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Human Physiology
Digestive system
 Recall! Digestive System

Digestive System

Alimentary Canal
Alimentary Canal Digestive Glands
Recall! Digestive System
Recall! Alimentary Canal: Specialised Sections

Buccophayrangeal cavity

Oesophagus
Alimentary
canal
Stomach

Small intestine

Large intestine
Recall! Alimentary Canal: Specialised Sections

Buccal cavity

Buccopharyngeal
cavity

Pharynx
Pharynx
 Pharynx

Nasopharynx

Pharynx Oropharynx

Laryngopharynx
 Pharynx
Nasopharynx

• It is lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium.

• Cilia move mucus down toward the most inferior part of the pharynx.

• It also exchanges small amounts of air with auditory tubes to equalize air
pressure between the pharynx and the middle ear.
 Pharynx
Oropharynx

• It lies posterior to oral cavity and extends from soft palate inferiorly to
the level of the hyoid bone.

• It has only one opening into it, the fauces (opening from mouth).
 Pharynx
Oropharynx

• This portion of the pharynx has both respiratory and digestive functions.

• It is lined with nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

• Two pairs of tonsils(palatine and lingual tonsils)are found here.

 Pharynx
Laryngopharynx

• It begins at level of hyoid bone.

• It is both a respiratory and digestive pathway and is lined by

nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium.
 Pharynx

● Function
○ Common
passage for food
and air
○ Helps to swallow

Pharynx
○ Has tonsils that
help in fighting
infections
If the path is common won’t food enter the
lungs and make us choke?
 Epiglottis

Epiglottis preventing the entry of food

into the glottis
Oesophagus
 Oesophagus
● Length 25 cm long
● Diameter - 2.5 to 3
cm
Oesophagus ● Gullet, Food pipe,
Food tube.
● Narrow muscular tube
● Pharynx to stomach
 Oesophagus
● Transfers food from pharynx to stomach by peristalsis
● Prevents entry of air into digestive tract
 Oesophagus

• It enters the abdominopelvic cavity through the oesophageal hiatus.

• It is an opening in the diaphragm.

 Oesophagus

• In the superior one-third it contains skeletal muscle fibers.

• The middle one-third contains a mixture of skeletal and smooth muscle
tissue.
• Along the inferior one-third, only smooth muscles are present.
 Oesophagus

Upper Oesophageal
Sphincter

Oesophageal
Sphincters

Lower Oesophageal
Sphincter
 Oesophagus
Upper Oesophageal
Sphincter

• It regulates the opening of the pharynx into the oesophagus.

• It prevents the entry of air into oesphagus.

 Oesophagus

Upper Oesophageal
Sphincter

Oesophageal
Sphincters

Lower Oesophageal
Sphincter
 Oesophagus
Lower Oesophageal
Sphincter

• It is also called cardiac sphincter or lower oesophageal sphincter.

• It regulates the opening of oesophagus into the stomach.

 Oesophagus
Achalasia Cardia

When the cardiac sphincter fails to relax properly food accumulates in the oesphagus.
 Oesophagus

Pyrosis(Heartburn)

• In this case,the cardiac sphincter fails to constrict properly.

• Acidic contents of the stomach move up in the oesphagus.

• There is a burning sensation in the oesphagus.

• It is also called GERD( Gastro oesophageal reflux disorder).

Stomach
Stomach

● Located on the upper left part of abdomen

● J- shaped bag
 Parts of Stomach

Cardiac

Fundus

Stomach

Body

Pylorus
 Stomach

Cardiac

• It is the smallest part of the stomach.

• It is the superior portion of the stomach within 3 cm of the
junction between the stomach and esophagus.
• It contains abundant mucous glands (Cardiac Glands)
• The mucus coats the connection with the oesophagus and
helps to protect it from the acid and enzymes of the stomach.
 Stomach

Fundus

• It is superior to the junction between the stomach and esophagus.

• It contacts the posterior surface of the diaphragm.
 Stomach

Body

• It is between the fundus and the curve of the J.

• It is the largest region of the stomach.
• It acts as a mixing tank for ingested food and stomach secretions.
• Gastric glands in the fundus and body secrete most of the acid and
enzymes involved in gastric digestion.
 Stomach

Pylorus

• It forms the sharp curve of the J.

• It is divided into
◆ pyloric antrum (connected to the body)
◆ pyloric canal (empties into the duodenum)
 Stomach

● Opening into small intestine is guarded by ‘pyloric sphincter’

 Stomach

• A muscular pyloric sphincter regulates the release of chyme into the

duodenum.

• Glands in the pylorus secrete mucus and important digestive hormones,

including gastrin.
 Stomach

• Its volume increases while you eat and then decreases as chyme
enters the small intestine.

• When the stomach is relaxed (empty), the mucosa has prominent folds
called rugae (wrinkles).
Histology of
Stomach
Histology of Stomach
 Histology of Stomach
Stomach wall is composed of the same basic layers as the
rest of the GI tract, with certain modifications:

Mucosa

Submucosa

Oblique muscles

Circular muscles

Longitudinal muscles

Serosa
 Histology of Stomach
Mucosa

• Surface of the mucosa is a layer of simple columnar

epithelial cells called surface mucous cells.

• It contains a lamina propria (areolar connective tissue)

and a muscularis mucosae (smooth muscle).
 Histology of Stomach
Gastric Glands

Epithelial cells extend down into the lamina propria and form columns of secretory cells
called gastric glands.

Several gastric glands open into bottom of narrow channels called gastric pits.
 Histology of Stomach
Gastric Glands

• These contain three types of exocrine gland cells:

◆ Mucous neck cells

◆ Chief cells or Zymogen cells or Peptic cells
◆ Parietal cells or Oxyntic cells
 Histology of Stomach
Chief Cells

• These are most abundant near the base of a gastric gland.

• These secrete:

Pepsinogen
Prorennin

Gastric Lipase
 Histology of Stomach

Pepsinogen

• It is an inactive proenzyme.
• The acid in the gastric lumen converts pepsinogen to pepsin, an
active proteolytic or protein-digesting enzyme.
• Pepsin functions most effectively at a strongly acidic pH of 1.5–2.0.
 Histology of Stomach
Rennin

• Stomachs of newborn infants (but not of adults) produce renin also

known as chymosin and gastric lipase.
• These enzymes are important for the digestion of milk.
• Rennin coagulates milk proteins.
• Gastric lipase initiates the digestion of milk fats.
 Histology of Stomach
Parietal Cells

These are especially common along proximal portions of each gastric

gland.
These produce:

Castle’s Intrinsic factor

Hydrochloric acid
 Histology of Stomach
Castle’s Intrinsic Factor

This glycoprotein helps in the absorption of vitamin B12.

This vitamin is essential for normal erythropoiesis.

 Histology of Stomach

They do not produce HCl in the cytoplasm.

This acid is so strong that it would erode a secretory

vesicle and destroy the cell.

H+ and Cl- are transported independently by

different mechanisms.
Histology of Stomach
Functions of
Stomach
 Functions of Stomach

Functions Of HCl

• Kills pathogens (potent killer of typhoid bacteria).

• People who regularly take antacids are more susceptible to
typhoid.
• Helps in iron absorption.
• Activates pepsinogen and prorennin.
 Functions of Stomach

Secretions of parietal cells keep stomach contents at pH 1.5–2.0.

It has four important functions:

1. Acidity of gastric juice kills most of the microorganisms ingested with

food.
2. It denatures proteins and inactivates most of the enzymes in food.

3. Acidity helps break down plant cell walls and the connective tissues in
meat.
4. Acidic environment is essential for the activation and function of pepsin.
 Functions of Stomach

Pyloric Glands

• Glands in the pylorus produce primarily a mucous secretion, rather

than enzymes or acid.

• Several types of enteroendocrine cells are scattered among the

mucus-secreting cells.

• These also contain D cells, which release somatostatin.

• It inhibits the release of gastrin.

 Functions of Stomach

Enteroendocrine Cells

• These produce at least seven hormones, most notably gastrin.

• Gastrin is produced by G cells, which are most abundant in the

gastric pits of the pyloric antrum.

• It stimulates secretion by both parietal and chief cells, as well as

contractions of the gastric wall that mix and stir the gastric contents.
 Functions of Stomach

Gastric Glands

• Several other hormones play a role in hunger and satiety.

• Levels of ghrelin, a hormone produced by P/D1 cells lining the

fundic region of the stomach, rise before meals to initiate hunger.

• Ghrelin levels decline shortly after eating to curb appetite.

 Functions of Stomach

Gastric Glands

• Ghrelin is also antagonistic to leptin, a fat-tissue-derived hormone

that induces satiety.

• Another hormone from the stomach and small intestine, obestatin,

decreases appetite.
 Functions of Stomach

Gastric Glands

Several other hormones play a role in hunger and satiety.

Levels of ghrelin, a hormone produced by P/D1 cells lining the fundic

region of the stomach, rise before meals to initiate hunger.

Ghrelin levels decline shortly after eating to curb appetite.

 Functions of Stomach

Gastric Glands

Ghrelin is also antagonistic to leptin, a fat-tissue-derived hormone that

induces satiety.

Another hormone from the stomach and small intestine, obestatin,

decreases appetite.
Functions of Stomach

Churning in Stomach
 Functions of Stomach

● Storage of ingested food.

● Mechanical breakdown of ingested food.
● Disruption of chemical bonds in food through the action of acid and enzymes.

● Production of Castle’ intrinsic factor:

It is a glycoprotein needed for absorption of
vitamin B12 in the ileum region of small intestine
by endocytosis
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