the water surface.
22 ]
 The values of the trigonometric ratios of an angle do not vary with the length of the sides of the triangle, if the
angles remain the same.
 When the observer moves towards the perpendicular line, the angle of elevation increases and when the observer
mover away from the perpendicular line, angle of elevation decreases.
 When the angle of elevation of the tower decreases the shadow of tower increases.
 Trigonometric ratios : Consider the following diagram
C

h P

A B
b
side opposite to ∠A p side adjacent to ∠A b

(i) sin A = = (ii) cos A = =
hypotenuse h hypotenuse h

side opposite to ∠A p hypotenuse h

(iii) tan A = = (iv) cosec A = =
side adjacent to ∠ A b side opposite to ∠A p

hypotenuse h side adjacent to ∠A b

(v) sec A = = (vi) cot A = =
side adjacent to ∠ A b side opposite to ∠A p

 Values of trigonometric ratios :

A 0° 30° 45° 60° 90°

1 1 3
sin A 0 1
2 2 2

3 1 1
cos A 1 0
2 2 2

1
tan A 0 1 3 ∞
3

2
cosec A ∞ 2 2 1
3

2
sec A 1 2 2 ∞
3

1
cot A ∞ 3 1 0
3

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 [ 23

CHAPTER-20
STATISTICS
TOPIC-1
Mean, Median and Mode

Revision Notes
 Statistics deals with the collection, presentation and analysis of numerical data.
 Three measures of central tendency are :
(i) Mean, (ii) Median
(iii) Mode
 Mean : The mean of n quantities x1, x2, x3, ......., xn is
x1 + x 2 + x3 + .... + xn 1 n
Mean = = ∑ xi
n n i =1
where, the Greek letter S(sigma) means ‘Summation of ’.
 Median : It is defined as the middle most or the central value of the variable in a set of observations, when the
observations are arranged either in ascending or descending order of their magnitudes.
It divides the arranged series in two equal parts i.e. 50 % of the observations lie below the median and the
remaining are above the median.
 Mode : The item which occurs most frequently i.e., maximum number of times is called mode.
 Mean :
(a) For raw data :

If n observations x1, x2, ..., xn are given, then their arithmetic mean is given by :
x = x1 + x 2 + .... + xn = 1 ∑ xi
n

n n i =1
(b) For Ungrouped Data :

If there are n distinct observations x1, x2,..., xn of variable x with frequencies f1, f2,..., fn respectively, then the
arithmetic mean is given by :
n

f1x1 + f2 x 2 + .... + fn xn ∑ fx i i
x = = i =1
n
f1 + f2 + f3 + .... + fn
∑f
i =1
i

(c) For Grouped Data :

(i) To find the mean of grouped data, it is assumed that the frequency of each class interval is centred
around its mid point.
(ii) Direct Method :
n

∑ fx
i =1
i i

Mean ( x ) = n ,
∑f
i =1
i

th
where the xi (class mark) is the mid-point of the i class interval and fi is the corresponding frequency.
(iii) Assumed Mean Method or Short-cut Method :
n

∑ fdi =1
i i

Mean ( x ) = A + n ,
∑ fi
i =1

where A is the assumed mean and di = xi – A are the deviations of xi from A for each i.
(iv) Step-Deviation Method :
n

∑ fu i i
Mean ( x ) = A + i =1
n
×h ,
∑ fi
i =1
24 ]
−x A
where A is the assumed mean, h is the class size and ui = i ·
h
 Median :
(a) For Ungrouped Data :

th
 n + 1
If n is odd, Median =  term
 2 
th th
 n n 
 2  term +  2 + 1 term

If n is even, Median =
2
 Empirical Relation Between Mean, Median and Mode :
(i)
Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean
1 2
(ii) Median = Mode + Mean
3 3
3 1
(iii) Mean = Median – Mode
2 2

TOPIC-2
Calculation of median and mode Through Graphs

Revision Notes
 Cumulative frequency curve or an Ogive curve : The graphical representation of a cumulative frequency
distribution is called the cumulative frequency curve or ogive.
There are two methods to construct ogives :
1. Less than ogive :

In this method an ogive is cumulated upward. Scale the cumulative frequencies along the y-axis and exact upper
limits along the x-axis. The scale along the y-axis should be in such a way that it accommodate the total frequency.
Step 1 : Form the cumulative frequency table.
Step 2 : Mark the actual upper class limits along the x-axis.
Step 3 : Mark the cumulative frequency of the respective classes along the y-axis.
Step 4 : Plot the points (upper limits, corresponding cumulative frequency.)

By joining these points on the graph by a free hand curve, we get an ogive of ‘less than’ type.
2. More than ogive :
In this method an ogive is cumulated downward. Scale the cumulative frequencies along the y-axis and the exact
lower limits along the x-axis.
Step 1 : Scale the cumulative frequencies along the y-axis and the actual lower limits along the x–axis.
Step 2 : Plot the ordered pairs (lower limit, corresponding cumulative frequency). To complete an ogive we also
plot the ordered pair (upper limit of the highest class, 0).
Step 3 : Join these plotted points by a smooth curve. The curve so obtained is the required ‘more than’ type ogive.
 Median :
Ogive can be used to estimate the median of the data. There are two methods to do so :
n
I. Mark a point corresponding to , where n is the total frequency on cumulative frequency axis (i.e., y-axis).
2
Draw a line parallel to x-axis to cut the ogive at a point. From this point draw a line perpendicular to the x-axis
to get another point. The abscissa of this point gives median.
II. Draw both the ogives (less than and more than ogive) on the same graph paper which cut each other at a

point. From this point draw a line perpendicular to the x-axis, to get another point. The point at which it cuts
x-axis, gives the median.
3. Calculation of mode from histogram : In a continuous frequency distribution the mode can be determined from
the histogram.
 [ 25
Method to determine the mode :
Step 1 : First, we draw histogram for the given data.
Step 2 : Inside the highest rectangle (which represents the class with maximum frequency i.e., modal class). We
draw two straight lines from the corners of the rectangles on both sides of the highest rectangle to the opposite
corners of the highest rectangle to intersect each other.
Step 3 : Through the point of intersection of the two straight lines, we draw a vertical line to meet the x-axis at the
point (m) (say). The distance from origin to the point m is the required mode.
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CHAPTER-21
PROBABILITY
Revision Notes
 The sum of the probabilities of all elementary events of an experiment is 1.
 Probability of an event lies from 0 and 1.
 A pack of playing cards consists of 52 cards which are divided into 4 suits of 13 cards each. Each suit consists of
one ace, one king, one queen, one jack and 9 other cards numbered from 2 to 10. Four suits are spades, hearts,
diamonds and clubs.
 King, queen and jack are face cards.
 Clubs and spades are of black, while hearts and diamonds are of red colour.

Know the Terms

 An event which always happens is a sure event and event which never happen is an impossible event.
 Probability is a quantitative measure of certainty.
 Any activity associated to certain outcome is called an experiment. e.g.,
(i) tossing a coin, (ii) throwing a die, (iii) selecting a card.

 A trial is an action which will result in one or several outcomes.
 An event for an experiment is the collection of some outcomes of the experiment.
e.g., (i) getting a head on tossing a coin, (ii) getting a face card when a card is drawn from a pack of 52 cards.
 The empirical (experimental) probability of an event E denoted as P(E) is given by :
Number of trials in which the event has happened
Empirical probability P(E) =
Total numbeer of trials
Favourable outcomes
or P (E) =
Total no. of outcomes

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