CHDX 04 FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS L T P C

SDG: 11, 12 2 0 0 2

MODULE I MATERIALS FOR HARDWARE AND DATA STORAGE 7

Specific materials for electrical and electronic gadgets-computers,
instruments (Semiconductors-N, S doped Silicon, CdX QDs, metal nano
and other applications). Networking of networks and connecting devices -
materials used in robotic construction (metal alloys, kevlor,
biodegradable smart materials). Data storage and magnetic hard disk and
devices- pendrive (flash memory-ferromagnetic and super paramagnetic
materials, optical dics). Nanomaterials to enhance the lifetime and
storage of CD, DVD and BD (Nano incorporated Polycarbonate, Al and
lacquer) - Nanomaterials and small molecules for data storage.
Specific materials for electrical and electronic gadgets-computers,
instruments (Semiconductors-N, S doped Silicon, CdX QDs, metal
nano)

Semiconductors - doped Silicon

 Any substance that can conduct electricity is called a conductor

while one that cannot conduct electricity is known as an insulator.
Semiconductors have properties that are halfway between the
conductor and insulator.
 A semiconductor is a substance, typically a solid chemical element or
compound that has specific electrical properties and conducts
electricity under certain conditions. This makes it ideal for
controlling electric current in electronic devices and appliances.
 Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon or germanium,
or compounds such as gallium arsenide or cadmium selenide. During a
process called doping, small amounts of impurities are added to pure
semiconductors to effect large changes in the conductivity of the
material. So, the specific properties of a semiconductor is
determined by the dopants or impurities added to it.
 Theoretically, metals and conductor materials have a band structure
where the valence band overlaps with the conduction band, as a
result of which metals can easily conduct electricity. On the other
hand, insulators have a pretty large bandgap between the valence
band and the conduction band, so it is difficult for electrons to get
into the conduction band.
In contrast, semiconductors possess a thin gap between the valence and
conduction bands. When the temperature is raised, electrons can get
enough energy to travel from the valence band up to the conduction
band. Eventually, the electrons are able to enter the conduction band,
and the semiconductor can conduct electricity.
Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only
because of external thermal energy. It causes a certain number of
valence electrons to cross the energy gap and jump into the conduction
band, leaving an equal amount of unoccupied energy pockets, which are
called holes. Conduction due to electrons and holes are equally
important.
Streamlined features of semiconductors are listed below:
 Semiconductors are like insulators at Zero Kelvin. But when the
temperature is increased, they work as conductors.
 Due to their unique electrical properties, semiconductors can be
modified through doping to make semiconductor devices suitable for
energy conversion, switches, and amplifiers.
 They offer lesser power losses.
 They are smaller sized and possess less weight.
 Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than
insulators.
 The resistance of a semiconductor material decreases with the
increase in temperature and inversely increases with a decrease in
temperature.
Types of Semiconductors
1. Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor
material in its greatly pure form. Because of this, it possesses a very low
conductivity level since it has very few number of charge carriers,
namely holes and electrons, which it contains in equal quantities.
Therefore, an intrinsic semiconductor may also be defined as one in
which the number of conduction electrons is equal to the number of
holes.
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the most common type of intrinsic
semiconductor material, having four valence electrons (tetravalent) and
bound to the atom by covalent bond at absolute zero temperature.
When there is an increase in temperature, few electrons become
liberated to move through the lattice, thereby creating a positively
charged hole in its original position. These free electrons and holes
contribute to the conduction of electricity in the semiconductor. Hence,
semiconductor current consists of movement of holes and electrons in
opposite directions in the valence and conduction band respectively.
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor : The semiconductors with intentionally
added impurities are called extrinsic semiconductors. This process of
adding impurities in minute quantities into the pure semiconductor
material under controlled conditions is known as doping. The process is
undertaken with the intention of increasing the conductivity of the
material. Hence, the impurities are chosen in such a way that their
addition into the pure semiconductor should increase the number of
free charge carriers which can be either holes or electrons.
Pure semiconductors like Silicon (Si) or Germanium (Ge) are tetravalent
(have four electrons in their valence shell) as they belong to Group IV
of the periodic table. Thus, if one needs to increase the number of
electrons in them, they are to be doped with the Group V elements of
the periodic table viz., Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony (Sb) or
Bismuth (Bi).
This is because Group V elements are pentavalent in nature, meaning
which they have five electrons in their valence shell. This indicates that
even after the formation of four covalent bonds due to the sharing of
four electrons between the Group V and Group IV elements, one more
electron (fifth electron of Group V element) would be left-behind.

Pentavalent impurities are said to

donate their electron to the
tetravalent (pure) semiconductors
and are hence called donors. The
electron so donated will be very
loosely bound to its parent atom
and can thus be made ‘free’ by
supplying very minimal amount of
thermal energy.
Such an excitation causes the electron to transit from its current
energy state, donor level ED to the conduction band. From then on it can
actively contribute to the process of conduction in the semiconductor
material along with the other free electrons generated due to the
breaking of covalent bonds. From this, one can note that the total
number of electrons in such a material is the sum of thermally generated
electrons and the electrons donated by the donor atoms.
However, the number of holes in the same material remains equal to the
number of thermally generated electrons only. This indicates that the
number of electrons in this kind of material exceeds the number of
holes, which means the electrons will be the majority charge carriers
while the holes will be the minority carriers. Thus, these materials are
aptly named as N type semiconductors.

The Group IV elements can also be doped with Group III elements of
the periodic table like Boron (B), Aluminium (Al), Nitrogen (N), Gallium
(Ga) or Indium (In). In this case, the resultant material will have three
covalent bonds formed by the pairing-up of three electrons from each
atom. However, due to the trivalent (three valence electrons) nature of
Group III elements, there will be one insufficient electron to form the
fourth covalent bond. This deficiency in electron signifies nothing but
the hole.
The number of holes so formed is equal to the number of trivalent
impurity atoms added into the semiconductor. Each of these holes
signifies a vacant space which can readily accept an electron into it and is
present at the energy level EA. Further due to the nature of ‘acceptance’
exhibited by the holes induced due to the doping of Group III elements,
such elements are referred to as acceptors.
Moreover, it is to be noted that, as an electron moves into the hole to
recombine, it leaves a new hole in its previous place which in turn will be
filled by some other electron. This indicates that the movement of
electrons in one direction can be viewed as the movement of holes in
the opposite direction. Thus, such a semiconductor material becomes
conductive in nature. However, it is to be noted that, for this case, the
total number of holes will be equal to the sum of the holes induced due
to doping and the holes generated due to the thermal excitation
process, unlike the electrons which are produced only due to the
process of thermal excitation. This means that here the number of
holes exceeds the number of electrons for which the holes will be the
majority charge carriers while the electrons will be the minority charge
carriers. Due to these kinds of extrinsic semiconductor materials are
aptly called P type semiconductors.
Semiconductor materials play a crucial role in the construction of
various electrical and electronic gadgets, including computers and
instruments. Some of the commonly used semiconductor materials in
these devices include:
Silicon (Si): Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material in
the electronics industry due to its abundance, stability, and well-
understood properties. It is used in the fabrication of transistors,
diodes, integrated circuits (ICs), and other electronic components.
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs): Gallium arsenide is another important
semiconductor material, particularly in high-frequency and high-speed
applications. It has superior electron mobility compared to silicon,
making it suitable for radio frequency (RF) devices, microwave
integrated circuits, and optoelectronic components like LEDs and laser
diodes.
Gallium Nitride (GaN): Gallium nitride is valued for its wide bandgap
and high electron mobility, making it suitable for power electronics,
high-frequency devices, LEDs, and even in some cases for radio
frequency (RF) applications.
Indium Phosphide (InP): Indium phosphide is used in optoelectronic and
photonic devices, including high-speed communication systems, optical
modulators, and photovoltaic cells.
Silicon Carbide (SiC): Silicon carbide is known for its high thermal
conductivity, high breakdown voltage, and ability to operate at high
temperatures. It is used in power electronics, particularly in
applications requiring high efficiency and high power density, such as
electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, and industrial motor
drives.
Silicon Germanium (SiGe): Silicon germanium alloys combine the properties of
both silicon and germanium. They are used in high-frequency integrated circuits,
particularly in wireless communication systems like cellular phones and radar
systems.
 Quantum Confinement Effect

The quantum confinement effect refers to a phenomenon observed in

nanoscale materials, particularly semiconductor nanoparticles or quantum
dots, where the electronic and optical properties are significantly
altered due to the confinement of charge carriers within a small volume.

In quantum-confined materials, such as quantum dots, the size of the

material is on the order of a few nanometers or less. At this scale, the
motion of charge carriers becomes restricted in all three dimensions,
leading to discrete energy levels. This results in a quantized energy
spectrum, where the energy levels are determined by the size and shape
of the nanostructure.
The quantum confinement effect leads to several important
consequences:
Quantized energy levels: Electrons in quantum-confined materials can
only occupy certain discrete energy levels, which are determined by the
size and shape of the nanostructure. This leads to a quantized energy
spectrum, with larger energy separations between adjacent levels
compared to bulk materials.
Tunable bandgap: The bandgap, which is the energy difference between
the valence and conduction bands, can be tuned by varying the size of
the quantum-confined material. As the size decreases, the bandgap
increases due to the confinement of charge carriers, leading to changes
in the material's optical and electronic properties.
Enhanced optical properties: Quantum dots exhibit size-dependent
optical properties, such as size-tunable absorption and emission
wavelengths. This makes them attractive for applications in
optoelectronics, including displays, sensors, and photovoltaics.
Increased carrier confinement: The confinement of charge carriers
within a small volume leads to enhanced Coulomb interactions, resulting
in stronger binding energies for excitons (bound electron-hole pairs)
and reduced scattering rates. This can improve the efficiency of
devices such as light-emitting diodes and solar cells.
 Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) quantum dots

The synthesis of Cadmium Selenide (CdSe) quantum dots typically

involves methods such as colloidal synthesis, hot injection, or chemical
vapour deposition. One common method is the colloidal synthesis
approach, which involves the nucleation and growth of CdSe
nanocrystals in a solution containing cadmium and selenium precursors.

TOP trioctylphosphine, TOPO trioctylphosphine oxide

Preparation of Precursor Solutions: Cadmium and selenium precursors
are dissolved in appropriate solvents. For example, cadmium oxide or
cadmium acetate can be used as the cadmium source, while selenium
powder or selenium oxide can be used as the selenium source.
Injection of Precursors: The cadmium and selenium precursor solutions
are injected into a solvent under inert gas atmosphere, typically in the
presence of a coordinating ligand such as trioctylphosphine (TOP) or
trioctylphosphine oxide (TOPO).
Nucleation and Growth: Upon injection, the precursors undergo
nucleation and growth processes, leading to the formation of CdSe
nanocrystals. The size and shape of the quantum dots can be controlled
by adjusting parameters such as precursor concentrations, injection
rate, and reaction temperature.
Surface Functionalization: After synthesis, the CdSe quantum dots
may undergo surface functionalization to improve stability,
dispersibility, and compatibility with specific applications. Ligands such
as thiolated molecules or polymers can be used for surface passivation.

Applications of CdSe quantum dots in electronic gadgets

Lighting: CdSe quantum dots are employed in lighting applications,

including LED lighting and solid-state lighting. Quantum dot-based
lighting systems can achieve high color rendering indexes (CRIs) and
tunable color temperatures.
Displays: CdSe quantum dots are used in display technologies,
particularly in the production of quantum dot-enhanced displays
(QLEDs). QLEDs offer improved colour saturation, brightness, and
energy efficiency compared to traditional display technologies.
Solar Cells: CdSe quantum dots are investigated for use in photovoltaic
devices, including solar cells. Quantum dot-sensitized solar cells
(QDSSCs) offer potential advantages such as tunable bandgap, multiple
exciton generation, and solution processability.
Sensors: CdSe quantum dots are utilized in sensor technologies for
applications such as bioimaging, chemical sensing, and environmental
monitoring. Quantum dots can serve as fluorescent probes for detecting
analytes or biomolecules with high sensitivity and selectivity.
Memory Devices: CdSe quantum dots are being explored for use in
memory devices due to their potential for high-density data storage and
low-power operation. Quantum dot-based memory devices offer
advantages such as non-volatility, scalability, and fast switching speeds.
 Metallic nanoparticles and surface plasmon resonance

Metal nanoparticles are nanoscale particles composed of metal atoms.

They exhibit unique optical, electronic, magnetic, and catalytic
properties due to their small size and high surface area-to-volume ratio.
One important phenomenon associated with metal nanoparticles is
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR).
Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) is a collective oscillation of conduction
electrons in a metal nanoparticle excited by incident electromagnetic
radiation. When the frequency of the incident light matches the natural
frequency of surface electrons in the metal nanoparticle, resonance
occurs, leading to enhanced electromagnetic fields near the
nanoparticle's surface.
This resonance phenomenon is highly sensitive to the local environment
which changes in the refractive index of the medium surrounding the
particle and can be exploited for various applications, such as sensing,
imaging, and spectroscopy.
The SPR band refers to the characteristic absorption or scattering band
observed in the optical spectrum of metal nanoparticles when they
undergo SPR. The position and intensity of the SPR band depend on
several factors, including the size, shape, composition, and surrounding
medium of the nanoparticles. By controlling these parameters,
researchers can tune the SPR band to specific wavelengths, enabling
tailored applications in areas such as biosensing, plasmonic devices, and
nanophotonics.
Materials for networks and connecting devices and
robotic construction

1. Kevlar
2. Biodegradable smart materials
3. Metal alloys
 KEVLAR

KEVLAR is one of the most crucial man-made para-aramid organic

fibers ever developed, owing to its distinctive combination of
properties that have led to its adoption in various end uses since its
commercial introduction in the early 1970s.
Today, KEVLAR is extensively utilized in a wide range of industrial
applications.
Synthesis

The monomers used for Kevlar are terephthaloyl chloride and

paraphenylenediamine. These monomers undergo a condensation
polymerization reaction to form long-chain poly(terephthalamide). The
process involves the removal of a HCl, forming a polymer chain.
Industrial process involving the preparation of KELVAR

Spinning: Once the polymer is synthesized, it is then spun into fibers

through a process known as wet spinning. The polymer solution is
extruded through a spinneret into a coagulation bath, where it solidifies
into a fiber. During this process, the solvent used in the polymer
solution is replaced with water, leading to the formation of the solid
Kevlar fiber.
Drawing: After spinning, the fibers are stretched or drawn to align the
polymer chains and improve the fiber's strength and toughness. This
process orients the molecular structure, enhancing the mechanical
properties of the material.
Heat Treatment: The drawn fibers are then subjected to a heat
treatment process to further improve their crystallinity and
mechanical properties. This step involves heating the fibers at
elevated temperatures without melting them.
Cutting and Packaging: The final Kevlar fibers are cut to the desired
length and packaged for distribution and use in various applications.

The resulting Kevlar fibers possess exceptional strength, high

modulus, and thermal stability, making them suitable for a wide range
of applications, including ballistic vests, ropes, cables, tires, and
various high-performance industrial and aerospace components.
The chains are highly oriented with strong inter chain bonding, which
result in a unique combination of properties. Strength of Kevlar is
mainly due to hydrogen bonding between N-H and C=O groups of two
polymeric chains.
 Properties of Kelvar

 High tensile strength at low weight

 Low elongation to break
 High modulus (structural rigidity)
 Low electrical conductivity
 High chemical resistance
 Low thermal shrinkage
 High toughness (work-to-break)
 Excellent dimensional stability
 High cut resistance
 Flame resistant, self-extinguishing
The physical properties of Kevlar make it a suitable material for many
applications, such as:
 Body armour: bullet-proof vests and helmets
 Ropes and cables.
 Belts and hoses for industrial applications
 Composites for aircraft body parts, boats, and sporting goods (e.g.
skis)
 Fibre-optic cables for communication, data transmission and
ignition.
 Friction products such as brake pads, clutch linings, gaskets. It is
often employed as a replacement for the carcinogenic asbestos
 Sailing/motorcycle outerwear
 Adhesives and sealants.
 Kevlar is a synthetic fiber frequently used for bulletproof vests.
Some of its characteristics make it worth evaluating for robot
exteriors, because the material does not melt or drip when exposed
to hot environments. Covering on robots that require safeguarding
from extreme temperatures.
 Also, Kevlar does not degrade in Arctic temperatures of -50
degrees Fahrenheit, nor do cryogenic conditions adversely affect
the fibers.
 Robotic construction
 In the realm of robotic construction, Kevlar finds applications in
crucial components such as cables, joints, and protective coverings.
 Its high tensile strength and resistance to impact make it suitable
for reinforcing cables and ensuring reliable connectivity within
robotic systems.
 Additionally, Kevlar's flexibility allows for its use in joints and
moving parts, providing a balance between strength and flexibility
essential for robotic movements.
 Kevlar is often utilized in protective sheathing for robotic
components, shielding them from external elements, abrasions, and
potential damage. This enhances the lifespan of the robots and
ensures their continued functionality in various environments.
 Biodegradable smart materials – Cellulose Acetate

 Cellulose acetate is the acetate ester of cellulose.

 PAUL SCHUTZENBERGER discovered that cellulose could react
with acetic anhydride to form cellulose acetate in 1865.
 Cellulose acetate is used as a film base in photography, as a
component in some coatings, and as a frame material for eyeglasses.

The following steps are involved for the preparation of cellulose

acetate:
 Cellulose is purified from wood pulp or cotton linters.
 Cellulose is then reacted with glacial acetic acid and acetic
anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid as a catalyst.
 Partial hydrolysis is then done by controlled aging for 20 hours.
Sulphates are also removed by this partial hydrolysis.
The anhydroglucose unit is the
fundamental repeating structure
of cellulose and has three
hydroxyl groups which can react
to form acetate esters. The most
common form of cellulose acetate
fiber has an acetate group on
approximately 2 of every 3
hydroxyls.
 Cellulose acetate is then precipitated as acid-resin flakes.
 Flakes are first dissolved in acetone so that solution is filtered or
centrifuged.
 This spinning solution is extruded in column of warm air. Solvent is
recovered.
 Filaments are stretched and wound onto beams, cones, or bobbins
ready for use.
Properties
 Cellulose acetate is a thermoplastic polymer.
 It is transparent, glossy and reasonably hard for a thermoplastic.
 High impact and mechanical strength.
 Selective absorption and removal of low levels of certain organic
chemicals.
 Easily bonded with plasticizers, heat, and pressure.
Applications
 Cellulose acetate is an important polymer used in manufacturing of
cellulose acetate yarn, plastic, photographic films etc.
 Used in all kind of women's & men's wear.
 Sheets are used as transparent wrapping materials.
 Used for insulating purposes.
 Semi permeable membranes made from cellulose acetate fibers
have a remarkable potential in desalination of water.
 Cellulose acetate hollow fibers are suitable for gas separation and
hemodialysis.
 Robotic construction

Biodegradability: Cellulose acetate is derived from natural cellulose

and is biodegradable. In scenarios where environmental impact is a
significant concern, using biodegradable materials could be explored.
However, cellulose acetate's biodegradability might not be the primary
consideration in robotic construction, where durability and long-term
stability are typically crucial.
Sustainability: As a derivative of renewable resources like wood pulp
or cotton, cellulose acetate is considered more environmentally
friendly than some synthetic materials. Incorporating sustainable
materials is becoming increasingly important in various industries,
including construction and robotics.
Flexibility and Molding: Cellulose acetate can be molded into various
shapes, offering flexibility in design. This could be advantageous in
creating certain components or casings for robotic systems, especially
when specific shapes or forms are required.
Chemical Resistance: Cellulose acetate exhibits good resistance to
chemicals, which can be beneficial in robotic applications where
exposure to various substances is likely.
Low Toxicity: Cellulose acetate is generally non-toxic, which is
important for applications where human interaction with robots is likely.
Electrical Insulation: Cellulose acetate is an excellent electrical
insulator, which can be advantageous in robotic systems where electrical
components need protection from interference or short-circuiting.
Lightweight: Cellulose acetate is lightweight, which can contribute to overall
weight reduction in robotic systems, potentially improving energy efficiency
and maneuverability.
 Metal Alloy - Carbon steel

 Carbon steel is an iron-carbon alloy, which contains up to 2.1 wt.%

carbon.
 For carbon steels, there is no minimum specified content of other
alloying elements, however, they often contain manganese.
 The maximum manganese, silicon and copper content should be less
than 1.65 wt.%, 0.6 wt.% and 0.6 wt.%, respectively.

Types of carbon steel

Carbon steel can be classified into three categories according to its
carbon content:
1. low-carbon steel (or mild-carbon steel)
2. medium-carbon steel
3. high-carbon steel
Their carbon content, microstructure and properties as follows:

Low-carbon steel
 Low-carbon steel is the most widely used form of carbon steel.
These steels usually have a carbon content of less than 0.25 wt.%.
They cannot be hardened by heat treatment (to form martensite)
so this is usually achieved by cold work.
 Carbon steels are usually relatively soft and have low strength,
however, have high ductility, making them excellent for machining
and welding.
 High-strength, low-alloy steels (HSLA) are also often classified as
low-carbon steels, however, also contain other elements such as
copper, nickel, vanadium and molybdenum.
Applications
Low-carbon steel
Low carbon steels are often used in automobile body components,
structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron), pipes, construction
and bridge components, and food cans.

Medium-carbon steel
Medium-carbon steel has a carbon content of 0.25 – 0.60 wt.% and a
manganese content of 0.60 – 1.65 wt.%. The mechanical properties of
this steel are improved via heat treatment involving autenitising followed
by quenching and tempering, giving them a martensitic microstructure.
Heat treatment can only be performed on very thin sections, however,
additional alloying elements, such as chromium, molybdenum and nickel,
can be added to improve the steels ability to be heat treated and, thus,
hardened.
Hardened medium-carbon steels have greater strength than low-carbon
steels, however, this comes at the expense of ductility and toughness.

Applications
Medium-carbon steel
As a result of their high strength, resistance to wear and toughness,
medium-carbon steels are often used for railway tracks, train wheels,
crankshafts, and gears and machinery parts requiring this combination
of properties.
High-carbon steel
High-carbon steel has a carbon content of 0.60– 1.25 wt.% and a
manganese content of 0.30 – 0.90 wt.%. It has the highest hardness and
toughness of the carbon steels and the lowest ductility. High-carbon
steels are very wear-resistant as a result of the fact that they are
almost always hardened and tempered.
Tool steels and die steels are types of high-carbon steels, which contain
additional alloying elements including chromium, vanadium, molybdenum
and tungsten. The addition of these elements results in the very hard
wear-resistant steel, which is a result of the formation of carbide
compounds such as tungsten carbide (WC).

Applications : High-carbon steel

Due to their high wear-resistance and hardness, high-carbon steels are
used in cutting tools, springs high strength wire and dies.
Carbon steel is a popular material choice for robotic construction due to
its favorable mechanical properties, affordability, and widespread
availability.

Strength: Carbon steel offers high tensile strength, allowing robotic

structures to withstand heavy loads and stresses without deforming or
failing.
Durability: Carbon steel exhibits excellent durability, resisting wear
and tear over prolonged use. This durability is essential for robotic
systems that may undergo frequent movement and handling.
Versatility: Carbon steel can be easily machined, welded, and formed
into complex shapes, making it suitable for manufacturing various
robotic components and structures.
Cost-effectiveness: Carbon steel is relatively inexpensive compared to
other metals, making it a cost-effective choice for robotic
construction, especially in large-scale production.
Corrosion resistance: While carbon steel is prone to corrosion, various
surface treatments such as painting, galvanizing, or applying protective
coatings can enhance its resistance to rust and corrosion, ensuring
longevity in diverse environments.
Availability: Carbon steel is widely available from numerous suppliers,
making it easily accessible for robotic construction projects of any
scale.
 Duralumin

 Duralumin is an alloy, a trademark name given to the earliest types

of the age hardenable aluminum alloys. It is an alloy made up of 90%
to 94% aluminum, 4% copper, 1% magnesium and 0.5% to 1%
manganese.
 It is a very hard alloy. These alloys are used in places where hard
alloys are required, for example in the vehicle armor that is used in
the defense industry. These alloys were the first widely used
deformable aluminum alloys.
 Duralumin is hard, but a lightweight alloy of aluminum. It has a
typical yield strength of 450 MPa, and there are a few other
variations, that depend on the composition, type, and temper.
Duralumin Properties
 Duralumin is a strong, light-weighted, and hard alloy of aluminum.
 It is also reflective and impermeable.
 It is a malleable metal and can be easily shaped.
 It is a very good conductor of heat and electricity.
 It is odorless, and reacts with the oxygen that is around, and
forms aluminum oxide. It is resistant to corrosion.
 It has a thin surface, which is made up of a layer of pure aluminum,
which is corrosion-resistant and covers the core of the strong
duralumin.
 Generally, Duralumin alloys are soft, ductile, and workable when they are in a
normal state. They can be easily rolled, folded, or forged.
 They can also be drawn into a variety of shapes and forges. It has a high
strength, which can be easily lost during wielding. So it can be easily
transformed, and hence is used in aircraft construction. It is suited for
aircraft construction because of its lightweight and high strength

Applications
 It is used for making wire, bar, and rods for screw machine
products. It is used in places where good strength and good
machinability are required.
 It is used in heavy-duty forgings, wheels, plates, extrusions,
aircraft fittings, space booster tankage and truck frame, and other
suspension components. It finds applications in places where high
strength is required, and services at elevated temperatures.
 It is used for making Aircraft structures, truck wheels, screw
machine products, rivets, and other structural application products.
 It is used as a sheet for the auto body panels.
 It is also used in forgings, in aircraft engine pistons, impellers of the
jet engines, and compressor rings.
 It is also used for making die and hand forgings.
Application in Robotic
 Aluminum has a higher price point than steel, it’s easier to shape and
is lighter.
 Aluminum is also a good material if you’re worried about a robot’s
exterior becoming rusty over time because aluminum does not rust.
However, because it can corrode in some wet environments, you
might consider treating the surface to give it more protection
against possible corrosion.
 Another thing that makes aluminum a popular option for robot
exteriors is that it can be polished to a high shine. So, if you’re
building a commercial robot that your client will eventually want to
show off, aluminum makes the body look nice while offering ample
durability.
 Data storage - magnetic hard disk drives

Data storage using magnetic hard disk drives (HDDs) relies on the
principles of ferromagnetism.

 Ferromagnetism is a property exhibited by certain materials

where they become strongly magnetized in the presence of an
external magnetic field and can retain that magnetization even
after the external field is removed.
 This phenomenon arises from the alignment of magnetic moments
(the tiny magnetic fields associated with individual atoms or
groups of atoms) within the material.
What Causes Ferromagnetism?

 The main cause of

ferromagnetism arises due to
the interaction between the
alignment of permanent dipoles
in atoms and the neighbouring
atomic dipoles.

 Domains are oriented in the same direction in a ferromagnetic

substance without the presence of an external magnetic field that
exhibits a net magnetic moment.
 The neighbouring domain magnetic moments are geared in opposite
directions. So they cancel out each other and hence, the material's
net magnetic moment is zero.
 When ferromagnetic materials are put in a magnetic field, all the
domains get oriented in the direction of the magnetic field which
creates a powerful magnetic effect.
 Ferromagnetic materials retain some magnetization even after the
external magnetic field is removed. This is known as remanence or
residual magnetization. .
 Ferromagnetism is the strongest form of magnetism among all other
forms and it is also responsible for the widespread occurrence of
magnetism in magnets that we experience in our everyday life.
Properties of Ferromagnetism
 A ferromagnetic material rod can quickly regain itself in the
direction of the magnetic field.
 Ferromagnetic substances show permanent magnetism even in the
absence of a magnetic field.
 When ferromagnetic substances are heated at high temperatures,
the ferromagnetic substances get to transform into paramagnetic
substances.
 Ferromagnetic materials have Permeability greater than 1.
 The mechanism of ferromagnetism is absent in gases and liquids.
 The intensity of magnetization (M), magnetic susceptibility (χm),
relative permeability (µr), and magnetic flux density (B) of
ferromagnetic material will be positive always.
Applications of Ferromagnetism
There are numerous applications of Ferromagnetic materials for
magnetic storage, electrical, and electromechanical equipment.
 Permanent Magnets: Ferromagnetic materials are often used for
making permanent magnets because their magnetization lasts longer.
 Transformer Core: Ferromagnetic materials are suitable for making
the transformer core and choke which is subjected to very rapid
cyclical changes because of its strong magnetic induction.
 Magnetic Tapes and Memory Store: It will serve the purpose of a
memory storage unit as the magnetization of a magnet depends on
the magnetization field and the magnetization cycle it has undergone.
How it works (HDD):
Magnetic Recording: Inside a hard disk drive, there are circular
platters made of a ferromagnetic material, typically a cobalt alloy.
These platters are coated with a thin layer of magnetic material. Data
is stored on the hard disk in the form of tiny magnetic regions or
domains.
Writing Data: When data is written to the hard disk, a magnetic write
head generates a magnetic field, which aligns the magnetic domains in
the coating material. By changing the direction of the magnetic field,
the write head can change the orientation of the magnetic domains,
effectively encoding the data.
Reading Data: To read data from the hard disk, a magnetic read head
detects the magnetic field orientation of the domains as the platters
spin. This allows it to determine the encoded data.
Super-paramagnetism

Superparamagnetism is a phenomenon observed in small ferromagnetic

or ferrimagnetic particles, typically nanoparticles, when they are at a
certain size range. In these particles, thermal fluctuations can cause
rapid changes in the direction of their magnetic moments, leading to a
loss of permanent magnetization. This effect is significant because it
can affect the stability and performance of magnetic storage devices,
such as hard disk drives.
Size Dependence: Superparamagnetism is most pronounced in magnetic
particles below a critical size, typically on the order of a few
nanometers. Below this critical size, thermal energy becomes sufficient
to overcome the energy barrier that stabilizes the magnetic moment in
a particular direction.

Loss of Permanent Magnetization: In larger ferromagnetic particles,

the magnetic moments tend to align in a specific direction, resulting in
permanent magnetization. However, in superparamagnetic particles,
thermal fluctuations can cause the magnetic moments to fluctuate
rapidly between different orientations. As a result, the particles do not
exhibit a net magnetic moment when no external magnetic field is
applied.
Impact on Data Storage: In magnetic storage devices like hard disk
drives, superparamagnetism poses a challenge. As technology advances
and the size of magnetic storage elements decreases, the individual
magnetic grains on the disk become smaller. If these grains become too
small and approach the critical size for superparamagnetism, they may
lose their ability to retain stored data reliably. This phenomenon can
lead to data loss or corruption over time.
Mitigation Strategies: To address the effects of superparamagnetism,
engineers have developed various techniques. One approach is to use
materials with higher magnetic anisotropy, which helps stabilize the
magnetic moments against thermal fluctuations. Another approach
involves increasing the physical spacing between magnetic grains to
reduce the influence of neighboring grains on each other's magnetic
stability.
Applications: While superparamagnetism presents challenges in data
storage technology, it also has applications in fields such as biomedicine
and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), where superparamagnetic
nanoparticles are used as contrast agents or in targeted drug delivery
systems.
 Optical discs
Optical discs, such as CDs (Compact Discs), DVDs (Digital Versatile
Discs), and Blu-ray discs, rely on the principles of optics and chemistry
for their functioning.

Substrate: The base material of optical discs is typically polycarbonate

plastic. This material is transparent to the laser light used to read and
write data.
Data Encoding: The data on optical discs is encoded as a series of pits
and lands on a spiral track. These pits and lands represent binary data
(0s and 1s). During the manufacturing process, a photosensitive dye is
used to create these pits and lands. The dye is typically a metal
complex or an organic compound that changes its optical properties
when exposed to a laser.
Reflective Layer: Behind the dye layer, there's a thin reflective layer
made of metals such as aluminum or silver. This layer reflects the laser
light when it's not absorbed by the dye. The differences in reflectivity
between the pits and lands are detected by the optical drive's sensor
to read the encoded data.
Laser: The laser used in optical drives emits light in the infrared
spectrum. The wavelength of the laser is carefully chosen to match the
absorption characteristics of the dye used in the disc. When the laser
beam hits a pit, it gets absorbed by the dye, resulting in less light
being reflected back. Conversely, when the laser beam hits a land, more
light is reflected back.
Data Writing: During the writing process, a high-power laser is focused
on the dye layer of the disc. This laser heats up the dye in specific
locations, causing it to change its optical properties. By controlling the
intensity and duration of the laser pulses, pits and lands are created in
the dye layer, encoding the desired data.
Protection Layer: Optical discs also have a protective layer on top of
the reflective layer to prevent scratches and damage to the underlying
layers.

In summary, the optical discs involves the use of photosensitive dyes

that change their optical properties when exposed to laser light.
These dyes, along with reflective layers and substrates, enable the
encoding, reading, and writing of data on optical discs.
 Flash memory storage
Flash memory storage, commonly found in USB drives, solid-state drives
(SSDs), and memory cards, relies on a different principle compared to
optical discs.

Semiconductor Material: Flash memory is based on semiconductor

technology, typically using silicon as the primary material. Silicon is a
semiconductor, meaning its electrical conductivity can be controlled by
adding impurities or applying electrical fields.
Transistor Structure: Flash memory cells consist of a transistor
structure. Each cell stores a bit of data, represented by either a 0 or a
1.
Floating Gate Transistor: The key component of a flash memory cell is
the floating gate transistor. This transistor has an additional floating
gate insulated from the other parts of the transistor by a thin oxide
layer.
Control Gate: Above the floating gate, there's another layer called the
control gate. When a voltage is applied to the control gate, it creates an
electric field which can cause electrons to tunnel through the oxide
layer and become trapped in the floating gate.
Charging and Discharging: The presence or absence of electrons in the
floating gate determines the state of the flash memory cell. If
electrons are trapped in the floating gate, the cell is programmed to
store a logical "1". If the floating gate is devoid of electrons, the cell is
programmed to store a logical "0".
Programming and Erasing: Flash memory cells can be programmed by
applying a high voltage to the control gate, causing electrons to tunnel
into the floating gate. Erasing a cell involves removing the trapped
electrons from the floating gate, typically by applying a high voltage
across the transistor in the opposite direction.
Multi-Level Cell (MLC) and Triple-Level Cell (TLC): To increase
storage density, modern flash memory uses techniques like multi-level
cell (MLC) and triple-level cell (TLC) technology. These methods allow
each cell to store multiple bits of data by varying the amount of charge
on the floating gate.
In summary, the flash memory storage involves the manipulation of
electrons within a semiconductor structure, particularly in floating gate
transistors. By controlling the presence or absence of electrons in the
floating gate, flash memory cells can store binary data, enabling non-
volatile storage solutions with high reliability and fast access times.
 Nanomaterials to enhance the lifetime and storage of CD,
DVD and BD
Nano incorporated polycarbonate
 Nano polycarbonate refers to polycarbonate materials that have been
enhanced or modified at the nanoscale level. In the context of CDs
and DVDs, nano polycarbonate may be used in the manufacturing of
the discs themselves.
 Polycarbonate is a type of plastic known for its transparency,
durability, and excellent optical properties, making it a popular choice
for optical storage media like CDs and DVDs.
 By incorporating nanotechnology into the production of polycarbonate
discs, manufacturers can improve various aspects of their
performance, such as data storage capacity, read/write speed, and
durability.
Increased data storage capacity: Nanotechnology can allow for the
creation of smaller pits and lands on the disc surface, enabling higher
data storage density. This means that more data can be stored on the
same-sized disc.
Enhanced scratch resistance: Nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles or
nanocoatings, can be incorporated into the polycarbonate to increase its
scratch resistance, thereby reducing the likelihood of data loss due to
surface damage.
Improved optical properties: Nano polycarbonate formulations may
offer improved optical clarity and light transmission, which can
contribute to better reading and writing performance of the discs.
Faster read/write speeds: Nanotechnology may enable the
development of polycarbonate discs with faster data transfer rates,
allowing for quicker reading and writing of data.
The difference between polycarbonate and nanopolycarbonate in
CDs and DVDs lies in their composition and properties, particularly
at the nanoscale level.

Composition:
Polycarbonate: Traditional polycarbonate used in CDs and DVDs is a
thermoplastic polymer composed of repeating carbonate groups in its
molecular structure. It's transparent, lightweight, and possesses
excellent optical properties.
Nanopolycarbonate: Nanopolycarbonate refers to polycarbonate that
has been modified or enhanced with nanoparticles at the nanoscale.
These nanoparticles can include materials like silica, titanium dioxide,
carbon nanotubes, or other nanomaterials.
Properties:
Polycarbonate: Traditional polycarbonate offers good optical clarity,
durability, and impact resistance, making it suitable for optical storage
media like CDs and DVDs.
Nanopolycarbonate: By incorporating nanoparticles into polycarbonate,
nanopolycarbonate can exhibit additional properties such as enhanced
scratch resistance, improved data storage capacity, faster read/write
speeds, and improved optical properties. Nanopolycarbonate may also
offer better resistance to environmental factors such as UV radiation.
Performance:
Polycarbonate: CDs and DVDs made from traditional polycarbonate have
been widely used for optical storage due to their reliability and cost-
effectiveness.
Nanopolycarbonate: Nanopolycarbonate can potentially enhance the
performance of CDs and DVDs by increasing data storage capacity,
improving durability, and providing other benefits related to
nanotechnology enhancements.
Applications:
Polycarbonate: Traditional polycarbonate discs are commonly used for
storing digital data, including music, videos, software, and other
multimedia content.
Nanopolycarbonate: Nanopolycarbonate may find applications in high-
performance optical storage media where superior durability, higher
data storage capacity, and other enhanced properties are desired.
These discs may be used in specialized applications where standard
polycarbonate discs may not meet the required performance criteria.
 Lacquer

Lacquer is a colloidal dispersion of cellulose derivatives, resins and

plasticisers in solvents and diluents. Lacquers dry by the evaporation of
the solvent and diluents. It is used for interior decoration.
Constituents Functions Examples
Cellulose derivatives They provide hardness and Cellulose acetate and
durability to the film. Cellulose nitrate
Resins and They provide thickness, Copal, Phenol-formaldehyde
glossy and adhesion to the
film.
Plasticisers They provide smooth and Dibutyl phthalate
flexible film.
Solvent They dissolve resin and Acetone and ethyl acetate
cellulose derivatives.
Diluents The decrease the viscosity Benzol and Petroleum spirit
and cost of the lacquers.
Nano lacquer refers to a type of lacquer that incorporates
nanotechnology into its formulation. Nanoparticles are incorporated
into the lacquer to improve its performance in terms of durability,
scratch resistance, water repellency, and other desirable
characteristics.

Some common nanoparticles used in nano lacquer formulations include:

 Nano-sized silica particles: These particles can enhance scratch
resistance and provide a harder surface finish.
 Titanium dioxide nanoparticles: Titanium dioxide nanoparticles can
improve UV resistance and contribute to the overall durability of
the lacquer.
 Carbon nanotubes: Carbon nanotubes may be incorporated to
improve conductivity or provide additional strength to the lacquer.
Nano lacquers are often used in automotive coatings, electronics,
furniture, and other applications where enhanced performance and
durability are desired. By leveraging nanotechnology, these lacquers can
offer superior protection against environmental factors, prolonging the
lifespan of the coated surfaces and reducing maintenance
requirements.