B.S.

ABDUR RAHMAN CRESCENT

INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY

CHDX04
FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS AND APPLICATIONS

January 2024

MODULE 1
Materials for Hardware and Data Storage

Dr. S. Bhagavathy
 Materials for Hardware and Data Storage

• Specific materials for electrical and electronic gadgets-

computers, instruments (Semiconductors-N, S doped Silicon,
CdX QDs, metal nano and other applications).
• Networking of networks and connecting devices - materials
used in robotic construction (metal alloys, kevlor,
biodegradable smart materials).
• Data storage and magnetic hard disk and devicespendrive
(flash memory-ferro magnetic and super paramagnetic
materials, optical dics).
• Nanomaterials to enhance the lifetime and storage of CD,
DVD and BD (Nano incorporated Polycarbonate, Al and
lacquer) - Nanomaterials and small molecules for data storage
2
 Hardware and data storage
Instruments and Electronic gadgets

Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer,

such as central processing unit (CPU), random access memory
(RAM), monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage,
graphics card, sound card, speakers and motherboard.

A hard disk drive or solid state drive (SSD) holds all of the data;
files, photos, programs, music, movies, etc.
Removable, external media storage devices such as flash drives
and read/writeable CDs and DVDs are also secondary storage.

A computer can't function without a storage drive

3
 Hardware and Data Storage

Magnetic materials are used to store computer data, audio and

video tapes. Commonly used devices that use magnetic storage
include USB drive, magnetic tape, floppy disks, hard-disks,
compact disk and cloud storage

Materials: Semiconductors, nanomaterials, polymers, metals,

nanometals, etc

Common metals in electronic gadgets include copper, lithium, tin,

silver, gold, nickel, and aluminum.

4
 Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a type of material that has an electrical
resistance which is between the resistance typical of metals and
the resistance typical of insulators.

Valence Band:
 The highest occupied completely filled band is called the Valence Band.
Conduction Band:
 The next band with higher energy is the Conduction Band.
 There must be electrons in the conduction band and it can be empty or
partially filed.
 Electrons are free to move in this band.
Band Gap:
 The energy difference between the bottom of the CB and the top of the
VB is called the Band Gap (or Forbidden Gap)
5
 Semiconductors

 In semiconductors there is a small gap between the valence

and conduction bands and thermal or other excitations
enough to bridged the gap.
 With such a small energy gap, incorporation of a small
percentage of a doping material can increase conductivity
dramatically.
 An important parameter in the band theory is the Fermi
level, the top of the available electron energy levels at low
temperatures.
 The position of the Fermi level with the relation to the
conduction band is a crucial factor in determining electrical
properties. 6
 Conductors

 In terms of the band theory of

solids metals are unique as good
conductors of electricity.
 This can be seen to be a result of
their valence electrons being
essentially free.
 In the band theory, this is
Energy of Electrons

depicted as an overlap of the

Conduction Band valence band and the conduction
band so that at least a fraction of
the valence electrons can move
through the material.
Valence Band  Therefore, very low potential
difference can cause continuous
flow of current.
7
 Insulators

 Insulator has a very large energy

gap between valence band and
conduction band (forbidden gap)
and in general is more than 3 eV.
Energy of Electrons

 No electron is available for

Conduction Band conduction in the conduction band.
 Large amount of energy is required
to move electron from valence
band to conduction band.
Forbidden Gap
 Glass is an insulating materials
which may be transparent to
visible light and it closely
Valence Band correlated with its nature as an
electrical insulator.
8
 Semiconductors

 In case of semiconductors the

forbidden gap is very small.
 At 0K the conduction band is empty
and the valence band is completely
Energy of Electrons

filled.
 In presence of small amount of
energy, the electrons can easily
Conduction Band jump the forbidden gap.
 Although no conduction occurs at 0
K, at higher temperatures a finite
Forbidden Gap
0.7 eV (Ge) &1.1 eV(Si) number of electrons can reach the
conduction band and provide some
current.
Valence Band  The conductivity of a
semiconductor is of the order of 102
9
mhom-1
 Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors

0K 300K

Energy of Electrons
Conduction
Energy of Electrons

Conduction
Band
Band

Fermi level lies

Fermi level lies
in the middle
in the middle Forbidden Gap
Forbidden Gap
Hole
Valence Band Electron
Valence Band Electron

At absolute zero (0K), in a At room temperature some

pure semiconductor the of the electrons get energy
valence band is to break the covalent bond
completely filled and the and moves into 10the
conduction band is vacant. conduction band
 Types of semiconductor

Intrinsic semiconductors are pure forms of

semiconductors, hence they do not have a significant
amount of impurity. (but show poor electrical
conductivity)

Extrinsic semiconductors are made by adding some

impurity to the pure form of semiconductors.
(show excellent electrical conductivity)

Extrinsic semiconductor are further classified as;

 n-type semiconductors
 p-type semiconductors 11
Intrinsic Semiconductors

 An intrinsic
semiconductor is a
pure semiconductor.
 The number of
excited electrons and
the number of holes
are equal; n=p.
 Example; Pure
silicon (Si) and pure
germanium (Ge).

12
 Intrinsic Silicon Semiconductor
 The pure silicon is an intrinsic 0K (No e- in
conduction band)
semiconductor.
 At absolute zero (0K), the valence
band is completely filled and no
electron in the conduction band.
 Energy gap between valence band &
conduction band is 1.09 eV.
300 K
 At 300 K, the electron jump from
valence band to the conduction and at
that condition number of excited
electrons and number of holes are
equal numbers.
 At finite temperatures, the number of electrons
which reach the conduction band and contribute to 13
current. That current is small compared to its doped
form under the same conditions.
 Intrinsic Germanium Semiconductor
 The pure silicon is an intrinsic 0K (No e- in
conduction band)
semiconductor.
 At absolute zero (0K), the valence
band is completely filled and no
electron in the conduction band.
 Energy gap between valence band &
conduction band is 0.72 eV.
300 K
 At 300 K, the electron jump from
valence band to the conduction and
at that condition number of excited
electrons and number of holes are
equal numbers.
 At finite temperatures, the number of electrons
which reach the conduction band and contribute to 14

current. That current is small compared to its doped

form under the same conditions.
 Extrinsic Semiconductors

Dopant is a trace impurity that is artificially inserted in to a

substance to alter its electrical or optical properties.

15
 Extrinsic Semiconductors

 When an impurity is doped into pure semiconductor to

increase the charge carriers then it becomes an extrinsic
semiconductor.
 Interestingly, in extrinsic semiconductors without
breaking of the covalent bonds we can increase the
charge carriers.
 Hence, the small percentage of doping of the
semiconductors greatly increases their electrical
conductivity and is the basis for the solid state
electronics.
 Extrinsic semiconductors are two types: N-type and p-
type.
16
 N-Type Semiconductors

 When a pentavalent impurity (Group-V) such as Phosphorous

(P) or Arsenic (As) is added into pure silicon materials and
form n-type semiconductor.
 P or As has 5 valence electrons.

 Fifth electron is superfluous, becomes free electron (n for negative)

and enters into the conduction band.
 These free electrons eventually carry electrical current. 17
Pentavalent impurity is known as donor.
 P-type Semiconductors

 When a trivalent impurity such as Boron (B) or Gallium (Ga) is added

into pure silicon materials, it forms p-type semiconductor.
 B or Ga has three valence electrons. So it has one electron less than
silicon.

 It forms covalent bonds with adjacent three electrons of silicon

atoms.
 There is a deficiency of one covalent bond and creates a hole 18
Where one extra electron should be.
 P-type Semiconductors

 The existence of the holes creates extra energy level just

above the valence band, because it takes relatively little
energy to move another electron into a hole.
 Electrons from neighbouring atoms can move into this
hole, leaving a hole where they used to be filled by another
neighbouring electron.
 Result is an increased flow of current as the electrons
move to fill holes under an applied electrical field.
 It is always easier to think in terms of the flow of positive
charges (holes) in the direction of the applied field, so we
call this a p-type semiconductor (p for positive)
 Trivalent impurity is known as acceptor.
19
Ga and As Mixed Semiconductors

20
 Comparison: Intrinsic & Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Extrinsic
It is in pure form It is formed by adding
trivalent or pentavalent
impurity to a pure
semiconductor
Holes and electrons are No. of holes are more in p-
equal type and No. of electrons
are more in n-type
Fermi level lies in between Fermi levels lies near
valence and conduction valence band in p-type and
bands near conduction band in n-
type.
21
 Comparison: N-type and P-type Semiconductors

N-type P-type
Pentavalent impurities are Trivalent impurities are
added. added.
Majority carriers are Majority carriers are holes.
electrons.
Minority carriers are holes
Minority carriers are
electrons
Fermi level is near the Fermi level is near the
conduction band. valence band.
Pentavalent impurities are Trivalent impurities are
known as donor. known as acceptor.
22
 Magnetic Properties

What is Magnetization?
 Magnetization is defined as the extent to which a
material becomes magnetized when placed within a
magnetic field, and is a measure of the net magnetic
dipole moment per unit volume. The magnetization is
directly related to the applied magnetic field.

 Magnetism is a property of materials that respond to an

applied magnetic filed that cause the material to be
either attracted or repelled.

23
 Diamagnetic

 Feebly repelled by the magnetic fields. Non-metallic

elements, inert gases and species with paired electrons are
diamagnetic
TiO2, V2O5

p6

24
 Paramagnetic

 Attracted by the magnetic field due to the presence of

permanent magnetic dipoles (presence of unpaired
electrons).
 In magnetic field, these tend to orient themselves parallel
to the direction of the field and thus, produce magnetism
in the substances.
 Should present at least one unpaired electron.
Cu2+, Fe3+ (d5), TiO (d2), CuO (d9)

25
Ferromagnetic

26
FERROMAGNETISM
27
Antiferromagnetic

28
 Magnetic Properties of Nanoparticles

 The nanometer-sized particles are superparamagnetic,

as their property resulting from their tiny size domain
i.e., only a few nanometers.
 When returned to a zero magnetic field they quickly
revert to a non-magnetized state. 29
 Magnetic Properties of Nanoparticles
 Magnetic nanoparticles are used for drug delivery,
therapeutic treatment, contrast agents for MRI
imaging, bioseparation, and in-vitro diagnostics.
 These nanometer-sized particles are superparamagnetic, a
property resulting from their tiny size—only a few
nanometers.
 Superparamagnetic nanoparticles are not magnetic when
located in a zero magnetic field, but they quickly become
magnetized when an external magnetic field is applied.
 When returned to a zero magnetic field they quickly revert
to a non-magnetized state.
 Superparamagnetism is one of the most important
properties of nanoparticles used for biomagnetic
30
separation.
 KEVLAR

Synthesis
Kevlar is a polyamide formed from 1,4-diaminobenzene and
terephthalic acid

Properties
Strength of Kevlar is mainly due to hydrogen bonding between N-H
and C=O groups of two polymeric chains. Kevlar fiber has a tensile
strength of about 3,620 Mpa and relative density of 1.44 g/cc

Kevlar maintains its strength and resilience down to cryogenic 31

temperatures −196 °C
 KEVLAR: Properties

 High tensile strength at low weight

 Low elongation to break
 High modulus (structural rigidity)
 Low electrical conductivity
 High chemical resistance
 Low thermal shrinkage
 High toughness (work-to-break)
 Excellent dimensional stability
 High cut resistance
 Flame resistant, self-extinguishing
32
What makes KEVLAR bullet proof

33
 KEVLAR: Applications

 Body armour: bullet-proof vests and

helmets
 Ropes and cables.
 Belts and hoses for industrial applications
 Composites for aircraft body parts, boats,
and sporting goods (e.g. skis)
 Fibre-optic cables for communication, data
transmission and ignition.
 Friction products such as brake pads, clutch
linings, gaskets. It is often employed as a
replacement for the carcinogenic asbestos
 Sailing/motorcycle outerwear 34
 Adhesives and sealants.
 CELLULOSE ACETATE

 Cellulose acetate is the acetate ester of cellulose.

 PAUL SCHUTZENBERGER discovered that cellulose
could react with acetic anhydride to form cellulose
acetate in 1865.
 Cellulose acetate is used as a film base in
photography, as a component in some coatings, and
as a frame material for eyeglasses.

35
CELLULOSE ACETATE - Synthesis

36
 CELLULOSE ACETATE - Properties

 Cellulose acetate is a thermoplastic polymer.

 It is transparent, glossy and reasonably hard for a
thermoplastic.
 High impact and mechanical strength.
 Selective absorption and removal of low levels of
certain organic chemicals.
 Easily bonded with plasticizers, heat, and pressure.

37
 CELLULOSE ACETATE - Applications

 Cellulose acetate is an important polymer used in

manufacturing of cellulose acetate yarn, plastic,
photographic films etc.
 Used in all kind of women's & men's wear.
 Sheets are used as transparent wrapping materials.
 Used for insulating purposes.
 Semi-permeable membranes made from cellulose acetate
fibers have a remarkable potential in desalination of water.
 Cellulose acetate hollow fibers are suitable for gas
separation and hemodialysis.
38
 DURALMIN ALLOY

Duralumin is an alloy, a trademark name given to the earliest

types of the age hardenable aluminum alloys.
It is an alloy made up of 90% to 94% aluminum, 4% copper,
1% magnesium and 0.5% to 1% manganese.
Duralumin is hard, but a lightweight alloy of aluminum.
It has a typical yield strength of 450 MPa, and there are a few
other variations, that depend on the composition and type.
Example: Vehicle armor that is used in the defense industry.
These alloys were the first widely used deformable 39
aluminum alloys.
 DURALMIN Properties

Strong, light-weighted, and hard

Reflective and impermeable.
Malleable metal and can be easily shaped.
Good conductor of heat and electricity.
Odorless, and reacts with the oxygen that is
around, and forms aluminum oxide. It is
resistant to corrosion.
Ductile, and workable when they are in a
normal state. They can be easily rolled,
folded, or forged.
Well-suited for aircraft construction
because of its lightweight and high
40
strength.
 DURALMIN - USES
 Making wire, bar, and rods for
screw machine products.
 Heavy-duty forgings, wheels,
plates, extrusions, aircraft fittings,
space booster tankage and truck
frame, and other suspension
components.
 Making Aircraft structures, truck
wheels, screw machine products,
rivets
 Sheet for the auto body panels.
 Making die and hand forgings.
 Surgical instruments

41
 DURALMIN in ROBOTS
Easier to shape and is lighter.
Good material about a robot’s exterior
preventing rusting. However, because
it can corrode in some wet
environments and require surface
protection.
A popular option for robot exteriors is
that it can be polished to a high shine
with ample durability.
Polishing technology with three-way
machines which enable programming
to meet double-sided processing
needs.
42
 Steel
Carbon steel is an iron-carbon alloy
Contains up to 2.1 wt % carbon.
For carbon steels, there is no minimum specified content of
other alloying elements, however, they often contain
manganese.
The maximum manganese, silicon and copper content should
be less than 1.65 wt.%, 0.6 wt.% and 0.6 wt.%, respectively.

Types of Steel
Low Carbon Steel
Medium Carbon Steel
High Carbon Steel

43
Low-carbon steel most widely used
Carbon content of less than 0.25 wt.%.
They cannot be hardened by heat treatment (to form
martensite) so this is usually achieved by cold work.
These steels are. Have high ductility. Relatively soft and
have low strength making them excellent for machining,
welding and low cost.
Applications
Used in automobile body components
structural shapes (I-beams, channel and angle iron),
Pipes, construction and bridge components
Food cans. 44
 HSLA

High-strength, low-alloy steels (HSLA)

Contain copper, nickel, vanadium and molybdenum.
Combined, these comprise up to 10 wt.% of the steel content.

High-strength, low-alloy steels, as the name suggests, have

higher strengths, which is achieved by heat treatment.

They also retain ductility, making them easily formable and

machinable. HSLA are more resistant to corrosion than plain
low-carbon steels. 45
 Medium-Carbon Steel
Carbon content of 0.25 – 0.60 wt.% and
manganese content of 0.60 – 1.65 wt.%.
The mechanical properties of this steel are
improved via heat treatment involving
autenitising followed by quenching and
tempering, giving them a martensitic
microstructure.
Sometimes elements, such as chromium,
molybdenum and nickel are added to improve the
steels ability to be heat treated and, thus,
hardened.
Hardened medium-carbon steels have greater
strength than low-carbon steels, however, this
comes at the expense of ductility and toughness.
Applications
Used for railway tracks and train wheels 46

Crankshafts and gears

 High Carbon Steel
Carbon content of 0.60– 1.25 wt.%
Manganese content of 0.30 – 0.90 wt.%.

Highest hardness and toughness.

Lowest ductility.
Wear-resistant.

Tool steels and die steels are types of high-carbon steels, which
contain additional alloying elements including chromium,
vanadium, molybdenum and tungsten. The addition of these
elements results in the very hard wear-resistant steel, which is a
result of the formation of carbide compounds such as tungsten
carbide (WC).
Applications
Used in cutting tools
47
Spring high strength wire and dies.
 Nanodot
 NANODOT can refer to several technologies which use
nanometer-scale localized structures.
 Nanodots generally exploit properties of quantum dots to
localize magnetic or electrical fields at very small scales.
 Applications for nanodots could include high-
density information storage, energy storage, and light-
emitting devices.

Each nanodot can hold

one bit of information.
Results showed that 10
Trillion dots per square
inch.
48
 CdSe

Cadmium selenide (CdSe) is a chemical compound

composed of cadmium and selenium. It is a semiconductor
material used in the manufacture of solar cells, light-
emitting diodes, and other optoelectronic devices

49
 Synthesis of CdX (CdSe) quantum dots

CdCl2 heated at 320 deg C mixed with constant stirring

(inert atm.) with TOP (tri-octylphosphine)
Selenium compd injected into the vessel added until
supersaturation
Allowed to cool by air
Growth of new crystals of CdSe starts….
(trace of ZnS added to medium coating CdSe….preventing 50

oxidation
 Application of CdSe quantum dots

 Emitters for color displays

 Color modifiers for light emitting diodes (LEDs)
 Optical fiber amplifiers
 Low threshold lasers
 Polymer-based photovoltaic cells
 Optical temperature probes
 Chemical sensors
 High-speed signal-processing filters
51
 LACQUERS
Transparent paint that is put on wood,
metal, etc. to give it a hard & shiny surface.
Colloidal dispersion of cellulose derivatives, resins and
plasticisers in solvents and diluents.
Constituents Functions Examples
Cellulose They provide hardness and Cellulose acetate and
derivatives durability to the film. Cellulose nitrate
Resins They provide thickness, Copal, Phenol-
glossy and adhesion to the formaldehyde
film.
Plasticisers They provide smooth and Dibutyl phthalate
flexible film.
Solvent They dissolve resin and Acetone and ethyl
cellulose derivatives. acetate
52
Diluents The decrease the viscosity and Benzol and Petroleum
cost of the lacquers. spirit
 Lacquerware and 3D printing

Japanese nendo studio uses 3D printing technology to

compress and cut paper into paper tires, which are then
painted and polished; The "Amano" of Takaoka
Lacquerware Company improves wooden utensils and
creatively combines glass and lacquer to develop glass-
based lacquerware

53
 Nano incorporated polycarbonate
It is a polycarbonate which is widely used to
permanently increase antistatic, dissipative, or
electroconductive, as well as mechanical
properties by adding additives of
nanomaterials forming nanocomposites

54
Nano incorporated polycarbonate

55
Nano incorporated polycarbonate

56
Storage Devices

57
 Optical Disks
An optical disk is an electronic data
storage medium that can be written to
and read from using a low-powered laser
beam.

Different forms of disks

Compact disks (CD)
digital versatile / video disks (DVD)
Blu-ray disks

58
 Optical Disks - Components

(A)A polycarbonate disc layer has

the data encoded by using
lands and pits.
(B) A reflective layers reflects the
laser back
(C) A lacquer layer is used to
prevent oxidation
(D) Artwork is screen printed on
the top of the disc
(E) A laser beam reads the
polycarbonate disc, is
reflected ack, and read by the
player.
59
 Flash Memory Storage
Flash memory, also known as flash
storage, is a type of nonvolatile
memory that erases data in units
called blocks and rewrites data at the
byte level.
Flash memory is widely used for storage and data transfer in
consumer devices, enterprise systems and industrial
applications.

Portable devices such as digital cameras, smartphones, and

MP3 players normally use flash memory.
USB drives (also called thumb drives and flash drives) and
memory cards use flash memory to store data.
60
Flash Memory Storage
Chip = silicon
Circuit = semiconductor

Polycarbonate coating
Lacquer coating

61
 Solid State Drives
Is a type of storage device used in
computers.
This non-volatile storage media
stores persistent data on solid-state
flash memory.
SSDs replace traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) in computers
and perform the same basic functions as a hard drive.

SSD Versus HDD

(1) SSDs store data in flash memory, while HDDs store
data in magnetic disks.
(2) SSDs are a newer technology that uses silicon's physical
and chemical properties to offer more storage volume,
62
speed, and efficiency.
End of Module 1

63