Public Administration English B.A Prog Removed 1 Xunzyc

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Public Administration in India
Contents
Unit-1 Indian Administration
Unit-2 Decentralization
Unit-3 Budget:
(a) Concept of Budget and Budget Cycle in India
(b) Budget Types: Line Budgeting, Performance Planning Budgeting, Zero Based
Budgeting (c) Budget: Role of Finance Ministry
Unit-4 Technology and Public Administration in India
Unit-5 Social Welfare Administration:
(a) Education: Right to Education (b) Health: National Health Mission
Unit-6 Issues and Debates in Indian Administration
All Rights Reserved © Manish Verma, for more Notes visit https://www.manishvermanotes.com/
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Question 1. What has been the structure of civil services in India? And What are
the conditions of promotion in the civil services?
Answer- Introduction-
The Union Civil Services of India can be classified into three types-
There are three categories of civil services in India, namely, the All India Services (IAS,
IFS, IPS), the Central Civil Services, and the State Civil Services.
The Civil Services refer to the career government civil servants who are the permanent
executive branch of the Republic of India. Elected cabinet ministers determine policy,
and civil servants carry it out.
Lord Cornwallis, one of the Governor Generals of Bengal, introduced the Civil Services
to India. Initially, only Europeans were appointed as officers in the Indian Civil Services.
Structure of Civil Structure of Civil Services in India
The service responsible for the public administration of the government of a country. It
excludes the legislative, judicial, and military branches. Members of the civil service have
no official political allegiance and are not generally affected by changes of governments.
Additionally, the officers from the State Civil Services cadre can seek deployment with
the Government of India cadre for the Union Civil Services jobs.
1. The All India Civil Services
2. The Central Civil Services
3. The State Civil Services
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1. The All India Civil Services
In this Act, the expression "an all-India Service' means the service known as the Indian
Administrative Service or the service known as the Indian Police Service.
The All India Services comprises the three prestigious civil services of India:
 Indian Administrative Service (IAS): The Indian Administrative Service (IAS) is the
administrative arm of the All India Services of Government of India. Considered the
premier civil service of India, the IAS is one of the three arms of the All India Services
along with the Indian Police Service and the Indian Forest Service.
 Indian Police Service (IPS): The Indian Police Service was created under the Article
312(2) in part XIV of the Constitution of India. As per media reports, there is a
massive shortage of IPS officers in India, amounting to nearly 19% to 22% of
sanctioned strength. According to 1861 Act, Police functions are to prevent

commission of offences and public nuisances; bring offenders to justice; collect
information affecting public peace; and keep order in all public places, keeping in
view the changing political and social scenario.
 Indian Forest Service (IFS): The Indian Forest Service's primary duties include
implementing the National Forest Policy, ensuring the nation's ecological stability
through inclusive sustainable management, and protecting natural resources.

Collection of forest data is one of the roles of the Forest Officers. The Indian Forest
Service (IFS) is one of the three All India Services of the Government of India. The
other two All India Services being the Indian Administrative Service and the Indian
Police Service. It was constituted in the year 1966 under the All India Services Act,
1951, by the Government of India.
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2. The Central Civil Services
The Central Civil Services (CCS) is part of Civil Services of India and are concerned
directly with the union non-political executive administration and is the permanent
Executive body of the federal Government of India. Most of the specialized fields in civil
services in India belong to the central services.
The Central Civil Services (CCS) is part of Civil Services of India and are concerned
directly with the union non-political executive administration and is the permanent
Executive body of the federal Government of India. Most of the specialized fields in civil
services in India belong to the central services.
3. The State Civil Services
The State Civil Services examinations and recruitment are conducted by the individual
states' public service commissions in India. These services are feeder services of All India
Services. All appointments to State Services (Group A) are made by the Governors of
States.
The civil services are thus, a subdivision under the government. The officers in the civil
services form the permanent staff of the various governmental departments. They are
basically expert administrators. They are sometimes referred to as the bureaucracy or

also the public service.
The conditions of promotion in the civil services
Acceptable criteria for promotion are: Experience in the job or tenure. High
performance level in [two] recent review cycles. Skillset that matches the minimum
requirements of the new role. The best way is to combine the merit principle with
seniority and make promotions on the basis of merit-cum-seniority.
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There are types of promotion which are as follows:
1. From lower service to higher service: from State Civil Services to Indian
Administrative Services.
2. From lower grade to higher grade: from junior typist to senior typist post.
3. Lower class to higher class: It’s from clerical to executive class.
4. Transfer: It means the change of work within the same position and grade.
5. Reassignment: When change of work in the same agency with no change in ranks.
6. Advancement: It refers to increase in pay.
Conclusion
In India, the civil service plays a critical role in enforcing norms and policies. It plays a
crucial part in Indian administration. The civil service's role has evolved throughout time.
Rapid economic expansion has resulted in an increase in the amount of work available.
Civil Servants need to change their mindset from controllers to facilitators, and from
providers to enablers. They must equip themselves with the necessary talents and
abilities in order to meet these new challenges.
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Question 2. Examine the colonial legacy in Indian administration?
Answer- Introduction
Even the term ‘colonial legacies' implies the influences and outcomes of colonialism
are in fact over, yet contemporary economic, political and social structures across
regions in Africa continue to be shaped by their distinctive experiences from the period
of colonialism.
British dominance in India left a lasting imprint on the Indian administrative
structure, which is still in use today. Free India inherited the governmental machinery
that had been created by the British, as well as the sense of importance that came with
having a federal government in place. Everything from the All India Services to civil
service recruitment to administrative training to the secretariat system and office
procedures to district and revenue administration to law and order to budgeting to

accounting and auditing to a variety of other structural and functional areas of Indian
administration can be traced back to the British-style administration. In spite of the fact
that the British had their own objectives of perpetuating and developing their empire,
toward which the administrative system was directed, some of the British organisational
endeavours have proven to be beneficial to India in the decades following
independence.
The characteristics of British administration that have remained constant are described
in greater detail below.
The colonial legacy in Indian administration
1. Organisation within a Department:

Departmental groups have long played a major role in the administration of the
Indian government. The Organisation of the departments, as well as their operating

processes, have remained mostly unchanged. The continuation of hierarchical
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structures, written records, and communication has occurred. These departments are
still governed by manuals from before independence. Chief Secretary is a position

that has existed in the state administration since its inception.
2. Services to the Public:

Departmental groups have long played a major role in the administration of the
Indian government. The organizational Organisation of the departments, as well as

their operating processes, have remained mostly unchanged. The continuation of
hierarchical structures, written records, and communication has occurred. These

departments are still governed by manuals from before independence. Chief
Secretary is a position that has existed in the state administration since its inception.
3. Commissioners of the Public Services Commission (PSC):
One of the most significant contributions of the British rule was the establishment of
an independent body to administer the competitive examinations. As a result of the
submission of the Macaulay Report in 1854 on Indian soil, it became the first country
to promote a merit-based civil service system in the world. The Federal Public Service
Commission was formed in 1926 with the goal of ensuring the fair selection of
deserving federal officials. After the new Indian Constitution came into effect on
January 26, 1950, the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) took over as the
primary administrative body. Although the framers of the Constitution granted it
constitutional status, they also included intricate protections to ensure that it

maintains its independence and may continue to serve as the upholder of the merit
system in the hiring of government employees.

4. Administration of the District:
District administration is still in operation as a unit of administration, though its
significance has increased noticeably. The collector continues to be the district

administrator, who is also the head of the district administration. The district, on the
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other hand, has seen an increase in the size of its operations that has more than
doubled. The collector continues to have the same authority and status as he had
under British administration. Now, in addition to regulatory tasks such as law and
order maintenance and revenue collection, the collectors are tasked with
developmental functions, which are critical to the development and expansion of the
districts in which they serve.
5. Government at the local level:

It is yet another aspect of the British administrative system that has been preserved.
"The Father of Local Self-Government in India" has been dubbed Lord Ripon, was
credited with introducing local self- government to the country. To satisfy the rising
requirements of the population, local government entities that existed prior to

independence were merged and new ones were established to meet those needs.
Every state now has laws establishing Municipal Corporations and Municipalities in
urban areas, as well local Panchayats in rural regions, which governed by elected
officials.
6. Administration of Financial Recourses:
The British administration established organisations such as the Comptroller and

Auditor General (C&AG), the Public Accounts Committee, the Reserve Bank, and a
budget system in order to ensure that the government had a sound financial
management. These institutions continue to play an important role in ensuring
financial prudence and accountability in the federal government.

Some of the enduring legacies include: Administrative and Judicial System, primary
among them is Indian Civil Services. Infrastructure Primary among which includes
Railways. Institutionalization of Law and Order which includes important acts like
Indian Police Act and Indian Penal Code.
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Conclusion
Some of the enduring legacies include: Administrative and Judicial System, primary
among them is Indian Civil Services. Infrastructure Primary among which includes
Railways. Institutionalization of Law and Order which includes important acts like Indian
Police Act and Indian Penal Code.
Economic improvements were only enacted in order to better plunder the Indian
economy. Even societal changes would have come out on their own without the need
for British intervention. In the end, the negative effects of British Imperialism far
outweigh the benefits.
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Question 3. Explain the role of Indian Prime Minister and Cabinet Secretariat.
The Cabinet Secretariat is a staff body, which has an important coordinating role in the
process of decision-making at the highest level and operates under the direction of the
Prime Minister. The Cabinet Secretary is the administrative head of the Cabinet
Secretariat.
Prime Minister- In most systems, the prime minister is the presiding member and
chairman of the cabinet. In a minority of systems, notably in semi-presidential systems, a

prime minister is the official appointed to manage the civil service and execute the
directives of the head of state.
Cabinet Secretariat- The Cabinet Secretariat is responsible for the administration of the
Government of India (Transaction of Business) Rules, 1961 and Government of India

(Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961 facilitating smooth transaction of business in
Ministries/ Departments.
The role of Indian Prime Minister
1. Executive powers
The prime minister leads the functioning and exercise of authority of the government
of India. The president of India- subject to eligibility-invites a person who is
commanding support of majority members of Lok Sabha to form the government of

India also known as the central government or Union government at the national level
and exercise its powers. In practice the prime minister nominates the members of their
council of ministers to the president. They also work upon to decide a core group of
ministers (known as the cabinet), as in charge of the important functions and ministries
of the government of India.
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The prime minister is responsible for aiding and advising the president in distribution of
work of the government to various ministries and offices and in terms of the
Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961. The co-ordinating work is
generally allocated to the Cabinet Secretariat.
The prime minister in consultation with the cabinet schedules and attends the sessions
of the houses of parliament and is required to answer the question from the Members
of Parliament to them as the in-charge of the portfolios in the capacity as prime minister
of India.
The prime minister represents the country in various delegations, high level meetings
and international organisations that require the attendance of the highest government
office, and also addresses to the nation on various issues of national or other
importance.
2. Administrative and appointment powers
The prime minister recommends to the president among others names for the
appointment of:
• Chief Election Commissioner of India (CEC) and other Election Commissioners of India
(ECs)
• Comptroller and Auditor General of India (C&AG)
• Chairperson and members of the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)
• Chairperson and members of the finance commission (FC)
• Attorney General of India (AG) and Solicitor General of India (SG)
As the chairperson of Appointments Committee of the Cabinet (ACC), the prime minister
on the non-binding advice of the Cabinet Secretary of India led-Senior Selection Board
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(SSB) decides the postings of top civil servants, such as, secretaries, additional
secretaries and joint secretaries in the government of India. Further, in the same
capacity, the PM decides the assignments of top military personnel such as the Chief of
the Army Staff, Chief of the Air Staff, Chief of the Naval Staff and commanders of
operational and training commands. In addition, the ACC also decides the posting of
Indian Police Service officers-the All India Service for policing, which staffs most of the
higher-level law enforcement positions at federal and state level-in the government of
India.
3. Legislative powers
The prime minister acts as the leader of the house of the chamber of parliament
generally the Lok Sabha they belong to. In this role, the prime minister is tasked with
representing the executive in the legislature, announces important legislation, and is
further expected to respond to the opposition's concerns. Article 85 of the Indian

constitution confers the president with the power to convene and end extraordinary
sessions of the parliament; this power, however, is exercised only on the advice of the
prime minister and his/her council, so in practice the prime minister does exercise some
control over affairs of the parliament.
The role of Indian Cabinet Secretariat
The Cabinet Secretariat functions directly under the Prime Minister. The administrative
head of the Secretariat is the Cabinet Secretary who is also the ex-officio Chairman of
the Civil Services Board. The business allocated to Cabinet Secretariat under
Government of India (Allocation of Business) Rules, 1961 includes (i) Secretarial
assistance to the Cabinet and Cabinet Committees; and (ii) Rules of Business.
The Cabinet Secretariat is responsible for the administration of the Government of India
(Transaction of Business) Rules, 1961 and Government of India (Allocation of Business)
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Rules, 1961 facilitating smooth transaction of business in Ministries/ Departments. The
Secretariat assists in decision-making in Government by ensuring Inter-Ministerial

coordination, ironing out differences amongst Ministries/Departments and evolving
consensus through the instrumentality of the standing/adhoc Committees of

Secretaries. Management of major crisis situations in the country and coordinating
activities of various ministries in such a situation is also one of the functions of the
Cabinet Secretariat.
1. The Cabinet Secretary is the most senior and prominent IAS officer in the
country. He is directly accountable to the prime ministers and heads various country
authorities. Therefore, the cabinet secretary discharged various responsibilities, which

are discussed below.
2. The Cabinet secretary is answerable to the prime minister and the president and
vice-president of the country where he should pass on all the major information of the
decisions made by the cabinet and its activities to the head of the country.
3. The position of cabinet secretary is of major significance because of the major
role it plays between all the authorities and ministries in the cabinet secretariat. It is the
common link of smooth functioning and is not assigned to a specific ministry or even
the prime minister’s office. The secretary clarifies all the communication in case of inter
cabinet disputes or any confusion.
4. There are major components of the country such as the cabinet and the military,
RAW and the civil wing of the country, which also ensures that all the sectors of
government can be called at once and the core of communication lies with the head of
the secretariat.
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5. The cabinet secretary is also the head of all civil services in India. It is his
responsibility to ensure unbiased and disciplined functioning of the most coveted

bureaucratic position in the country.
6. A cabinet secretary is an advisor to the cabinet and the prime minister. He is the
senior-most officer who advises and gives recommendations on various other positions
in the government. Besides this, a cabinet secretary acts as the head of the cabinet
secretariat and chief of secretaries of states.
Conclusion
The Cabinet Secretariat is a staff body, which has an important coordinating role in the
process of decision-making at the highest level and operates under the direction of the
Prime Minister. The Cabinet Secretary is the administrative head of the Cabinet
Secretariat.
Similar to PMO cabinet secretariat is politically headed by Prime Minister but it is
administratively headed by cabinet secretary. Unlike as PMO a single institution cabinet

secretary has 3 subdivisions namely civil, military and intelligence. It is said that cabinet
secretary serves as eyes and ears for PM.
In the country's politico-administrative structure, the Prime Minister plays a very

important and critical function. 'If any functionary under our constitution is to be likened
to the US president, he is the Prime Minister, not the President of the Union,' said Dr B.R.
Ambedkar described the role of the Prime Minister.
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Question 4. Define the concept of Decentralization in India, after 73th
Amendment.
Answer - Introduction
The 73rd Amendment 1992 added a new Part IX to the constitution titled “The
Panchayats” covering provisions from Article 243 to 243(O); and a new Eleventh
Schedule covering 29 subjects within the functions of the Panchayats.
Significance of the amendment
This amendment implements the article 40 of the DPSP which says that “State shall take
steps to organise village panchayats and endow them with such powers and authority as
may be necessary to enable them to function as units of self-government” and have

upgraded them from non-justifiable to justifiable part of the constitution and has put
constitutional obligation upon states to enact the Panchayati Raj Acts as per provisions
of the Part IX. However, states have been given enough freedom to take their
geographical, politico-administrative and others conditions into account while adopting

the Panchayati Raj System.
Salient Features
1. Gram Sabha
Gram Sabha is a body consisting of all the persons registered in the electoral rolls
relating to a village comprised within the area of Panchayat at the village level. Since
all the persons registered in electoral rolls are members of Gram Sabha, there are no
elected representatives. Further, Gram Sabha is the only permanent unit in
Panchayati Raj system and not constituted for a particular period. Although it serves
as foundation of the Panchayati Raj, yet it is not among the three tiers of the same.
The powers and functions of Gram Sabha are fixed by state legislature by law.
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2. Three Tiers of Panchayati Raj
Part IX provides for a 3 tier Panchayat system, which would be constituted in every
state at the village level, intermediate level and district level. This provision brought
the uniformity in the Panchayati Raj structure in India. However, the states which
were having population below 20 Lakh were given an option to not to have the
intermediate level.
3. All the members of these three levels are elected. Further, the chairperson of
panchayats at the intermediate and district levels are indirectly elected from
amongst the elected members. But at the village level, the election of chairperson of
Panchayat (Sarpanch) may be direct or indirect as provided by the state in its own
Panchayati Raj Act.
4. Reservation in Panchayats
There is a provision of reservation of seats for SCs and STs at every level of
Panchayat. The seats are to be reserved for SCs and STs in proportion to their
population at each level. Out of the Reserved Seats, 1/3rd has to be reserved for the
women of the SC and ST. Out of the total number of seats to be filled by the direct
elections, 1/3rd have to be reserved for women. There has been an amendment bill
pending that seeks to increase reservation for women to 50%. The reserved seats
may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in the Panchayat. The State
by law may also provide for reservations for the offices of the Chairpersons.
5. Duration of Panchayats
A clear term for 5 years has been provided for the Panchayats and elections must
take place before the expiry of the terms. However, the Panchayat may be dissolved
earlier on specific grounds in accordance with the state legislations. In that case the
elections must take place before expiry of 6 months of the dissolution.
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6. Disqualification of Members
Article 243F makes provisions for disqualifications from the membership. As per this
article, any person who is qualified to become an MLA is qualified to become a
member of the Panchayat, but for Panchayat the minimum age prescribed is 21
years. Further, the disqualification criteria are to be decided by the state legislature
by law.
7. Finance Commission
State Government needs to appoint a finance commission every five years, which shall
review the financial position of the Panchayats and to make recommendation on the
following:
 The Distribution of the taxes, duties, tolls, fees etc. levied by the state which is to be
divided between the Panchayats.
 Allocation of proceeds between various tiers.

 Taxes, tolls, fees assigned to Panchayats
 Grant in aids.
This report of the Finance Commission would be laid on the table in the State
legislature. Further, the Union Finance Commission also suggests the measures needed
to augment the Consolidated Funds of States to supplement the resources of the

panchayats in the states.
8. Powers and Functions: 11th Schedule
The state legislatures are needed to enact laws to endow powers and authority to the
Panchayats to enable them functions of local government. The 11th schedule enshrines
the distribution of powers between the State legislature and the Panchayats.
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9. Elections
 Article 243K enshrines the provisions with respect to elections of the Panchayats.
This article provides for constitution of a State Election Commission in respect of the
Panchayats. This State Election Commission would have the power to supervise,
direct and control the elections to the Panchayats and also prepare the electoral
rolls.
 The article maintains the independence of the election commission by making
provisions that the election commissioner of this commissioner would be removed

only by manner and on same grounds as a Judge of the High Court.
 If there is a dispute in the Panchayat elections, the Courts have NO jurisdiction over
them. This means that the Panchayat election can be questioned only in the form of
an election petition presented to an authority which the State legislature by law can
prescribe. (Important) The election commissioner for this reason is to be appointed
by the Governor. The terms and conditions of the office of the Election
commissioners have also to be decided by the Governor.
Conclusion
The scholarly record regarding the impact of decentralization on a wide range of
political and economic phenomena such as democratization, conflict resolution,

governance, macroeconomic stability, and social and regional inequality is mixed, to say
the least. The claim that decentralization leads to higher levels of fiscal efficiency, better
government performance, and higher levels of political participation and accountability
has been disputed by those who argue that decentralization increases economic
instability and political clientelism.
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Question 5. What are the main problems of Panchayat Raj? How can they be
resolved? Give suggestion.
Answer – Introduction
Three-tier structure of the Indian administration for rural development is called
Panchayati Raj. The aim of the Panchayati Raj is to develop local self-governments in
districts, zones and villages. State governments should make adequate efforts to
devolve funds, functions, and functionaries to panchayats for them to effectively plan
economic development and social justice schemes. Funding of panchayats: Grants from
Finance Commission play an important role in the implementation of schemes by
panchayats.
Mahatma Gandhi advocated panchayat raj as the foundation of India's political system.
It would have been a decentralised form of government, where each village would be
responsible for its own affairs. The term for such a vision was Gram Swaraj ("village self-
governance").
The main problems of Panchayat Raj
1. Conceptual Confusion
It is said, that basically, there is lack of clarity regarding the concept of Panchayati Raj
and about the objectives for which the Institutions have been established. Over the
years, the concept has undergone some changes. Let us analyse the problem in detail. In
the first instance, the concept of Panchayati Raj is very narrow as it was not viewed as an
institutional framework which could play an important role in the overall development
of -rural masses. Finally, there is no clear trend emerging in regard to the concept of
power. There is a strong feeling that Decentralisation of power and authority exists at
the district level and down the lines. But at the same time, a number of central schemes
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and agencies, both in number and size have been emerging, independent of these
bodies.
2. Financial Resources
The most important problem faced by the Panchayati Raj Institutions is regarding
finances. It is needless to mention that the quality and variety of activities which the
Panchayati Raj Institutions are expected to perform will depend mostly on the resources
at their command. The resource base would depend on the local economy and partly
upon the allocations made by the state and central governments. As things stand today,
the local economy is very weak. It means, the Panchayati Raj Institutions have a very
limited scope to impose taxes in their jurisdiction.
3. Socio-Economic and Political Conditions
The existing socio-economic structure of the Indian society is a major factor which is
responsible for the limited success of Panchayati Raj Institutions. It is proved beyond
doubt that the elected members at all the levels of Panchayati Raj Institutions and the
Office bearers are normally from the rich and dominant sections of the rural society.
They have vested interests in preserving the existing system and would not do anything
that would strengthen the position of the downtrodden in their areas. In fact, it is said
that the leadership of the Panchayati Raj Institutions acts as a "gate-keeper" to prevent
the flow of benefits to the weaker sections of the rural community.
4. Position of Civil Service
An efficient, adequate, responsive and committed administration is the essential
condition of success of Panchayati Raj. The functions of these bodies are too many and
too complex. There is a need for technical personnel, proper orientation and above all
commitment in the civil service. The aspirations of the citizens in the rural areas are
getting stirred. There is a demand for improvement in the services. We find a different
and a difficult situation as far as civil services in India is concerned. The best example is
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the way in which the 64th Constitutional Amendment Bill on Panchayati Raj was
introduced and defeated and finally shelved for the reasons extraneous to the
development of local self- government institutions in the country.
5. Absence of Statutory Provision
The success or failure of an institution depends mostly on the status, on the basis of
which an Organisation is established. According to Article 40 of the Constitution, "The

state shall take steps to organise village panchayats..." Since it is included in the
Directive Principles of State Policy, it is not mandatory. It means that the states may or
may not constitute the Panchayati Raj Institutions. Similarly, in a number of states,
elections have not been held regularly. the constitutional constraint which is a very
serious matter.
6. State Control and Supervision
Since the Panchayati Raj Institutions fall under the state subject and are created by the
paternalism. There is on the one hand a commitment for Decentralisation of power and,
on the other, its suspicion and fear that such power would be misused by the local
bodies. As a result, a number of checks have been envisaged by the states in the
statutes themselves.
The Other problems of Panchayat raj
1. The Panchayati Raj institutions have been suffering from the lack of financial
resources which hinder their effective functions.

2. The elections of Panchayats are held on party lines which results in casteism and
political enmity.
3. There is not much scope for the election of the able and honest persons in the
Panchayats and that results in corruption and nepotism.

4. The government machinery continues to maintain its hold on Panchayat bodies,
which goes against the very purpose of these institutions.
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5. Lack of awareness and non-fulfilment of promises made by these bodies make

village people suspicious to the utility of Panchayati Raj bodies.
Suggestions
1. Effective measures should be adopted to the practice of corruption at various levels

in the functioning of Panchayats.
2. Sufficient funds should be given directly from central as well as from state
governments as aid for all local bodies related with the Panchayati Raj.
3. New sources of income should be suggested to rural democratic institutions.

4. Educational and mass media facilities should be provided. Banks, Insurance
companies and foreign companies should provide financial and other helps.
5. In the interest of democracy, the villages may be trained in the art of self-
government, even autonomy. We must be able to reform the villages and introduce
democratic principles (equality, justice, liberty and fraternity) of the government
there.
Conclusion
In India, the Panchayati Raj system is not a post-independence development. For
decades, the village panchayat has been the most powerful political entity in rural India.
Panchayats were elected councils in ancient India that had administrative and judicial
authority.
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Question 6. What the meaning of Budget? Explain the objectives of Budget in
India?
A budget is a plan of action for a future period. Managerial actions that follow their own
decisions with regard to the aspects of business are based on a budget. The budget
pertaining to any of the activities of business is always forward- looking. It is prepared
prior to a defined period of time.
Meaning of Budget
A budget is a spending plan based on income and expenses. In other words, it's an
estimate of how much money you'll make and spend over a certain period of time, such
as a month or year.
The Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA), London defines
budget as:
“A plan expressed in money. It is prepared and approved prior to the budget period and
may show income, expenditure and the capital employed. May be drawn up showing
incremental effects on former budgeted and actual figures, or be compiled by zero-

based budgeting”
The budget should not be confused with forecasts. A forecast is a mere prediction,
which can be made by anybody. Moreover, a forecast need not always be expressed in
rupees or quantities.
Thinkers views
1. W.J. Batty – “Budgeting is a kind of future accounting in which the problems of the
future are met on paper before the transactions actually occur.”
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2. G.A. Welsch – A business budget is a plan covering all phases of operation for a
definite period in the future.

3. Prof. Savders – “The essence of a budget is a defined plan of operations for some
specific future period, followed by a system of records, which will serve as a check
upon the plan.”
4. Shilling Law – “Budgeting is the preparation of comprehensive operating and

financial plans for a specific interval of time.”
Objectives of Budget in India
A government budget is a country’s year-long financial report explaining item-wise

calculations of future revenue and expenditure. The budget explains the income and
expense of a nation.
In India, in the beginning of every year, the government presents its budget in front of
the Lok Sabha, explaining an estimated receipt and expense for the upcoming financial
year. The fiscal year starts from 1st April and concludes on 31st March of the next year.
The government prepares an expenditure according to its objectives and then starts
gathering the resources and funds to fulfill the proposed investment. The funds are
collected from fees, taxes, interest on loans given to states, fines, and dividends by
public sector enterprises.
1. Economic growth- The overall economic growth of a nation relies on savings and
investments. Budgetary policies are hence introduced to infuse enough recourse in
different public sectors.

Reallocation of resources- Through a budget, the government endeavours to
equally allocate resources and wealth. They encourage small industries like “Khadi”
to flourish by allowing subsidized loans and reduced taxes on raw material, needed
for production.
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2. Redistribution of income- To close the income gap between rich and poor, several
budgetary schemes are launched from the government's end. Fiscal instruments like
subsidies, taxations, etc. are effectively used to achieve this goal.
3. Financial stability- Budget keenly focuses on lowering the price fluctuations in the
market. Policies like Deficit budget during deflation and Surplus budget during
inflation thrive on bringing stability within the economy.

4. Bringing down economic inequality- The Government tries to bring economic
equality of society. They do so by imposing taxes on the affluent classes of society

and spending them for welfare of the economically weaker section of the
community.
5. Financing Public Enterprises- Several public sector industries are established for
the social welfare of the public. An annual budget provides financial aid to such
businesses to grow. This objective organically strengthens the economic structure of
a nation.
6. Addressing Regional Disparity- One of the chief aims of the Government budget is
to alleviate social disproportion. They achieve so by installing manufacturing facilities

in the economically weaker section of the society. Also by producing goods and
supply directly.
Conclusion
In this section, we looked into the different objectives of government budgeting. The
government uses its fiscal policy measures to execute most of these objectives. A
budget impacts society at three levels: firstly, it promotes aggregate fiscal discipline by
controlling expenditures about revenues; secondly, country resources are allocated

based on social priorities; and lastly, it contains effective and efficient programs for the
delivery of goods and services to meet the budget's targets and goals.
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Question 7. Comment on the features of the budget. And explain its various
principles?
The budget of a government is a summary or plan of the anticipated resources (often
but not always from taxes) and expenditures of that government.
The budget explains the income and expense of a nation. In India, in the beginning of
every year, the government presents its budget in front of the Lok Sabha, explaining an
estimated receipt and expense for the upcoming financial year. The fiscal year starts
from 1st April and concludes on 31st March of the next year.
The features of the budget
1. It is goal oriented. It is aimed at achieving the objectives of an enterprise.
2. It is future oriented. It is prepared and approved prior to a defined period of time.
3. It is an expression of policies and plans in monetary and physical terms.
4. It helps in estimating income and expenditure for the budget period.
5. It also estimates the capital to be employed for achieving the predetermined goals.
The Various Principles of Budget
1. Publicity: There should be wide publicity of the budget so that the public,
newspapers and public representatives can present their views in the context of various
schemes of different taxes or expenses. Due to the proper publicity and publication of
the budget, the public and journalists can give their opinion about it.
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2. Clarity: Every citizen should understand the budget with ease and effortlessly. The
significance of the budget is that it should be so clear that the citizens can understand it
easily and can express their views.
3. Accuracy: All the information which are based on estimate budget should be
submitted sequentially and in detail so that the evaluation can be done easily. There
should not be an attempt to destroy the precision of the budget by hiding the facts,
declaring the revenue low.
4. Unity: For the financial arrangements of all expenses, all the receipts of the
government should be collected in a common fund. Separating revenue is the hallmark
of an ideal budget.
5. Comprehensiveness: The entire fiscal programme of the government should be
concluded in the budget. The budget should be understood by the general public.
Estimates of new taxes and new expenses should be made available to the common
man through the study of the budget. New loans should be clearly mentioned in the
budget.
6. Integrity: The fiscal programme should be shaped in the same way as the legislature
has made. With the spirit on which the budget has been formed, should also be
implemented with the same spirit. The administration should fulfill the objectives set at
the time of budget formation with complete honesty and efficiency.
7. Periodicity: The government should have the right to only spend till the budget
period, that is, after the fixed period, the money should be re-authorized. For this
reason, the legislature should pass the budget in time.
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Conclusion
The budgeting system provides management with a means of controlling its

activities and of monitoring actual performance and comparing it to budget goals.
A comprehensive profit planning and control program involves budgeting the materials
and parts used in the production process.
The budget is the most important document a city produces. It contains the financial,
political, and service delivery plans for a city’s fiscal year. It is a vital tool for
communicating public policy to the public. While every city develops the annual
operating budget differently, there are common activities regardless of a city’s size.
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Question 8. What is budget? Describe the process of preparation and
implementation of budget in India.
The Article 112 states it to be the annual budget of India. The budget is produced by a
particular section of the finance ministry known as the budget division of the
department of economic affairs. Before the finance bill has to be produced in the Lok
Sabha and then it needs to be passed there. However, it comes into actual effect by 1
April which is known as the new financial year.
Process of preparation and implementation of budget in India.
Preparation of Indian budget
1) Issuance of circulars to all ministries
A circular is issued to all ministries, states, Union territories. A finance ministry asking
them to prepare estimates for the coming year. The circular comprises skeleton forms
along with requisite guidelines based on which ministries present their demands. Apart
from providing their estimates, the ministries also give a detail of their revenues and
expenditures in the past year.
2) Consultations on proposals received
After requests are received, it is then scrutinized by the top officials of the government.
Extensive consultations are undertaken between the ministries and the department of
expenditure. Upon approval, the data is then sent to the finance ministry.
3) Allocation of revenues
The finance ministry, after going through all recommendations, allocates revenues to
various departments for their future expenditures. In case dispute arises over allocation
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of funds, the finance ministry consults the Union Cabinet or the Prime Minister. Other
stakeholders like farmers, small business owners, and foreign institutional investors are
also consulted by the DEA and department of revenue to gain more insights.
4) Pre-Budget meetings
The finance minister holds pre-Budget meetings with various stakeholders to know
about their proposals and demands. These stakeholders include state representatives,
bankers, agriculturists, economists and trade unions. Once the pre-Budget consultations
are done, the finance minister takes the final call on all demands. It is also discussed
with the Prime Minister before finalization.
5) Budget printing
 Every year, the government follows an annual tradition of hosting a halwa ceremony,
a few days before the Budget is presented. The ceremony marks the beginning of
printing of Budget documents.
 As part of the ritual, 'halwa' is prepared in a big 'kadhai' (large frying pot) and served
to the entire staff in the finance ministry.
 The significance of the event is that after the sweet dish is served, a large number of
officials and support staff, who are directly associated with the Budget making are
required to stay in the ministry and remain cut off from their families till the
presentation of the Budget.
However, unlike the past years, the voluminous budget documents will not be printed
this year following the Covid-19 protocol and will instead be distributed electronically to
the Members of Parliament (MPs).
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6) Presentation of the Budget
Finance minister presents the Budget in Lok Sabha. Until 2016, it was presented on the
last day of February. However, from 2017 the Budget has been presented on February
every year. Finance minister Nirmala Sitharaman has promised that Budget 2021 will be
one never seen before. For the first time, all Budget documents will be available on the
Union Budget mobile app launched recently.
Indian Budget process
 The budget is prepared by the Finance Minister with the assistance of number of
advisors and bureaucrats. The Finance Minister seeks the view of the industry
captains and economists prior to preparation. Various accounting and finance

related organizations send in their opinions and suggestions.
 The budgeting exercise in India remains mainly the domain of bureaucrats to

participate and influence the outcomes.
 Normally, the budget-making process starts in the third quarter of the financial year.
The budget has four stages viz.
(1) estimates of expenditures and revenues,
(2) first estimate of deficit,
(3) narrowing of deficit and
(4) presentation and approval of budget.
Stage 1: Estimates of expenditures and revenues
Part A: Estimates of expenditure
The process begins with various ministries providing initial estimates of plan and non-
plan expenditures. The ministries discuss the plan expenditures with the Planning
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Commission. The Planning commission allocates resources for continuing plan
programmes and decides on the new programmes that can be undertaken on the basis
of a tentative estimate or resources available, that is provided to it by the finance
ministry.
The financial advisors of the ministries prepare the non-plan expenditures. The
expenditure secretary consolidates them and after intensive discussion with financial
advisors, budget estimates are set for the ensuing fiscal year. The majority of the non-
plan expenditure is accounted for by interest payments, subsidies (mainly on food and
fertilizers) and wage payments to employees.
Part B: Estimates of revenue
 Apart from estimating the expenditure, an assessment of expected revenues likely to
flow into the government treasury has to done as a concurrent exercise. Revenue
receipts are of two types - capital and current receipts.
 Capital receipts include repayment of loans given by the government, receipts from
divestment of public-sector equity and borrowings both domestic and external.
Current receipts include mainly, tax revenues, receipts by way of dividends from
public-sector units and interest payments on loans given out by the central
government.
 The amounts to be received by way of tax revenues is estimated on the basis of
existing rates of taxation and taking into consideration the likely growth and inflation
rate over the ensuing fiscal year.
 On the capital receipts side, targeted amounts to be realised through divestment of

public sector equity and amounts to be realised by way of repayments of loans is
made. All the estimates are provided to the revenue secretary.
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STAGE 2: First estimates of deficit
 After the estimates of revenue and expenditure are made, they are matched
together. This provides the first estimate of expected shortfall in revenue to meet
projected expenditure. The government then, in consultation with the chief

economic advisor, decides on the optimum level of borrowings to meet this deficit.
 The figure of external borrowings is known as much of the external borrowing by the
government consists of bilateral and multilateral assistance which is known by the
time budget exercises are undertaken. The level of domestic borrowing depends
partly on the desired level of fiscal deficit that the government targets for itself. A
part of the revenue gap is left unfilled to be met through the issue of ad hoc treasury
bills.
STAGE 3: Narrowing of the deficit
 After the targets for the fiscal deficits and the overall budget deficit is decided, any
remaining shortfall is filled through a revision in tax rates if feasible, keeping in mind
the fiscal incentive structure the government wishes to put in place to stimulate the
growth in different sectors. Following the initial plans, if any changes need to be
made adjustments are made to the expenditure; usually the plan expenditure has to
be modified.
 The non-plan expenditure comprises of interest payments, subsidies and
administrative expenditure. Due to the political sensitivities involved in reducing

subsidies, non-plan expenditure of the government is inflexible about changing it
and it is the plan expenditures which get the axe after pre-emption have already
been made for non-plan expenditure.
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STAGE 4: The Budget
 The presentation of the Budget for the ensuing fiscal year (beginning April 1) is
usually done on the last working day of February. The Indian constitution has made
the Parliament supreme in financial matters. The Union government, under Article
112 of the constitution, is required to lay an annual financial statement of estimated
receipts and expenditure before both Houses of Parliament.

 It can levy taxes or disburse funds only on approval in both houses of Parliament.
However, the proposal for taxation or expenditure has to be initiated within the
Council of Ministers specifically by the Minister of Finance. The Finance Minister
presents before the Parliament, a financial statement detailing the estimated receipts
and expenditures of the central government for the forthcoming fiscal year and a
review of the current fiscal year.

 Under Article 114 of the Constitution, the government can withdraw money from
the Consolidated Fund of India only on approval from Parliament and so it has to get
the Appropriation Bills approved by Parliament. This authorizes the executive to
spend money. Article 265 of the Constitution prohibits the government from
collecting any taxes without the authority of law. Therefore, the government comes
up with the Finance Bill. The Bill may levy new taxes, modify the existing tax structure
or continue the existing tax structure beyond the period approved by Parliament
earlier.
 The bills are forwarded to the Rajya Sabha for comment. The Lok Sabha,
however, is not obligated to accept the comments and the Rajya Sabha cannot delay
passage of these bills. The bills become law when signed by the President. The Lok
Sabha cannot increase the request for funds submitted by the executive, nor can it
authorize new expenditures.
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 The proposals in the budget come into force on April 1. Between the
presentation and effective date there is a gap of 1 month during which the Lok
Sabha can review and modify the government's budget proposals. This does not
happen most of the time and the Parliamentary scrutiny of proposals and the
passage of the budget gets completed in May, well after the commencement of the
new fiscal year. Since the proposed budget has to be effective from April 1, the
government usually seeks an interim approval to meet emergent expenditures that
have to be incurred pending the approval of the budget.
Conclusion
The budget documents are fascinating. These documents are not just numbers.
Scrutinizing them, one can understand the intention of the government, its priorities, its
policies, and its allocation of financial resources, among different regions, sectors,
industries which create a sea change in the lives of the people affected by it.
Budget numbers express an enormous volume of information. One trained in budget

analysis can discover the government's expressed as well as hidden priorities. They may
be interested in rural development by-creating employment opportunities, or providing

elementary education to children, drinking water facilities to the villages, or health
services in remote areas or whether their focus is on urban development with creation
of industries, satellite towns, improvement in facilities or it wants to provide optimum
resources to both.
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Question 9. Explain the different forms of budget?
The budget of a government is a summary or plan of the anticipated resources (often

but not always from taxes) and expenditures of that government. Budget is the part of
governments' administrative process, it is made for the better and efficient use of
resources, so according to administrative features and preferences
There are different kind/ forms of Budgeting
1. Performance budgeting
2. Programme budgeting
3. Planning Programming Budget (PPB)
4. Line-Item Budgeting
5. Zero-Base Budgeting
1. Performance Budgeting
It is the traditional budget system. It is about activities, functions and programmes and
projects of government. Basically, it is outcome oriented. It focuses on the outcome of

services and specific use of resources under the fixed time period. But it is also about
and allocation of the resources and services.
American administrative reform commission Hoover Commission13 (1947) was

dealing with these questions. It was exploring the alternative of contemporary federal
system of governance. This commission recommended the performance budgeting as

an alternative. The recommendation they suggest three features for that:
 Classification of government's expenditures,
 Measurement of performances
 Reporting of outcomes or performance of services
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These recommendations can be seen as features of Performance Budgeting. This budget
system is difficult to execute as it requires high and many level programming. Its'
focuses on cost orientation and separate analysis leads the difficulties of measurement
of work and its productivity. So, this budget system's ideal form is difficult to achieve
but it is in activity with desirable form and it programme budgeting.
2. Programme Budgeting
Programme budget is the desirable form of structured performance budgeting. It has all
the features of Performance budgeting, but in the feasible manner. It was introduced by
the same committee (However Commission) in 1955. Budget focuses on the
classification of expenditure, governments work and analysis of costs. Basically, this

budget can be considered as a primary and essential step of Performance budgeting.
3. Planning Programming Budget (PPB)
Planning Programming Budget (1965) has introduced with this claim that it is able to do
programming for better life at lowest cost. It involves in specification of goals, plans and
their formulation. It was similar with the old system in some extend, as it also focuses on
the analysis of past plans. But it was different in the context of approach. That is the
Pragmatic approach, which was the base of this system. By this approach finding of
alternatives according to specific works was the centre point of analysis. Within this
American government has introduced three levels:
1. Policy Management: it was about the identification of requirements, alternatives of

programmes and the allocation of present resources and services.
2. Resource Management: on this level management of resources with the reference

of old budget system is used. It establishes the strong structure for the budget and
allocates the financial management.
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3. Programme management: on this level analysis, reporting and evaluation of plan
are the main concern.
These levels can be seen as features of Planning Programming Budgeting system. These
are very similar to the traditional budget system, but the identification of needs and
formulation of plan for objectives make it different. This budget has also complex issues
as others have. The orientation about the specification of objectives becomes a difficult
task when the programme is to be made for long term.
4. Line-Item Budgeting
Line-Item Budget is the simplest kind of budget. It is used for the small and short term
budget. It advocates that there are different kind of income sources and different type
of expenses. Basically, it allocates the cost. It focuses on the reduction of cost to make
planning more practical. With the reduction of cost, it works to control the expenditure
on the one item to save the budget for other necessary items. In this budget system top
authority has responsibility to control the all expenditures. This budget system is used
by the government’s branches as it cannot be useful for whole government’s
expenditure.
5. Zero-Base Budgeting
 Zero-based budgeting (ZBB) is a budgeting technique in which all expenses must
be justified for a new period or year starting from zero, versus starting with the
previous budget and adjusting it as needed.
 Zero-Base budgeting is useful for the agriculture budgeting and was, first,
introduced in the context of agriculture itself. Continuation of programmes and
plans are not allowed in this budget system as it focuses on the start with ground-up
programming. It finds the new satisfactory plans for contemporary and new issues as
it never prefers to make changes or search alternates of existing plans. It focuses on
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the base of formulation plans. Base is equally important for this budget system and
by this increment of the base become possible as it is difficult to the other budget
systems.
 In this budget system administration consider as a more responsible institution

as it is present everywhere in the budget making process, implementation to
execution. Medium term budget and sunset budgeting are made by that budget
system Implementation of zero-base budgeting is less difficult in compare to the
other budget systems. On the other hand, it is believed that finding the essential and
unnecessary expenditure is difficult task which is a primary need of Zero-base
budgeting.
Conclusion
A budget should be based on norms and standards. The budget should be coordinated,
integrated, organized, systematic, clear, and comprehensive to accomplish optimal

results. The budget preparation, review, and evaluation process must be facilitated.
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Question 10. What is social welfare? Explain the different approaches to social
welfare.
Social welfare includes healthcare, empowerment, housing and other programs geared
towards assisting the poor, unemployed and marginalized in society. Such programs
include Medicaid, AFDC (Aid for families with dependent children), WIC (women, infants
and children) programs, veteran programs and others.
Meaning of Social Welfare
“A social welfare system is a scheme for providing financial aid to individuals or
families in need in a society”. Social Welfare refers to the holistic development of a

human being.
Social Welfare in India- In other words, social welfare aims at providing services to the
underprivileged section of the population by providing them various forms of social

insurance against poverty, unemployment, disability, and old age.
Social welfare has been defined as "a system of laws and institutions through which a
government attempts to protect and promote the social and economic welfare of its
citizens usually based on various forms of social insurance against unemployment,

accident, illness and old age".
Thinker’s views
1. Friedlander said, "Social welfare is the organized form of social services and
institutions, designed to aid individuals and groups to attain satisfying standards of

life and health, and personal and social relationships that permits them to develop
their full capacities and to promote their well-being in harmony with the needs of
their families and the community".
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2. Elizabeth Wickenden defines social welfare as "Including those laws, programmes,
benefits and services which assure or strengthen provisions for meeting social needs
recognized as basic to the well-being of the population and better functioning of
social order".
3. Haward is of the view that "Social welfare has been especially identified with the
improvement of conditions of life, physically, mentally, emotionally, economically or

socially handicapped or otherwise disadvantaged individuals or groups".
The different approaches to social welfare
1. Correctional approach: When we accept the goal of social policy for the welfare of
the society, then it is necessary to determine the means to achieve it,

rearrangements is essential for the welfare of society, but in current condition
rearrangements is not possible till then desired change made. This desired change is
a social reform. Through this desired change we want to achieve the goal of social
welfare. If we want to make very progressive process of reform then in this sense,
system of law performs very essential role. Social reforms have been getting
legitimacy through social laws. In the zone of social laws, the labour laws have very
important place. Factory laws, laws which are related to protection of child and
women labours, laws related to compensation and maternity benefit, laws related to
welfare and social security etc., have been helpful in achieving the goal of social
welfare.
2. Protective approach: Damage, accident, sickness, inability, and unemployment are
the conditions in a person's life when external help becomes necessary for him.
Therefore, the system of protection against these different types of risk is called
social security. It is an important foundation for the attainment of social welfare.

Under this, social insurance, social assistance and business insurance schemes are
included. Under the insurance, the insured person has to provide benefits in case of
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loss and inability. Social assistance is provided by the state to the person in times of
crisis.
3. Family-centric Approach
This is perhaps the oldest approach in which the family plays an active role in social
welfare provision. Strong familial bonds tend to be an important source of social
capital. For example, in taking care of the children, the aged and disabled, family as a
whole has acritical role. In India as well as in an advanced country like England,
family structure is still regarded as strong, and several social needs that are
elsewhere met by government programmes are still met by the family.
This approach is based on conventional wisdom as well as sound sociological theory.

Strong family bonds are considered as the source of sustainable social support.
One of them is the near extinction of the extended family system, more so in the
urban areas. Secondly, it does not look at the role of gender in the family. Thirdly,
there are financial and spatial issues, which constrain universalistic reliance on the
family approach.
4. Residual Perspective
The residual approach conceives of welfare provision by government as the last

resort. It is based on the idea that people can resolve the problems themselves. The
needy can find support through the family, the market (insurance in particular) or
non-governmental organisations. Government would step in only when the needy
are unable to resolve their problems. In this context, public provision is made for the
residue of the poor only; sick, unemployed, the order people and the other needy.
The residual approach is followed in a few countries only. The residual approach
does not also touch issues like housing shortage. In this approach, the benefits for
the needy are very few and even the eligible recipients get discouraged to go after
them.
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5. Mixed-Economy Approach
In some countries, including England and Germany, a mixed-economy approach has

been adopted in some areas of social welfare. For example, the German Social
Insurance System has provided a very successful forum for cooperation between
government, social administrators, banks, insurance firms, and individual
entrepreneurs. In such a system insurance benefits, linked to individual earnings,

cover the bulk of material needs.
However, a major limitation of this approach is that public-private partnerships do

not operate in many countries in the best possible manner.
6. Institutional Approach
It is a normative approach, it is based on the belief that social welfare can best be
promoted though collective action and the pooling of resources. Welfare is provided,
according to this approach, for the population as a whole, in the same way as public
services like roads or schools might be. It may also be described as a fully saturated
model. For example, instead of restricting public health coverage to specific social
groups belonging to the weaker sections the coverage sections the of the
programme is made universal in this model.
The institutional approach appears to be elegant, but many people would not extend
support to this approach and pool their resources, just as the way they do for
community works. In practice, the institutional approach to social welfare, therefore,

lacks adequate public support, except in the spheres of education and health.
Conclusion
A social welfare system offers assistance to individuals and families in need, with such
programs as health care assistance, food stamps, and unemployment compensation.
Lesser known parts of a social welfare system include disaster relief and educational
assistance.
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Question 11. Explain the right to education in India and critically evaluate the
National Education Policy 1986.
The Right to Education Act (RTE) is important legislation that marks a watershed in the
education system in India. With its enactment, the right to education has become a
fundamental right in the country.
Right to education in India
The Constitution (Eighty-sixth Amendment) Act, 2002 inserted Article 21-A in the
Constitution of India to provide free and compulsory education of all children in the age
group of six to fourteen years as a Fundamental Right in such a manner as the State
may, by law, determine. The right to education has been recognized as a human right in
a number of international conventions, including the International Covenant on

Economic, Social and Cultural Rights which recognizes a right to free, compulsory
primary education for all, an obligation to develop secondary education accessible to all
with the progressive introduction of free secondary education, as well as an obligation
to develop equitable access to higher education, ideally by the progressive introduction
of free higher education.
The right to education in India
The 86th Constitutional amendment making education a fundamental right was
passed by Parliament in 2002. The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory

Education Act, a law to enable the implementation of the fundamental right, was passed
by Parliament last year.
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Lord Macaulay was the father and founder of the present system of education. Thus, it
can be inferred that Lord Macaulay was the father and founder of the present system of
education.
Main Features of Rights to Education (RTE) Act
 Free and compulsory education to all children of India in the 6 to 14 age group.
 No child shall be held back, expelled or required to pass a board examination until
the completion of elementary education.

 If a child above 6 years of age has not been admitted in any school or could not
complete his or her elementary education, then he or she shall be admitted in a class
appropriate to his or her age. Provided further that a child so admitted to elementary
education shall be entitled to free education till the completion of elementary

education even after 14 years.
 Twenty-five per cent reservation for economically disadvantaged communities in

admission to Class I in all private schools is to be done.
 Improvement in the quality of education is important.

 School teachers will need adequate professional degree within five years or else will
lose job.
 School infrastructure (where there is a problem) need to be improved in every 3
years, else recognition will be cancelled.

 Financial burden will be shared between the state and the central government.
Critically evaluate the National Education Policy 1986.
 The education policy of 1986 recommended starting of All India Educational Service.
This suggestion was criticized on the ground of widening of the gulf between the
teachers and bureaucracy.
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 The education policies stood for admission to the university classes on the basis of
capability. These features deprived many youths of university education. According

to some critics the Open University can never be a good substitute for regular
university classes.
 The education policy of 1986 has suggested the institutions of capitation fees for
admitting students in technical institutions. This could not be acknowledged as a

hale and hearty policy, as this deprives worthy students of obtaining technical
education on their capacity to pay
Conclusion
National Education Policy 1986 gave its considered recommendations almost on
every aspect of our education with a plan of action to translate the suggestion into
actions. The recommendations have been made to put into action the educational
programmers of plans suggested therein.
The National Policy on Education, {NPE (1986)}, has been hailed as a path breaking
document as it emphasized the re-orientation of the national education system to play a
'positive interventionist role in the empowerment of women. Coming as it did in the

wake of the women's movement, the vision of the NPE echoed the demand that
education be 'used as an agent of basic change in the status of women'.
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Question 12. Defining e-governance, explain its various models and implies
examine the policies related to e-governance.
Electronic governance or e-governance is the application of information technology for
delivering government services, exchange of information, communication transactions,

integration of various stand-alone systems between government to citizen (G2C),
government-to-business(G2B),government-to-government (G2G). Electronic governance

or e-governance government functioning with the application of ICT (Information and
Communications Technology). Hence e-Governance is basically a move towards SMART
governance implying: simple, moral, accountable, responsive and transparent
governance.
Definition of E-governance
Electronic governance or e-governance implies government functioning with the
application of ICT (Information and Communications Technology). Hence e-Governance

is basically a move towards SMART governance implying: simple, moral, accountable,
responsive and transparent governance.
Models of E-Governance
1. Broadcasting Model- Broadcasting model is based on mass dissemination of
governance-related information which is already available in the public domain into

the wider public domain using ICTs. The application of this model using appropriate
technologies, could reduce the "information failure situations".
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2. Comparative Analysis Model- Essentially, the model continuously assimilates Best
Practices in the areas of governance and then uses them as benchmark to evaluate
other governance practices. It then uses the result to advocate positive changes or to
influence 'public' opinion on these governance practices.
3. Critical Flow Model- The model is based on disseminating/ channeling information

of critical value (which by its very nature would not be disclosed by those involved in
bad governance) to the targeted audience (such as the media, opposition parties) or
into the wider public domain through the use of ICT and convergent media.
4. E-Advocacy Model- It takes up a pro-active approach of forming virtual communities
which share similar values and concerns, promoting active sharing of information within
and between these communities, and linking them with real-life groups/ activities for
concerted action.
5. Interactive Service Model- Interactive-Service model is a consolidation of the earlier
presented digital governance models and opens up avenues for direct participation of
individuals in the governance processes.
Policies related to E-governance
1. My Gov: It aims to establish a link between Government and Citizens towards
meeting the governance.

 It encourages citizens as well as people abroad to participate in various activities
i.e. 'Do', 'Discuss', 'Poll', 'Talk', ‘Blog’, etc.

2. Digi Locker: It serves as a platform goal of good to enable citizens to securely
store and share their documents with service providers who can directly access
them electronically.
3. E-Hospital-Online Registration Framework (ORF): It is an initiative to facilitate

the patients to take online OPD appointments with government hospitals. This
49
framework also covers patient care, laboratory services and medical record
management.
4. National Scholarships Portal (NSP): It provides a centralized platform for
application and disbursement of scholarship to students under any scholarship

scheme.
5. DARPAN: It is an online tool that can be used to monitor and analyze the
implementation of critical and high priority projects of the State.
 It facilitates presentation of real time data on Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) of

selected schemes/projects to the senior functionaries of the State Government as
well as district administration.
6. PRAGATI (Pro-Active Governance And Timely Implementation): It has been

aimed at starting a culture of Pro-Active Governance and Timely Implementation.
 It is also a robust system for bringing e-transparency and e-accountability with

real-time presence and exchange among the key stakeholders.
 It was launched in 2015.
7. Common Services Centers 2.0 (CSC 2.0): It is being implemented to develop and
provide support to the use of information technology in rural areas of the country.
 The CSCs are Information and Communication Technology (ICT) enabled kiosks
with broadband connectivity to provide various Governments, private and social

services at the doorstep of the citizen.
8. Mobile Seva: It provides government services to the people through mobile

phones and tablets.
9. Jeevan Pramaan: It is an Aadhaar based Biometric Authentication System for

Pensioners. The system provides authenticity to Digital Life Certificate without the
50
necessity of the pensioner being present in person before his/ her Pension
Dispensing Authority (PDA).
10. National Centre of Geo-informatics (NCoG): Under this project, Geographic

Information System (GIS) platform for sharing, collaboration, location-based
analytics and decision support system for Departments has been developed.
Conclusion
There is a very close relationship with e-government and its sustainable future. If
government can manage its resources better by understanding the needs and making
decisions based on intelligent analysis, it can create a sustainable environment for

citizens.
51
Question 13. Explain the right to food security in India.
Food security is The Indian Constitution does not have any explicit provision
regarding right to food, the fundamental right to life enshrined in Article 21 of the
Constitution may be interpreted to include right to live with human dignity, which may
include the right to food and other basic necessities.
The Constitution thus makes the Right to Food a guaranteed Fundamental Right which
is enforceable by virtue of the constitutional remedy provided under Article 32 of

the Constitution.
Food security, as defined by the United Nations' Committee on World Food
Security, means that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access
to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary
needs for an active and healthy life.
Importance of food security
It helps to enhance the productivity and consecutively the production of food. It

improvement of nutritional advice through home economics programmes and
enhances the quality of rural life by way of community development.
Four elements build the framework of food and nutrition security:
1. Availability
2. Access
3. Use and utilization, and stability
52
1. Availability- Availability refers to the physical existence of food. On national level
food availability is a combination of domestic food production, commercial food

imports and exports, food aid and domestic food stocks. On household level food
could be from own production or bought from the local markets.
2. Access- Food security, as defined by the United Nations' Committee on World Food
Security, means that all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access
to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their food preferences and dietary
needs for an active and healthy life.
3. Use and utilization, and stability- Food security exists when all people at all times
have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to
meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. The four
pillars of food security are: food availability, access to food, utilization and stability.
National Food Security Act, 2013
The Act provides for coverage of upto 75% of the rural population and upto 50%
of the urban population for receiving subsidized food grains under Targeted Public
Distribution System (TPDS), thus covering about two-thirds of the population.
It was signed into law on 12 September 2013, retroactive to 5 July 2013. The
National Food Security Act, 2013 (NFSA 2013) converts into legal entitlements for
existing food security programmes of the Government of India.
The Act ensures nutritional support to women and children. Pregnant and lactating
women would be entitled to nutritious meals, free of charge under the MDM and ICDS
schemes. Children in the age group of 6-14 years would also be entitled to free
nutritious meals under the MDM and ICDS schemes.
53
The basic concept of food security globally is to ensure that all people, at all times,
should get access to the basic food for their active and healthy life and is characterized
by availability, access, utilization and stability of food.
Conclusion
Right to food is a right recognised by international law, treaties, conventions and
organisations for the same and the member countries are mandated to make their
domestic laws at par with these international standards. India has ranked 101 among
the 116 countries on the Global Hunger Index, 2021. According to the Food and
Agriculture Organisation, the Food Price Index has increased by 30% in the year 2021-
22.
54
Question 14. Dimensions of e-governance
E-governance, meaning 'electronic governance' is using information and

communication technologies (ICTs) (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and
mobile computing) at various levels of the government and the public sector and
beyond, for the purpose of enhancing governance.
E-governance is not a computer or website of any kind, but it is the name of the
service provided to citizens and businesses. E-governance does not just refer to the
translation of government processes; it is also related to transforming government.
Meaning of E-governance is application of ICT (Information and Communications
Technology). Hence e-Governance is basically a move towards SMART governance

implying: simple, moral, accountable, responsive and transparent governance.
DIMENSIONS OF E-GOVERNANCE:
1. G2G (Government to Government)
2. G2C (Government to Consumer)
3. G2B (Government to Business)
4. G2E (Government to Employee)
1. G2G (Government to Government): It is used to exchange information, data, public
documents, reports, orders, instructions, etc. between government organizations. Its

primary objective is to increase the capacity, performance, and productivity of the
government, execute projects efficiently at low time, energy cost, and strengthen
internal administration. For example, the Smart Government Project is a secretariat
project of Andhra Pradesh taken up by the government of Andhra Pradesh where all
55
ministries and departments have been computerized. Government functions, processes,
and operations have been computerized. That is, the smart gear paper file was replaced
with the e-file. So that the government can monitor the movement and performance of
individuals and officials through electronic files.
2. G2C (Government to Consumer): There is interaction between the government
and the citizens so that the citizens can receive competent service in public services.
While G2C expands the availability and accessibility of public services, it also improves
the quality of services. It gives citizens the option to choose when to interact with the
government (24x7x365) and where to interact with the government. How to interact
with the government (in a government office, service centre, cyber cafe, or from home
or the workplace) through internet fax, e-mail video, mobile, or online. This primary
objective is to make governance citizen and citizen-friendly, to make administrators

responsive to the demands and needs of the citizens and the services sought, to bring
quality to public services, etc.
3. G2B (Government to Business): It involves the use of e-governance tools to

develop business boundaries with the government. In this way, the government
integrates its activities with those of the business world, such as online trading and
extracting online tenders.
4. G2C (Government to Employee): In this, the government interacts with its
employees on a regular basis, just like the largest employer and any other organization,
which is a two-way process. By using G2E, the government can ensure the level of
satisfaction among employees, their performance, skill development, and their effective
role in governance.
56
Conclusion
It encourages the take up of digital technologies that are crucial to economic

competitiveness, it allows government to redefine its role and become more citizen-
focused, it enables us to 'join-up' information and hence govern more effectively and it
can reduce the cost while not compromising the quality of public. E-governance is the
best solution to the problem of slow delivery of services by increasing the efficacy of
government offices. It also provides the time-bound delivery of service, transparency in
the work, cost effective delivery of service for both government and citizens.
57
Question 15. Critically examine the Right to Information Act, 2005.
The Right to Information act is intended to promote accountability and transparency in

government by making the process of government decision making more open. Though
some departments of the Union government are exempted from this act but the
information can be sought if it is concerned with violation of human rights.
The Meaning of ‘Information’ According to the RTI Act
Tracks, paperwork, memorandums, emails, opinions, guidance, press releases, bulletins,

order entry record book, agreements, reports, journals, samples, designs, information
content kept in whatsoever digital form, and data relevant to any private Organisation
that can be obtained by citizens authority under some other legislation currently in
force.
Objectives of Right to Information Act 2005
The RTI Act’s main vision is to empower the nation’s people. To accomplish this, the
nation’s leader must seek to enhance openness and accountability in government
activity, eliminate corruption, and enable democracy to truly operate in the residents’
favour. People who are better educated are more organized and readier to maintain a
constant eye on the tools of administration and make the government more answerable
to the public. This Act is a significant leap toward better informing the citizens of a
nation about the government’s operations. The Objectives of the right to information
act 2005 are as follows.
To guarantee that individuals have access to information
 To encourage information transparency.

 To encourage administration transparency.
58
 To avoid arbitrary administrative decisions.
 To make sure that public governance is accountable.

 To keep corruption at bay.
 Well-informed citizens are critical to a democracy’s success.

 To make the govt and its agents answerable to the public they govern. Make the
govt more receptive, to put it another way.
Features of Right to Information Act 2005
 People can examine government records and operations and request each detail
from the government under the right to information Act.
 You can get data from every govt, including the state and federal governments, the
Panchayati Raj, and even from some other state or federally managed, controlled,
and sponsored entity.
 A minimum of one official has been appointed as a public information officer (PIO),
which receives application forms and provides the details requested by the public.
 Assistant public information officials are stationed throughout every

district/divisional stage, receiving inquiries for information and then appealing the
PIO judgments. Section 5(1) requires them to forward the petitions to the proper
authorities.
 Each individual seeking information should submit a request in Hindi or English,

either electronically or handwritten.
 In the event that the application cannot be submitted in writing, the PIO will provide
all necessary help in making the application verbally in order to reduce the request’s
length in composing.
 If the petitioner cannot hear, blind, or visually impaired, the public body shall provide
assistance to ensure that all pertinent information is available.
59
 The petitioner is not needed to provide any justifications for seeking the information
or indeed any private details aside from their contact numbers.
Criticism
RTI Act was being criticized by the public and social activists on the fact that few
provisions of the Act have been manipulated and moulded in such a manner to refrain
from furnishing the information associated with the government offices explicitly to the
information seeker and hiding the information behind the virtual layer of national
security and the tag ‘not public authority’ under the ambit of RTI for an instance the PM
CARES fund was declared as “not a public authority” and the information sought by
an information seeker was rejected stating by Prime Minister’s Office(PMO) that PM
CARES Fund does not come under the ambit of Section 2(h) of the RTI Act.
Conclusion
The RTI act empowers the people of India against administrative corruption,
irregularities and irresponsive attitude of administrative machinery. The Right to

Information promotes transparency and accountability in the working of every public
authority.
60
Question 16. What is Lok pal? Explain the role of Lok pal in India.
The Lok pal is the first institution of its kind in independent India, established under the
Lok pal and Lokayuktas Act 2013 to inquire and investigate into allegations of
corruption against public functionaries who fall within the scope and ambit of the above
Act.
A Lokpal is an anti-corruption authority or ombudsman who represents the public
interest. The concept of an ombudsman is borrowed from Sweden. The Lokpal has
jurisdiction over all Members of Parliament and central government employees in cases
of corruption. The term Lokpal comes from Sanskrit term which means "caretaker of
people".
The origin of the word ‘Lokpal’ dates back to 1963, coined by LM Singhvi during a
parliamentary debate about grievance mechanisms. Looking at its etymology, we find
that Lokpal is derived from Sanskrit, Lok meaning people and pala meaning caretaker.
Since 1968, the Lokpal bill has been proposed eight times but it was never passed. Anna
Hazare, a social activist engaged in indefinite food strikes to compelled the UPA
Government at the centre to pass the Lokpal and the Lokayuktas Act, 2013 in both the
houses of Parliament.
Lokpal bill, also known as the Citizens Ombudsman bill, as passed by the Parliament
creates a Lokpal at the centre which consists of a Chairperson and up to 8 members.
These members are appointed by a selection committee consisting of the Prime

Minister, Speaker of Lok Sabha, Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha, Chief Justice of India
or a sitting Supreme Court Judge as nominated by the CJI and an eminent jurist to be
nominated by the President on the recommendations of the other members. The Act
61
specifically provides that the office of Lokpal has come into existence for the sole
purpose of investigating and prosecuting cases of corruption.
Power of Lokpal
 Prime Minister, or a Minister in the Union government, or a Member of Parliament,
or all categories of public servants as well as Group A, B, C, and D officers, come

under the ambit of Lokpal’s jurisdiction.
 Lokpal has the power to seize the assets, proceeds, receipts, and benefits of any
official which are acquired by corrupt means.
 Lokpal is conferred with power to recommend the transfer or suspension of civil
servants connected with charges of corruption.
 Lokpal has the power to give directions to avert the destruction of records during
the preliminary investigation.
 It has the powers of superintendence over, and to give direction to CBI (Central
Bureau of Investigation) and it also contains several provisions which are aimed at
making the CBI stronger.

 The inquiry Wing of the Lokpal has been authorized with the powers of a civil court
in certain cases.
 Lokpal has the authority to grant sanction for prosecution of public servants in place
of the Government or competent authority.
Functions of Lokpal
 The Lokpal keeps a watch over all public officials and can take suitable action against
them if they do not function in accordance with the law.
 It can act either on the basis of any complaint made by a private person or suo moto
(i.e. on his own initiative). The Lokpal can summon or question any public official if
62
there exists a prima facie case against the person, even before an investigation
agency (such as CVC i.e. Central Vigilance Commission or CBI) has begun an inquiry.
 It can also recommend his findings to be enforced into action.
 Lokpal to function as the appellate authority for appeals arising out of any other law
for the time being in force.
 It has to protect any action taken in good faith by any public servant or other
officials. It has to provide adequate protection to those who are being exploited for
raising their voice against corruption.
The institution of Lokpal has been a landmark move in the history of the Republic of
India, but at the same time there are certain loopholes that needs to be corrected. The
institution of Lokpal and Lokayukta must be strengthened in respect of functional
autonomy and workforce availability to fight against the long-standing battle of

corruption.
Conclusion
In order to tackle the problem of corruption, the institution of the ombudsman should
be strengthened both in terms of functional autonomy and the availability of manpower.

The appointment of Lokpal in itself is not enough. The government should address the
issues based on which people are demanding a Lokpal. Merely adding to the strength of
investigative agencies will increase the size of the government but not necessarily
improve governance. The slogan adopted by the government of “less government and
more governance”, should be followed in letter and spirit.
63
Question 17. what is citizen's charter? How to empower citizen in India?
Citizen's Charter is a document of commitments made by a Government organization to

the citizens/client groups in respect of the services/schemes being provided to them or
to be provided to them.
Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances in Ministry of

Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions, Government of India, in its efforts to
provide more responsive and citizen-friendly governance, coordinates the efforts to

formulate and operationalize Citizens' Charters in Central Government, State
Governments and UT Administrations. It provides guidelines for formulation and

implementation of the Charters as well as their evaluation.
Principles of Citizen’s Charter (As originally framed)
 Quality – Improving service quality.

 Choice – Wherever possible.
 Accountability – At the level of the individual and the organization.

 Transparency – Transparency in rules/schemes/procedures/grievances.
 Value – For taxpayers’ money.
The Labor government, then, brought out the following nine principles of Service
Delivery:
1) Set standards of service
2) Be open and provide full information

3) Consult and involve
4) Encourage access and the promotion of choice

5) Treat all fairly
64
6) Put things right when they go wrong
7) Use resources effectively

8) Innovate and improve
9) Work with other providers
Citizen’s Charter in India
 In India, the concept of citizen’s charter was first adopted at a ‘Conference of Chief
Ministers of various States and Union Territories’ held in May 1997 in the national
capital.
 A major outcome of the conference was a decision to formulate Citizen’s Charters
by the central and state governments, beginning with sectors with a large public
interface such as the railways, telecom, posts, PDS, etc.

 The charters were mandated to include service standards, the time limit that the
people can expect to be served, mechanisms for redressing grievances, and a

provision for unbiased scrutiny by consumer/citizen groups.
 The task of coordination, formulation, and operationalization of citizen’s charters

are done by the Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances
(DARPG).
 In India, in this context, citizens can mean not only citizens but also all stakeholders
such as customers, clients, beneficiaries, ministries/departments/organizations,

state/UT governments, etc.
 The Indian model of citizen’s charter is an adaptation from the UK model. One
additional component of the charter in the Indian version is the inclusion of the
point ‘expectation from clients.

 The DARPG website lists more than 700 charters adopted by various government
agencies across India.
65
 The Right of Citizens for Time Bound Delivery of Goods and Services and
Redressal of their Grievances Bill, 2011 (Citizens Charter) was introduced in the Lok
Sabha in December 2011. It was referred to a Standing Committee which submitted
its report in 2012. The bill, however, lapsed due to the dissolution of the Lok Sabha
in 2014.
 Citizen’s charters are not legally enforceable documents. They are just guidelines to
enhance service delivery to citizens.
 Empowering India provides citizens with easy access to information about political
parties, candidates and electoral constituencies at national and provincial levels. The
basic premise is that information promotes transparency in the democratic process,

thus allowing citizens to assess their political leaders’ performance and thus hold
them to accountability.
 A more responsive political process encourages citizens to actively participate in
the largest democratic exercise in the world. The primary focus of Empowering India
is the voter, who can realistically contribute to making democracy meaningful not
just in form, but in substance. The website currently has detailed election results
since 1977 and has also captured background information filed by thousands of
candidates who contested elections at national and provincial levels since 2003. The
information is provided at the respective constituency level in an easy to compare
manner and is also available for various analytical purposes.
Objectives of Citizen’s Charters
The basic objective of the citizen’s charters is to empower citizens through the delivery
of public services.
 Improve the quality of public services

 Ensuring transparency and right to information
 Save the time of both the customer and the service provider
66
 Have clear targets for all levels of services
Features of Citizen’s Charters
The salient features of a citizen’s charter are given below:
 Lays down clear standards for the delivery of services. The standards should be
measurable, time-bound, relevant, specific, and accurate.
 Gives full information about the services, in simple language, as to what services are
available, level of quality to expect, grievance mechanism, etc.
 Wherever possible, the charter should offer a choice of services to the clients.
 It should also be made with regular consultation with all stakeholders including
customers, to ascertain the quality standards.

 It should encourage a culture of courtesy and helpfulness among the personnel of
the service provider.
Reforms for Citizen Charter to make them Effective
 Not everyone fits in the same mold: Citizen Charter should be formulated as a
decentralized activity with the head office providing only broad guidelines.
 Wide consultation process: formulation of Citizen Charter should be done after
extensive consultations within the organization followed by meaningful dialogue

with civil society.
 Commitments of the firms should be made: Citizen Charter should be precise and
must make firm commitments of service delivery standards to the citizens or
consumers in quantifiable terms wherever possible.

 Provide Redressal mechanism in case of default: Citizen Charter should clearly lay
down the relief which the organization is bound to provide if it has defaulted on the
promised standards of delivery.
67
 Periodic evaluation: A citizen charter should be evaluated from time to time
preferably through an external agency.

 Officers to be held accountable for results: In cases where there is a default in
adhering to the Citizen Charter, fix specific responsibility.

 Society should be a part of it: To help in improvement in the contents of the
Charter, Civil Society should be included in it. They should be a part of the process,
its adherence as well as in educating the citizens about the importance of the vital
mechanism of the Citizen Charter.
Conclusion
Citizen & rsquo's Charter is an essential tool to ensure that the citizen is always the
priority of any service delivery mechanism. It indirectly strengthens the protection of

fundamental rights by making those rights more visible and more explicit for citizens
through its provisions.

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Public Administration in India

(a) Concept of Budget and Budget Cycle in India

Unit-4 Technology and Public Administration in India

Unit-5 Social Welfare Administration:

(a) Education: Right to Education (b) Health: National Health Mission

Unit-6 Issues and Debates in Indian Administration

the conditions of promotion in the civil services?

Structure of Civil Structure of Civil Services in India

1. The All India Civil Services

2. The Central Civil Services

3. The State Civil Services

1. The All India Civil Services

sanctioned strength. According to 1861 Act, Police functions are to prevent

through inclusive sustainable management, and protecting natural resources.

2. The Central Civil Services

3. The State Civil Services

basically expert administrators. They are sometimes referred to as the bureaucracy or

The conditions of promotion in the civil services

seniority and make promotions on the basis of merit-cum-seniority.

There are types of promotion which are as follows:

6. Advancement: It refers to increase in pay.

Question 2. Examine the colonial legacy in Indian administration?

British dominance in India left a lasting imprint on the Indian administrative

procedures to district and revenue administration to law and order to budgeting to

The colonial legacy in Indian administration

1. Organisation within a Department:

Indian government. The Organisation of the departments, as well as their operating

still governed by manuals from before independence. Chief Secretary is a position

2. Services to the Public:

Indian government. The organizational Organisation of the departments, as well as

hierarchical structures, written records, and communication has occurred. These

constitutional status, they also included intricate protections to ensure that it

system in the hiring of government employees.

District administration is still in operation as a unit of administration, though its

significance has increased noticeably. The collector continues to be the district

5. Government at the local level:

requirements of the population, local government entities that existed prior to

The British administration established organisations such as the Comptroller and

financial prudence and accountability in the federal government.

chairman of the cabinet. In a minority of systems, notably in semi-presidential systems, a

directives of the head of state.

Government of India (Transaction of Business) Rules, 1961 and Government of India

The role of Indian Prime Minister

commanding support of majority members of Lok Sabha to form the government of

generally allocated to the Cabinet Secretariat.

2. Administrative and appointment powers

• Comptroller and Auditor General of India (C&AG)

• Chairperson and members of the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC)

• Chairperson and members of the finance commission (FC)

• Attorney General of India (AG) and Solicitor General of India (SG)

further expected to respond to the opposition's concerns. Article 85 of the Indian

control over affairs of the parliament.

The role of Indian Cabinet Secretariat

Rules, 1961 facilitating smooth transaction of business in Ministries/ Departments. The

Secretariat assists in decision-making in Government by ensuring Inter-Ministerial

consensus through the instrumentality of the standing/adhoc Committees of

authorities. Therefore, the cabinet secretary discharged various responsibilities, which

3. The position of cabinet secretary is of major significance because of the major

responsibility to ensure unbiased and disciplined functioning of the most coveted

Similar to PMO cabinet secretariat is politically headed by Prime Minister but it is

administratively headed by cabinet secretary. Unlike as PMO a single institution cabinet

secretary serves as eyes and ears for PM.