1

What is gene editing?

• Gene editing is a technique to alter the DNA sequence of an organism,
such as inserting, deleting, or modifying genes.

What is the CRISPR-Cas9 system?

• CRISPR-Cas9 is a gene editing tool that uses a guide RNA to target and
cut specific DNA sequences.

How does CRISPR-Cas9 target specific DNA sequences?

• It uses a guide RNA that matches the DNA sequence to direct the Cas9
protein to the correct location to make a cut.

What are TALENs?

• TALENs are proteins that can be engineered to cut specific DNA
sequences, similar to CRISPR.

What are ZFNs?

• ZFNs are zinc finger nucleases, which are proteins that can be designed to
target and cut specific DNA sequences.

What role do guide RNAs play in CRISPR-Cas9?

• Guide RNAs direct the Cas9 protein to the specific DNA sequence that
needs to be edited.

What is the purpose of a donor DNA template in gene editing?

• A donor DNA template is used to provide a new DNA sequence to be
inserted at the cut site during gene editing.

How does Agrobacterium tumefaciens facilitate gene transfer in plants?

• It naturally transfers part of its DNA to plant cells, which can be modified
to include desired genes.
 2

What is a transgenic plant?

• A transgenic plant has DNA from another organism inserted into its
genome.

What is gene knockout?

• Gene knockout is a technique to completely disable a gene's function.

How is RNA interference (RNAi) used in plants?

• RNAi silences specific genes by degrading their mRNA, preventing protein
production.

What are the steps involved in the CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing process?
• Design guide RNA, deliver CRISPR-Cas9 to cells, cut DNA, repair DNA with
desired changes.

What is the difference between gene editing and traditional breeding?

• Gene editing directly changes DNA, while traditional breeding mixes genes
through mating.

How does gene silencing work?

• Gene silencing reduces or prevents the expression of a gene.

What is a selectable marker gene?

• A gene used to identify cells that have taken up the foreign DNA.

What is a reporter gene?

• A gene that produces a visible trait to indicate successful gene transfer.

How is protoplast transformation performed?

• Plant cells are made into protoplasts by removing their cell walls, then
DNA is introduced.

What is genome editing?

• Making precise changes to the DNA sequence of an organism’s genome.
 3

How are genes introduced into plant cells using biolistics?

• DNA-coated tiny particles are shot into plant cells using a gene gun.

What is the role of tissue culture in plant genetic engineering?

• Tissue culture grows plant cells in a controlled environment for
manipulation.

How can gene expression be controlled in genetically modified plants?

• By using specific promoters that regulate when and where genes are
active.

What are the potential benefits of genetically modified (GM) plants?

• Increased yield, pest resistance, and improved nutritional content.

What are off-target effects in CRISPR-Cas9?

• Unintended changes to DNA at locations other than the target site.

How is CRISPR-Cas9 specificity improved?

• By designing better guide RNAs and modifying Cas9 to reduce off-target
activity.

What are the ethical concerns related to genetic manipulation in plants?

• Potential environmental impacts, food safety, and biodiversity loss.

How can whole genome sequencing aid in plant gene editing?

• It helps identify target genes and verify successful editing.

What are gene drives and how are they used in plants?
• Gene drives ensure a genetic trait spreads rapidly through a population,
used for controlling pests.

How is site-directed mutagenesis performed in plants?

• By creating specific changes in DNA at precise locations using editing
tools.
 4

What is the role of promoter sequences in gene expression?

• Promoters control when and where a gene is turned on.

How can gene expression be quantified in genetically modified plants?

• By measuring mRNA levels using techniques like qPCR.

What are inducible promoters?

• Promoters that can be turned on by specific external stimuli.

How are plasmids used in gene manipulation?

• Plasmids are circular DNA molecules used to carry and introduce genes
into cells.

What is homologous recombination?

• A natural process where DNA strands exchange similar or identical
sequences, used for precise gene editing.

How does RNA-guided DNA endonuclease function in CRISPR?

• It cuts DNA at locations guided by the RNA sequence.

What is the difference between stable and transient transformation?

• Stable transformation integrates DNA into the genome; transient does not.

How is plant transformation efficiency measured?

• By calculating the percentage of cells or plants that successfully
incorporate and express the new gene.

What is the role of antibiotics in selecting transformed cells?

• Antibiotics kill non-transformed cells, allowing only transformed cells to
grow.

How are genetically modified plants screened for successful gene

insertion?
• Using molecular techniques like PCR and Southern blotting.
 5

What is gene stacking in plant biotechnology?

• Introducing multiple genes into a plant to create desired traits.

What are potential risks of gene manipulation in plants?

• Unintended ecological effects, gene flow to wild relatives, and potential
health risks.

What is gene mapping?

• Gene mapping determines the location of genes on a chromosome.

What are genetic markers?

• Genetic markers are specific DNA sequences used to identify a location on
a chromosome.

How does linkage analysis help in locating genes?

• Linkage analysis identifies genes based on their tendency to be inherited
together with known markers.

What is the significance of physical mapping?

• Physical mapping provides the exact physical location of genes on a
chromosome.

How is fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) used in gene locating?

• FISH uses fluorescent probes to bind to specific DNA sequences on
chromosomes, highlighting gene locations.

What role does whole genome sequencing play in gene locating?

• It provides a comprehensive map of all genes in an organism's genome.

How can comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) be used to locate

genes?
• CGH compares genomes to identify differences and locate genes.
 6

What is positional cloning?

• Positional cloning involves identifying and isolating genes based on their
position on the chromosome.

How are genome-wide association studies (GWAS) used to locate genes?

• GWAS identify genetic variants associated with traits by scanning the
entire genome.

What is the role of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) in

gene mapping?
• RFLP detects variations in DNA sequences to help locate genes.

How do microsatellites assist in gene locating?

• Microsatellites are repeating sequences used as markers to map genes.

What is the importance of SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism)

analysis in gene locating?
• SNP analysis identifies variations at single DNA bases, helping to pinpoint
gene locations.

How does chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) aid in locating genes?

• ChIP identifies DNA sequences bound by specific proteins, indicating gene
locations.

What is the significance of bioinformatics in locating genes?

• Bioinformatics uses computational tools to analyze genetic data and locate
genes.

How can transposable elements be used to locate genes?

• Transposable elements can disrupt genes, helping identify their locations.

What is the role of knockout studies in locating genes?

• Knockout studies inactivate genes to study their function and locate them
on the genome.
 7

How do genetic crosses help in locating genes?

• Genetic crosses analyze offspring traits to determine gene positions.

What is the purpose of using model organisms in gene locating?

• Model organisms have well-mapped genomes, making it easier to locate
genes of interest.

What is gene cloning?

• Gene cloning is the process of creating copies of a specific gene.

How is recombinant DNA technology related to gene cloning?

• Recombinant DNA technology combines DNA from different sources to
clone genes.

What are plasmids and how are they used in gene cloning?
• Plasmids are circular DNA molecules used as vectors to carry and replicate
cloned genes.

What is the importance of gene cloning in the pharmaceutical industry?

• Gene cloning produces proteins like insulin and growth hormones for
medical use.

How does gene cloning benefit agriculture?

• Gene cloning creates genetically modified crops with improved traits such
as pest resistance.

What role does gene cloning play in the production of enzymes?

• Gene cloning mass-produces enzymes used in industry, such as those in
detergents and food processing.

How is gene cloning used in gene therapy?

• Gene cloning provides the genetic material needed to replace defective
genes in patients.
 8

What is the significance of cloning genes for research purposes?

• Cloning genes allows scientists to study their functions and interactions in
detail.

How does gene cloning contribute to the production of vaccines?

• Cloned genes produce antigens for developing vaccines against diseases.

What are the benefits of using bacterial vectors in gene cloning?

• Bacterial vectors replicate quickly, making them efficient for producing
large quantities of cloned genes.

What is the role of selectable markers in gene cloning?

• Selectable markers help identify cells that have successfully taken up the
cloned gene.

How does polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assist in gene cloning?

• PCR amplifies specific DNA sequences, making it easier to clone genes.

What is a genomic library and how is it used in gene cloning?

• A genomic library is a collection of DNA fragments representing an
organism's genome, used to identify and clone genes.

How are cDNA libraries used in gene cloning?

• cDNA libraries contain only expressed genes, making them useful for
cloning functional genes.

What is the role of gene cloning in producing biofuels?

• Gene cloning creates microorganisms that can efficiently produce biofuels
from renewable resources.

How can gene cloning be used to study gene expression?

• Cloned genes can be inserted into cells to observe how they are expressed
and regulated.
 9

What is the significance of cloning disease-related genes?

• Cloning disease-related genes helps in understanding the genetic basis of
diseases and developing treatments.

What are restriction endonucleases?

• Restriction endonucleases are enzymes that cut DNA at specific sequences.

How do restriction endonucleases recognize DNA sequences?

• They recognize specific palindromic sequences within the DNA.

What is the difference between blunt ends and sticky ends?

• Blunt ends are straight cuts across both DNA strands, while sticky ends have
overhanging sequences.

What is the role of DNA ligase?

• DNA ligase joins DNA fragments together by forming phosphodiester bonds.

How are restriction enzymes named?

• They are named after the bacteria from which they were isolated (e.g., EcoRI from
E. coli).

What is a recognition site in the context of restriction enzymes?

• A recognition site is a specific DNA sequence where a restriction enzyme cuts.

What is the significance of restriction enzymes in molecular biology?

• They are essential for DNA cloning, mapping, and analysis.

How does EcoRI cut DNA?

• EcoRI cuts DNA at the sequence GAATTC, producing sticky ends with AATT
overhangs.

What is a restriction map?

• A restriction map shows the locations of restriction enzyme cut sites within a
DNA molecule.
 10

What is the function of T4 DNA ligase?

• T4 DNA ligase is commonly used to join DNA fragments together in molecular
cloning.

How are restriction enzymes used in cloning?

• They cut DNA at specific sites to allow insertion of new DNA fragments.

What are isoschizomers?

• Isoschizomers are different restriction enzymes that recognize and cut the same
DNA sequence.

What is the significance of sticky ends in DNA cloning?

• Sticky ends facilitate the joining of DNA fragments with complementary
sequences.

What are neoschizomers?

• Neoschizomers are restriction enzymes that recognize the same sequence but cut
at different sites.

How is DNA ligase used in the construction of recombinant DNA?

• DNA ligase seals the nicks in the sugar-phosphate backbone, joining the inserted
DNA with the vector.

What are the applications of restriction fragment length polymorphism

(RFLP)?
• RFLP is used in genetic mapping, paternity testing, and forensic analysis.

How do type II restriction enzymes differ from type I and III?

• Type II restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sites within or near their
recognition sequences, while types I and III cut at variable distances from their
recognition sites.

What is a multiple cloning site (MCS)?

• An MCS is a region in a plasmid vector containing several unique restriction
enzyme sites for inserting DNA.
 11

What role do restriction enzymes play in gel electrophoresis?

• They generate DNA fragments of different lengths, which can be separated by gel
electrophoresis.

How can restriction enzymes be used to create a recombinant plasmid?

• By cutting both the plasmid and the foreign DNA with the same restriction
enzyme, allowing them to be ligated together.

What is the importance of temperature in restriction enzyme activity?

• Most restriction enzymes function optimally at specific temperatures, usually
around 37°C.

How can the activity of restriction enzymes be inhibited?

• Their activity can be inhibited by methylation of the recognition site or by specific
inhibitors.

What are compatible cohesive ends?

• Cohesive ends that can pair and be ligated together because they have
complementary sequences.

What is a ligation reaction in molecular cloning?

• A ligation reaction is the process of joining DNA fragments together using DNA
ligase.

What is the role of ATP in the ligation process? - ATP provides the energy
needed for DNA ligase to form phosphodiester bonds.

What is star activity in restriction enzymes? - Star activity refers to the

altered specificity of a restriction enzyme under non-optimal conditions, leading
to cleavage at non-canonical sites.

What are the differences between endonucleases and

exonucleases? - Endonucleases cut within a DNA strand, while exonucleases
remove nucleotides from the ends.
 12

How are restriction enzymes used in constructing DNA libraries? -

They cut genomic DNA into fragments that can be cloned into vectors to create a
library.

What is the significance of using two different restriction enzymes

in cloning? - Using two different enzymes creates non-compatible ends,
preventing re-ligation of the vector without the insert.

What is the function of restriction modification systems in

bacteria? - They protect bacterial DNA from degradation by their own
restriction enzymes through methylation of recognition sites.

How do researchers determine the correct restriction enzyme to

use for cloning? - By analyzing the DNA sequence to identify restriction sites
that will produce the desired fragments.

What is a cohesive end ligation? - A process where sticky ends of DNA

fragments with complementary sequences are joined together.

Why is DNA purification important after restriction enzyme

digestion? - To remove enzymes and other contaminants that could interfere
with subsequent cloning steps.

What is a cloning vehicle?

• A cloning vehicle, or vector, is a DNA molecule used to carry foreign genetic
material into a host cell for replication and expression.

What are plasmids?

• Plasmids are small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria that are commonly
used as cloning vectors.

What is a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)?

• A BAC is a large plasmid designed for cloning large DNA fragments (up to 300
kb) in bacteria.
 13

What are yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs)?

• YACs are vectors that allow the cloning of very large DNA fragments (up to 1 Mb)
in yeast cells.

What are cosmids?

• Cosmids are hybrid vectors that combine features of plasmids and
bacteriophages, used for cloning DNA fragments of 35-45 kb.

How do shuttle vectors work?

• Shuttle vectors can replicate in multiple host species, allowing the transfer of
DNA between different organisms.

What is the purpose of a selectable marker in a cloning vector?

• Selectable markers help identify cells that have successfully incorporated the
vector by providing resistance to an antibiotic.

What is a multiple cloning site (MCS)?

• An MCS is a short segment of DNA containing several unique restriction sites for
the insertion of foreign DNA.

What are the advantages of using plasmids as cloning vectors?

• Plasmids are easy to manipulate, replicate independently, and can carry a wide
range of DNA inserts.

What are bacteriophage vectors?

• Bacteriophage vectors are viruses that infect bacteria, used to clone DNA
fragments by integrating them into the phage genome.

What is the role of an origin of replication in a cloning vector?

• The origin of replication is a sequence that allows the vector to replicate
independently within the host cell.

How do expression vectors differ from cloning vectors?

• Expression vectors not only replicate DNA but also contain elements necessary
for the expression of the inserted gene.
 14

What is a viral vector?

• Viral vectors are modified viruses used to deliver genetic material into host cells
for cloning or gene therapy.

What are the components of a typical plasmid vector?

• A typical plasmid vector includes an origin of replication, selectable marker, and
multiple cloning site.

What are plant transformation vectors?

• Plant transformation vectors are used to introduce foreign genes into plant cells,
often using Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

What is a gene gun and how is it related to cloning vehicles?

• A gene gun is a device used to deliver DNA-coated particles into cells, often used
with plant transformation vectors.

What is the purpose of a reporter gene in a cloning vector?

• A reporter gene produces a detectable product, indicating the presence and
activity of the vector.

How are fosmids used as cloning vehicles?

• Fosmids are vectors that can carry large DNA fragments (up to 40 kb) and are
based on F-plasmid origins.

What is the significance of low copy number vectors?

• Low copy number vectors reduce the risk of toxicity from the cloned gene
product by limiting the number of vector copies per cell.

How do high copy number plasmids benefit cloning experiments?

• High copy number plasmids increase the yield of cloned DNA by producing many
copies of the plasmid within each cell.

What is the advantage of using yeast shuttle vectors?

• Yeast shuttle vectors allow cloning and manipulation in both E. coli and yeast,
facilitating genetic studies in eukaryotes.
 15

What is a transposon-based vector?

• A transposon-based vector uses transposable elements to insert genetic material
into the host genome.

What are the benefits of using lentiviral vectors?

• Lentiviral vectors can integrate into the host genome and are capable of infecting
both dividing and non-dividing cells, useful in gene therapy.

What is a synthetic vector?

• A synthetic vector is an artificially designed DNA molecule optimized for cloning,
often with customizable features.

How does a cloning vector facilitate the production of recombinant

proteins?
• By carrying the gene of interest into host cells, where it can be expressed and
translated into protein.

What is the role of an antibiotic resistance gene in a cloning vector?

• It allows for the selection of cells that have taken up the vector by providing
resistance to a specific antibiotic.

How do cloning vectors contribute to genomic library construction?

• They carry and replicate DNA fragments from the genome, enabling the assembly
of a library representing the entire genome.

What is the difference between cloning and expression vectors in terms

of applications?
• Cloning vectors are primarily used to replicate DNA, while expression vectors are
designed to produce proteins from the inserted genes.

What are integrative vectors?

• Integrative vectors insert their genetic material into the host genome, ensuring
stable maintenance and inheritance.
 16

What are the criteria for choosing an appropriate cloning vector?

• Criteria include the size of the DNA insert, host compatibility, copy number, and
presence of selectable markers.

What is a minimal cloning vector?

• A minimal cloning vector contains only the essential elements needed for
replication and selection, reducing unnecessary sequences.

How do fusion protein vectors work?

• Fusion protein vectors contain sequences that encode tags or additional proteins
fused to the cloned gene, aiding in purification or detection.

What is DNA probing?

• DNA probing involves using a labeled DNA sequence to detect the presence of a
complementary sequence in a sample.

What is a DNA probe?

• A DNA probe is a short, single-stranded DNA fragment that is labeled and used
to hybridize to a complementary sequence.

What are the types of labels used for DNA probes?

• Labels include radioactive isotopes, fluorescent dyes, and chemiluminescent tags.

What is hybridization in the context of DNA probing?

• Hybridization is the process where a DNA probe binds to its complementary DNA
sequence.

What is Southern blotting?

• Southern blotting is a technique used to detect specific DNA sequences in DNA
samples by transferring them onto a membrane and probing with a labeled DNA
probe.

Who developed the Southern blotting technique?

• The technique was developed by Edwin Southern in 1975.
 17

What is the first step in the Southern blotting process?

• The first step is to digest DNA with restriction enzymes to create smaller
fragments.

What is the purpose of gel electrophoresis in Southern blotting?

• Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments based on size.

How are DNA fragments transferred from a gel to a membrane in

Southern blotting?
• DNA fragments are transferred through capillary action onto a nylon or
nitrocellulose membrane.

What is the role of the membrane in Southern blotting?

• The membrane captures and immobilizes DNA fragments for hybridization with
the probe.

What is Northern blotting?

• Northern blotting is a technique used to detect specific RNA sequences.

How does Northern blotting differ from Southern blotting?

• Northern blotting analyzes RNA instead of DNA.

What is Western blotting?

• Western blotting is a technique used to detect specific proteins using antibodies.

What is the purpose of a loading control in blotting techniques?

• A loading control ensures equal loading of samples and verifies the results'
accuracy.

What is the main application of Southern blotting?

• Southern blotting is used to identify specific DNA sequences in a complex
mixture.
 18

What is a dot blot?

• A dot blot is a simpler technique where DNA, RNA, or protein samples are
applied directly onto a membrane and probed without prior separation by
electrophoresis.

What is the purpose of a probe washing step in blotting techniques?

• Probe washing removes non-specifically bound probes to reduce background
noise.

What is the significance of the denaturation step in Southern blotting?

• Denaturation separates the DNA strands, allowing the probe to bind to its
complementary sequence.

What is a chemiluminescent probe?

• A chemiluminescent probe emits light upon reaction with a substrate, allowing
detection of the hybridized probe.

What is a hybridization buffer?

• A hybridization buffer provides the optimal conditions for probe binding to the
target sequence.

How is the specificity of a DNA probe ensured?

• The specificity is ensured by designing the probe to match the unique sequence
of the target DNA.

What is the purpose of autoradiography in Southern blotting?

• Autoradiography visualizes the location of radioactive probes bound to the target
DNA on the membrane.

What is the principle of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH)?

• FISH uses fluorescent probes to detect and localize specific DNA sequences
within chromosomes or cells.
 19

What is the advantage of using fluorescent probes in blotting

techniques?
• Fluorescent probes allow for the direct visualization of hybridization results.

What is the main difference between Northern blotting and RNA

sequencing?
• Northern blotting detects specific RNA sequences, while RNA sequencing
provides comprehensive data on all RNA present in a sample.

How does Western blotting detect specific proteins?

• Western blotting uses antibodies specific to the target protein to detect and
visualize it on the membrane.

What is the importance of blocking in blotting techniques?

• Blocking prevents non-specific binding of probes or antibodies to the membrane,
reducing background noise.

How are results analyzed in Southern blotting?

• Results are analyzed by examining the pattern and intensity of bands on the
membrane that correspond to the hybridized probe.

What is capillary blotting?

• Capillary blotting is a method of transferring nucleic acids from a gel to a
membrane using capillary action.

How can the sensitivity of a DNA probe be increased?

• Sensitivity can be increased by using more specific probes, optimizing
hybridization conditions, and using more sensitive detection methods.

What is the purpose of stripping a membrane in Southern blotting?

• Stripping removes the probe from the membrane, allowing it to be re-probed
with a different sequence.
 20

What is a membrane hybridization assay?

• A membrane hybridization assay is a technique that uses a membrane to capture
and detect specific nucleic acid sequences through hybridization with labeled
probes.

Types of PCR

What is PCR?
• PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) is a technique used to amplify specific DNA
sequences.

What is the purpose of quantitative PCR (qPCR)?

• qPCR, or real-time PCR, quantifies DNA or RNA in a sample by measuring the
amount of amplified product in real-time.

What is the main difference between traditional PCR and quantitative

PCR?
• Traditional PCR measures the end product after a fixed number of cycles, while
qPCR measures the product during the amplification process in real-time.

What is reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR)?

• RT-PCR converts RNA into complementary DNA (cDNA) using reverse
transcriptase, followed by amplification of the cDNA.

What is the purpose of multiplex PCR?

• Multiplex PCR amplifies multiple target sequences in a single reaction by using
multiple sets of primers.

What is the main advantage of hot-start PCR?

• Hot-start PCR reduces non-specific amplification and improves the specificity of
the PCR by preventing enzyme activity until the reaction is heated.
 21

What is nested PCR?

• Nested PCR increases the specificity of the reaction by using two sets of primers
in two successive PCRs, with the second set amplifying a target within the first
PCR product.

What is touchdown PCR?

• Touchdown PCR gradually decreases the annealing temperature during the initial
cycles to improve specificity and yield.

What is digital PCR?

• Digital PCR partitions the sample into many individual reactions to provide
absolute quantification of DNA or RNA molecules.

What is inverse PCR?

• Inverse PCR amplifies DNA sequences flanking a known region by using primers
that extend outwards from the known sequence.

cDNA Synthesis

What is cDNA?
• cDNA, or complementary DNA, is synthesized from an RNA template using the
enzyme reverse transcriptase.

What is the first step in cDNA synthesis?

• The first step is the reverse transcription of RNA into cDNA.

What enzyme is essential for cDNA synthesis?

• Reverse transcriptase is essential for converting RNA into cDNA.

What is the purpose of an oligo(dT) primer in cDNA synthesis?

• An oligo(dT) primer binds to the poly-A tail of mRNA, allowing reverse
transcriptase to synthesize cDNA from the mRNA template.
 22

How is random priming used in cDNA synthesis?

• Random priming uses random hexamer primers to initiate cDNA synthesis at
multiple points along the RNA, providing full-length cDNA.

What is the benefit of using gene-specific primers for cDNA synthesis?

• Gene-specific primers allow the synthesis of cDNA from a specific RNA of
interest.

What is a common application of cDNA synthesis in molecular biology?

• cDNA synthesis is commonly used in RT-PCR to study gene expression.

Expression Analysis

What is gene expression analysis?

• Gene expression analysis measures the levels of mRNA to study how genes are
regulated and expressed in different conditions.

How is qPCR used in gene expression analysis?

• qPCR quantifies mRNA levels by measuring the amount of cDNA generated from
the RNA sample, allowing for the analysis of gene expression.

What is the purpose of a reference gene in expression analysis?

• A reference gene, or housekeeping gene, is used as a control to normalize the
expression levels of target genes for accurate comparison.

What is the role of microarrays in gene expression analysis?

• Microarrays analyze the expression of thousands of genes simultaneously by
hybridizing cDNA to a grid of known sequences.

What is RNA-Seq?
• RNA-Seq is a high-throughput sequencing method used to analyze the entire
transcriptome, providing detailed information on gene expression.
 23

What is the significance of fold change in gene expression analysis?

• Fold change indicates the relative difference in gene expression between
experimental and control samples.

What is differential gene expression?

• Differential gene expression refers to changes in gene expression levels between
different conditions, treatments, or time points.

What is the importance of normalization in qPCR-based gene expression

analysis?
• Normalization corrects for variations in sample quantity and quality, ensuring
accurate and reliable expression data.