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The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Cambridge natural history, Vol. 01 (of
10)
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world
at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it
under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at
www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of
the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: The Cambridge natural history, Vol. 01 (of 10)

Author: Marcus Hartog

Sydney J. Hickson
E. W. MacBride
Igerna Brünhilda Johnson Sollas

Editor: S. F. Harmer
Sir A. E. Shipley

Release date: September 18, 2023 [eBook #71677]

Language: English

Original publication: New York: MacMillan & Co, 1906

Credits: Keith Edkins, Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by
The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY, VOL.
01 (OF 10) ***
 THE

CAMBRIDGE NATURAL HISTORY

EDITED BY

S. F. HARMER, Sc.D., F.R.S., Fellow of King's College, Cambridge; Superintendent of the University
Museum of Zoology

AND

A. E. SHIPLEY, M.A., F.R.S., Fellow of Christ's College, Cambridge; University Lecturer on the
Morphology of Invertebrates

VOLUME I

PROTOZOA
By Marcus Hartog, M.A., Trinity College (D.Sc. Lond.), Professor of Natural History in the Queen's College, Cork

PORIFERA (SPONGES)
By Igerna B. J. Sollas, B.Sc. (Lond.), Lecturer on Zoology at Newnham College, Cambridge

COELENTERATA & CTENOPHORA

By S. J. Hickson, M.A., F.R.S., formerly Fellow and now Honorary Fellow of Downing College, Cambridge; Beyer
Professor of Zoology in the Victoria University of Manchester

ECHINODERMATA
By E. W. Macbride, M.A., F.R.S., formerly Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge; Professor of Zoology in McGill
University, Montreal
 London
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited
NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1906

All rights reserved

And pitch down his basket before us,

All trembling alive
With pink and grey jellies, your sea-fruit;
You touch the strange lumps,
And mouths gape there, eyes open, all manner
Of horns and of humps.

Browning, The Englishman in Italy

 CONTENTS

PAGE
Scheme of the Classification adopted in this Book ix

PROTOZOA
CHAPTER I
Protozoa—Introduction—Functions of Protoplasm—Cell-division—Animals and
Plants 3
CHAPTER II
Protozoa (continued): Spontaneous Generation—Characters of Protozoa—
Classification 42
CHAPTER III
Protozoa (continued): Sarcodina 51
CHAPTER IV
Protozoa (continued): Sporozoa 94
CHAPTER V
Protozoa (continued): Flagellata 109
CHAPTER VI
Protozoa (continued): Infusoria (Ciliata and Suctoria) 136

PORIFERA (SPONGES)
CHAPTER VII
Porifera (Sponges)—Introduction—History—Description of Halichondria Panicea as
an Example of British marine Sponges and of Ephydatia Fluviatilis from Fresh
Water—Definition—Position in the Animal Kingdom 165
CHAPTER VIII
Porifera (continued): Forms of Spicules—Calcarea—Homocoela—Heterocoela—
Hexactinellida—Demospongiae—Tetractinellida—Monaxonida—Ceratosa—Key
to British Genera of Sponges 183
CHAPTER IX
Porifera (continued): Reproduction, Sexual and Asexual—Physiology—Distribution
—Flints 226

COELENTERATA
CHAPTER X
Coelenterata—Introduction—Classification—Hydrozoa—Eleutheroblastea—
Milleporina—Gymnoblastea—Calyptoblastea—Graptolitoidea—Stylasterina 245
CHAPTER XI
Hydrozoa (continued): Trachomedusae—Narcomedusae—Siphonophora 288
CHAPTER XII
Coelenterata (continued): Scyphozoa = Scyphomedusae 310
 CHAPTER XIII
Coelenterata (continued): Anthozoa = Actinozoa—General Characters—Alcyonaria 326
CHAPTER XIV
Anthozoa (continued): Zoantharia 365

CTENOPHORA
CHAPTER XV
Ctenophora 412

ECHINODERMATA
CHAPTER XVI
Echinodermata—Introduction—Classification—Anatomy of a Starfish—Systematic
Account of Asteroidea 427
CHAPTER XVII
Echinodermata (continued): Ophiuroidea = Brittle Stars 477
CHAPTER XVIII
Echinodermata (continued): Echinoidea = Sea-Urchins 503
CHAPTER XIX
Echinodermata (continued): Holothuroidea = Sea-Cucumbers 560
CHAPTER XX
Echinodermata (continued): Pelmatozoa—Crinoidea = Sea-Lilies—Thecoidea—
Carpoidea—Cystoidea—Blastoidea 579
CHAPTER XXI
Echinodermata (continued): Development and Phylogeny 601
INDEX 625
 SCHEME OF THE CLASSIFICATION ADOPTED IN THIS BOOK
The names of extinct groups are printed in italics.

PROTOZOA (pp. 1, 48).

SARCODINA Lobosa (p. 51).

Rhizopoda (p. 51)
(p. 51) Filosa (p. 52).
Allogromidiaceae (p. 58).
Astrorhizidaceae (p. 59).
Lituolidaceae (p. 59).
Miliolidaceae (p. 59).
Textulariaceae (p. 59).
Foraminifera (p. 58)
Cheilostomellaceae (p. 59).
Lagenaceae (p. 59).
Globigerinidae (p. 59).
Rotaliaceae (p. 59).
Nummulitaceae (p. 59).
Aphrothoraca (p. 70).
Chlamydophora (p. 71).
Heliozoa (p. 70)
Chalarothoraca (p. 71).
Desmothoraca (p. 71).
Radiolaria Collodaria Colloidea (p.
(p. 75) (p. 77) Beloidea (p. 7
Sphaeroidea
Spumellaria (p. 77).
= Peripylaea Prunoidea
(pp. 76, 77) Sphaerellaria (p. 77).
(p. 77) Discoidea
(p. 77).
Porulosa
Larcoidea
= Holotrypasta
(p. 77).
(p. 76)
Actinelida
(p. 78).
Acanthonida
(p. 78).
Acantharia = Actipylaea (pp. 76, 78)
Sphaerophrac
(p. 78).
Prunophracta
(p. 78).
Osculosa Nassoidea
= Monotrypasta (p. 78).
(p. 76) Plectoidea
(p. 78).
Stephoidea
Nassellaria = Monopylaea (p. 78).
(pp. 76, 78) Spyroidea
(p. 78).
Botryoidea
(p. 79).
Cyrtoidea
(p. 79).
Phaeodaria = Cannopylaea Phaeocystina
 = Tripylaea (pp. 76, 79) (p. 79).
Phaeosphaer
(p. 79).
Phaeogromia
(p. 79).
Phaeoconchia
(p. 79).
Zoosporeae (p. 89).
Myxoidea (p. 89)
Proteomyxa (p. 88) Azoosporeae (p. 89).
Catallacta (p. 89).
Acrasieae (p. 90).
Mycetozoa (p. 90) Filoplasmodieae (p. 90).
Myxomycetes (pp. 90, 91).

Schizogregarinidae (p. 97).

Gregarinidaceae
Acephalinidae (p. 97).
(pp. 97, 98)
Dicystidae (p. 97).
Telosporidia (p. 97)
Coccidiidae (pp. 97, 99).
SPOROZOA Coccidiaceae
Haemosporidae (pp. 97, 102).
(p. 94) (pp. 97, 99)
Acystosporidae (pp. 97, 102).
Myxosporidiaceae (pp. 98, 106).
Neosporidia (p. 97) Actinomyxidiaceae (p. 98).
Sarcosporidiaceae (pp. 98, 108).

Pantostomata (p. 109).

Distomatidae (p. 110).
Oikomonadidae (p. 111).
Bicoecidae (p. 111).
Craspedomonadidae
(pp. 111, 121).
Phalansteridae (p. 111).
Protomastigaceae
Monadidae (p. 111).
(p. 110)
Bodonidae (p. 111).
Amphimonadidae (p. 111).
Trimastigidae (p. 111).
Polymastigidae (p. 111).
FLAGELLATA (p. 109) Trichonymphidae (pp. 111, 123
Opalinidae (pp. 111, 123).
Chrysomonadaceae
Coccolithophoridae (p. 114).
(pp. 110, 125)
Cryptomonadaceae (p. 110).
Chlamydomonadidae
Volvocaceae
(pp. 111, 125).
(pp. 110, 111)
Volvocidae (pp. 111, 126).
Chloromonadaceae (p. 110).
Euglenaceae (pp. 110, 124).
Silicoflagellata (pp. 110, 114).
Cystoflagellata (pp. 110, 132).
Dinoflagellata (pp. 110, 130).

INFUSORIA Ciliata (p. 137) Gymnostomaceae (pp. 137, 152).

(p. 136) Aspirotrichaceae (pp. 137, 153).
Heterotrichaceae (pp. 137, 153).
Oligotrichaceae (pp. 137, 155).
 Hypotrichaceae (pp. 137, 138).
Peritrichaceae (pp. 138, 155).
Suctoria = Tentaculifera (p. 158).

PORIFERA (p. 163).

Class. Sub-Class. Order. Family. Sub-Fa
Leucosoleniidae (p. 185)
Homocoela (p. 185)
Clathrinidae (p. 185).
Sycettidae (p. 187).
Grantiidae (p. 192).
Heteropidae (p. 192).
MEGAMASTICTORA Calcarea
Amphoriscidae (p. 192).
(pp. 183, 184) (p. 184)
Heterocoela (p. 187) Dialytin
Pharetronidae (p. 19
(p. 192) Lithonin
(p. 19
Astroscleridae (p. 194).

Myxospongiae (p. 196).

Amphidiscophora (p. 203).
Hexactinellida
Hexasterophora (p. 203).
(p. 197)
Receptaculitidae (p. 207)
Octactinellida (p. 208).
Heteractinellida (p. 208).
MICROMASTICTORA
(pp. 183, 195) Tetractinellida Choristida (p. 212).
(pp. 211, 212) Lithistida (pp. 212, 215).
Monaxonida Halichondrina (p. 217).
Demospongiae
(pp. 211, 216) Spintharophora (p. 217).
(p. 209)
Dictyoceratina Spongidae (p. 220).
Ceratosa
(p. 220) Spongelidae (p. 220).
(pp. 211, 220)
Dendroceratina (pp. 220, 221).

COELENTERATA (p. 243).

Class. Order. Sub-Order. Family. Sub-Family.
HYDROZOA (p. 249) Eleutheroblastea (p. 253).
Milleporina (p. 257).
Gymnoblastea (Anthomedusae) Bougainvilliidae (p. 269).
(p. 262) Podocorynidae (p. 270).
Clavatellidae (p. 270).
Cladonemidae (p. 270).
Tubulariidae (p. 271).
Ceratellidae (p. 271).
Pennariidae (p. 272).
Corynidae (p. 272).
Clavidae (p. 272).
Tiaridae (p. 273).
Corymorphidae (p. 273).
Hydrolaridae (p. 273).
 Monobrachiidae (p. 274).
Myriothelidae (p. 274).
Pelagohydridae (p. 274).
Aequoreidae (p. 278).
Thaumantiidae (p. 278).
Cannotidae (p. 278).
Sertulariidae (p. 278).
Calyptoblastea (Leptomedusae) Plumulariidae Eleutheroplea (p. 27
(p. 275) (p. 279) Statoplea (p. 279).
Hydroceratinidae (p. 279).
Campanulariidae (p. 280).
Eucopidae (p. 280).
Dendrograptidae (p. 281).
Monoprionidae (p. 282).
Graptolitoidea (p. 281) Diprionidae (p. 282).
Retiolitidae (p. 282).
Stromatoporidae (p. 283).
Stylasterina (p. 283) Stylasteridae (p. 285).
Olindiidae (p. 291).
Petasidae (p. 294).
Trachynemidae (p. 294).
Trachomedusae (p. 288)
Pectyllidae (p. 294).
Aglauridae (p. 294).
Geryoniidae (p. 295).
Cunanthidae (p. 296).
Peganthidae (p. 296).
Narcomedusae (p. 295)
Aeginidae (p. 296).
Solmaridae (p. 296).
Monophyidae Sphaeronectinae (p
(p. 306) Cymbonectinae (p.
Amphicaryoninae
(p. 306)
Prayinae (p. 306)
Desmophyinae
(p. 307)
Calycophorae
Diphyidae Stephanophyinae
(p. 305)
(p. 306) (p. 307)
Galeolarinae
Siphonophora
(p. 307)
(p. 297)
Diphyopsinae
(p. 307)
Abylinae (p. 307)
Polyphyidae (p. 307).
Agalminae (p. 307)
Physonectidae
Apoleminae (p. 307
(p. 307)
Physophorae Physophorinae (p. 3
(p. 307) Auronectidae (p. 308).
Rhizophysaliidae (p. 308).
Chondrophoridae (p. 308).

SCYPHOZOA Charybdeidae (p. 318).

= SCYPHOMEDUSAE Cubomedusae (p. 318) Chirodropidae (p. 319).
(pp. 249, 310) Tripedaliidae (p. 319).
Stauromedusae (p. 320) Lucernariidae (p. 320).
 Depastridae (p. 321).
Stenoscyphidae (p. 321).
Periphyllidae (p. 322).
Coronata (p. 321) Ephyropsidae (p. 322).
Atollidae (p. 322).
Pelagiidae (p. 323).
Semaeostomata
Cyanaeidae (p. 324).
(p. 323)
Ulmaridae (p. 324).
Cassiopeidae
= Arcadomyaria (p.
(p. 324)
Cepheidae
= Radiomyaria (p. 3
Discophora (p. 324)
(p. 323) Rhizostomatidae
Rhizostomata (p. 325)
(p. 324) Lychnorhizidae
(p. 325)
= Cyclomyaria (p. 3
Leptobrachiidae
(p. 325)
Catostylidae
(p. 325)

Class. Sub-Class. Grade. Order. Sub-Order. Family.

ANTHOZOA Alcyonaria Protoalcyonacea (p. 342) Haimeidae (p. 3
= ACTINOZOA (p. 329) Synalcyonacea Cornulariidae
(pp. 249, 326) (p. 342) (p. 344).
Clavulariidae
Stolonifera (p. 342)
(p. 344).
Tubiporidae (p.
Favositidae (p. 3
Heliolitidae (p. 3
Helioporidae (p.
Coccoseridae
Coenothecalia (p. 344)
(p. 346).
Thecidae (p. 34
Chaetetidae (p.
Xeniidae (p. 348
Telestidae (p. 34
Coelogorgiidae
(p. 349).
Alcyonacea (p. 346)
Alcyoniidae (p. 3
Nephthyidae (p.
Siphonogorgiida
(p. 349).
Gorgonacea Briareidae (p. 35
(p. 350) Sclerogorgiidae
Pseudaxonia
(p. 351).
(p. 350)
Melitodidae (p. 3
Coralliidae (p. 3
Axifera (p. 353) Isidae (p. 353).
Primnoidae (p. 3
Chrysogorgiidae
(p. 355).
Muriceidae (p. 3
Plexauridae (p.
 Gorgoniidae (p.
Gorgonellidae
(p. 357).
Pteroeididae (p.
Pennatuleae Pennatulidae
(p. 361) (p. 361).
Virgulariidae (p.
Funiculinidae
(p. 362).
Anthoptilidae
Pennatulacea Spicatae (p. 362).
(p. 358) (p. 362) Kophobelemnon
(p. 362).
Umbellulidae
(p. 362).
Verticilladeae (p. 363)
Renilleae
Renillidae (p. 36
(p. 363)
Veretilleae (p. 364)
Zoantharia (pp. 329, 365) Edwardsiidae
(p. 377).
Edwardsiidea (p. 375)
Protantheidae
(p. 377).
Halcampidae
(p. 380).
Actiniidae (p. 38
Actiniina Sagartiidae (p. 3
(p. 380) Aliciidae (p. 382
Phyllactidae (p.
Bunodidae (p. 3
Actiniaria
Minyadidae (p. 3
(p. 377)
Corallimorphida
(p. 383).
Discosomatidae
Stichodactylina
(p. 383).
(p. 383)
Rhodactidae (p.
Thalassianthida
(p. 383).
Madreporaria Cyathophyllidae
(p. 384) (p. 394).
Cyathaxoniidae
(p. 394).
Cystiphyllidae
(p. 394).
Madreporidae
Entocnemaria
(p. 395).
(p. 394)
Poritidae (p. 396
Cyclocnemaria Aporosa (p. 397
(p. 397) Turbinoliidae (p.
Oculinidae (p. 3
Astraeidae (p. 3
A. Gemmantes (p
A. Fissiparantes (
Trochosmiliacea
[Sub-Fam.] (p. 40
 Pocilloporidae
(p. 401)
Fungacea (p. 40
Plesiofungiidae
(p. 403)
Fungiidae (p. 40
Cycloseridae (p
Plesioporitidae
(p. 404)
Eupsammiidae
(p. 404)
Zoanthidae (p. 4
Zoanthidea (p. 404) Zaphrentidae
(p. 406).
Antipathidae (p.
Leiopathidae
Antipathidea = Antipatharia
(p. 409).
(p. 407)
Dendrobrachiida
(p. 409).
Cerianthidea (p. 409).

CTENOPHORA (p. 412).

Class. Order. Family.
Mertensiidae (p. 417).
Cydippidea (p. 417) Callianiridae (p. 417).
Pleurobrachiidae (p. 418).
Lesueuriidae (p. 419).
Bolinidae (p. 419).
Deiopeidae (p. 419).
Eurhamphaeidae (p. 419).
TENTACULATA (p. 417) Lobata (p. 418)
Eucharidae (p. 420).
Mnemiidae (p. 420).
Calymmidae (p. 420).
Ocyroidae (p. 420).
Cestoidea (p. 420) Cestidae (p. 420).
Ctenoplanidae (p. 421).
Platyctenea (p. 421)
Coeloplanidae (p. 422).

NUDA (p. 423) Beroidae (p. 423).

ECHINODERMATA (p. 425).

Sub-Phylum. Class. Order. Sub-Order. Family.
ELEUTHEROZOA Asteroidea Echinasteridae (p. 462).
(p. 430) (pp. 430, 431) Solasteridae (p. 462).
Asterinidae (p. 463).
Spinulosa (pp. 461, 462)
Poraniidae (p. 464).
Ganeriidae (p. 464).
Mithrodiidae (p. 464).
 Velata (pp. 461, 464)
Paxillosa (pp. 461, 466)
Valvata (pp. 461, 471)
Forcipulata (pp. 462, 473)
Streptophiurae (p. 494)
Zygophiurae (pp. 494, 495)
Ophiuroidea
(pp. 431, 477)
Cladophiurae (pp. 494, 500)
Echinoidea
(pp. 431, 503)
Endocyclica (pp. 529, 530)
Protoclypeastroidea (p. 548).
Clypeastroidea
Euclypeastroidea
(pp. 529, 542)
(p. 549)
Spatangoidea (pp. 529, 549)
Pythonasteridae (p. 464).
Myxasteridae (p. 464).
Pterasteridae (p. 466).
Archasteridae (p. 466).
Astropectinidae (p. 467).
Porcellanasteridae (p. 470
Linckiidae (p. 471).
Pentagonasteridae (p. 47
Gymnasteridae (p. 471).
Antheneidae (p. 471).
Pentacerotidae (p. 471).
Asteriidae (p. 473).
Heliasteridae (p. 474).
Zoroasteridae (p. 474).
Stichasteridae (p. 474).
Pedicellasteridae (p. 474)
Brisingidae (p. 474).
Ophiolepididae (p. 495).
Amphiuridae (p. 497).
Ophiocomidae (p. 499).
Ophiothricidae (p. 499).
Astroschemidae (p. 501).
Trichasteridae (p. 501).
Euryalidae (p. 501).
Cidaridae (p. 533).
Echinothuriidae (p. 535).
Saleniidae (p. 537).
Arbaciidae (p. 538).
Diadematidae (p. 538).
Tem
(p.
Echinidae (p. 539)
Ech
(p.
Fibularidae (p. 549).
Echinanthidae = Clypeast
(p. 549).
Laganidae (p. 549).
Scutellidae (p. 549).
Echinonidae
(p. 553)
Nucleolidae Aste
(p. 554) (p.
Cassidulidae
(p. 554)
Ananchytidae
(p. 554)
Palaeostomatidae
Ster
(p. 554)
(p.
Spatangidae
(p. 554)
Brissidae (p. 556)
Archaeocidaridae (p. 557
Melonitidae (p. 557).
 Tiarechinidae (p. 557).
Holectypoidea (p. 558).
Echinoconidae (p. 558).
Collyritidae (p. 559).
Aspidochirota (p. 570).
Elasipoda (p. 571).
Holothuroidea Pelagothuriida (p. 572).
(pp. 431, 560) Dendrochirota (p. 572).
Molpadiida (p. 575).
Synaptida (p. 575).

Hyo
(p.
Rhiz
(p.
Pen
(p.
Crinoidea
Holo
(p. 580)
(p.
PELMATOZOA Com
(pp. 430, 579)
(p.
Inadunata (p. 595).
Articulata (p. 595).
Camerata (p. 595).
Thecoidea = Edrioasteroidea (pp. 580, 596).
Carpoidea (pp. 580, 596).
Cystoidea (pp. 580, 597).
Blastoidea (pp. 580, 599).
 PROTOZOA

BY

MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., Trinity College (D.Sc. Lond.)

Professor of Natural History in the Queen's College, Cork.

CHAPTER I

PROTOZOA—INTRODUCTION—FUNCTIONS OF PROTOPLASM—CELL-DIVISION—ANIMALS AND PLANTS

The Free Amoeboid Cell.—If we examine under the microscope a fragment of one of the higher
animals or plants, we find in it a very complex structure. A careful study shows that it always consists of
certain minute elements of fundamentally the same nature, which are combined or fused into "tissues."
In plants, where these units of structure were first studied, and where they are easier to recognise, each
tiny unit is usually enclosed in an envelope or wall of woody or papery material, so that the whole plant
is honeycombed. Each separate cavity was at first called a "cell"; and this term was then applied to the
bounding wall, and finally to the unit of living matter within, the envelope receiving the name of "cell-
wall." In this modern sense the "cell" consists of a viscid substance, called first in animals "sarcode" by
Dujardin (1835), and later in plants "protoplasm"[1] by Von Mohl (1846). On the recognition of its
common nature in both kingdoms, largely due to Max Schultze, the latter term prevailed; and it has
passed from the vocabulary of biology into the domain of everyday life. We shall now examine the
structure and behaviour of protoplasm and of the cell as an introduction to the detailed study of the
Protozoa, or better still Protista,[2] the lowest types of living beings, and of Animals at large.

It is not in detached fragments of the tissues of the higher animals that we can best carry on this study:
for here the cells are in singularly close connexion with their neighbours during life; the proper appointed
work of each is intimately related to that of the others; and this co-operation has so trained and specially
modified each cell that the artificial severance and isolation is detrimental to its well-being, if not
necessarily fatal to its very life. Again, in plants the presence of a cell-wall interferes in many ways with
the free behaviour of the cell. But in the blood and lymph of higher animals there float isolated cells, the
white corpuscles or "leucocytes" of human histology, which, despite their minuteness (1⁄3000 in. in
diameter), are in many respects suitable objects. Further, in our waters, fresh or salt, we may find similar
free-living individual cells, in many respects resembling the leucocytes, but even better suited for our
study. For, in the first place, we can far more readily reproduce under the microscope the normal
conditions of their life; and, moreover, these free organisms are often many times larger than the
leucocyte. Such free organisms are individual Protozoa, and are called by the general term "Amoebae."
A large Amoeba may measure in its most contracted state 1⁄100 in. or 250 µ in diameter,[3] and some
closely allied species (Pelomyxa, see p. 52) even twelve times this amount. If we place an Amoeba or a
leucocyte under the microscope (Fig. 1), we shall find that its form, at first spherical, soon begins to
alter. To confine our attention to the external changes, we note that the outline, from circular, soon
becomes "island-shaped" by the outgrowth of a promontory here, the indenting of a bay there. The
promontory may enlarge into a peninsula, and thus grow until it becomes a new mainland, while the old
mainland dwindles into a mere promontory, and is finally lost. In this way a crawling motion is effected.[4]
The promontories are called "pseudopodia" (= "false-feet"), and the general character of such motion is
called "amoeboid."[5]
 Fig. 1.—Amoeba, showing clear ectoplasm, granular endoplasm, dark nucleus, and lighter contractile vacuole. The
changes of form, a-f, are of the A. limax type; g, h, of the A. proteus type. (From Verworn.)

The living substance, protoplasm,[6] has been termed a "jelly," a word, however, that is quite
inapplicable to it in its living state. It is viscid, almost semi-fluid, and may well be compared to very soft
dough which has already begun to rise. It resembles it in often having a number of spaces, small or
large, filled with liquid (not gas). These are termed "vacuoles" or "alveoles," according to their greater or
their lesser dimensions. In some cases a vacuole is traversed by strands of plasmic substance, just as
we may find such strands stretching across the larger spaces of a very light loaf; but of course in the
living cell these are constantly undergoing changes. If we "fix" a cell (i.e. kill it by sudden heat or certain
chemical coagulants),[7] and examine it under the microscope, the intermediate substance between the
vacuoles that we have already seen in life is again found either to be finely honeycombed or else
resolved into a network like that of a sponge. The former structure is called a "foam" or "alveolar"
structure, the latter a "reticulate" structure. The alveoles are about 1 µ in diameter, and spheroidal or
polygonal by mutual contact, elongated, however, radially to any free surface, whether it be that of the
cell itself or that of a larger alveole or vacuole. The inner layer of protoplasm ("endoplasm," "endosarc")
contains also granules of various nature, reserve matters of various kinds, oil-globules, and particles of
mineral matter[8] which are waste products, and are called "excretory." In fixed specimens these
granules are seen to occupy the nodes of the network or of the alveoli, that is, the points where two or
three boundaries meet.[9] The outermost layer ("ectoplasm" or "ectosarc") appears in the live Amoeba
structureless and hyaline, even under conditions the most favourable for observation. The refractive
index of protoplasm, when living, is always well under 1.4, that of the fixed and dehydrated substance is
slightly over 1.6.

Again, within the outer protoplasm is found a body of slightly higher refractivity and of definite outline,
termed the "nucleus" (Figs. 1, 2). This has a definite "wall" of plasmic nature, and a substance so closely
resembling the outer protoplasm in character, that we call it the "nucleoplasm" (also "linin"),
distinguishing the outer plasm as "cytoplasm"; the term "protoplasm" including both. Within the
nucleoplasm are granules of a substance that stains well with the commoner dyes, especially the "basic"
ones, and which has hence been called "chromatin." The linin is usually arranged in a distinct network,
confluent into a "parietal layer" within the nuclear wall; the meshes traversing a cavity full of liquid, the
nuclear sap, and containing in their course the granules; while in the cavity are usually found one or two
droplets of a denser substance termed "nucleoles." These differ slightly in composition from the
chromatin granules[10] (see p. 24 f.).

The movements of the leucocyte or Amoeba are usually most active at a temperature of about 40° C. or
100° F., the "optimum." They cease when the temperature falls to a point, the "minimum," varying with
the organism, but never below freezing-point; they recommence when the temperature rises again to
the same point at which they stopped. If now the temperature be raised to a certain amount above 40°
they stop, but may recommence if the temperature has not exceeded a certain point, the "maximum"
(45° C. is a common maximum). If it has been raised to a still higher point they will not recommence
under any circumstances whatever.

Again, a slight electric shock will determine the retraction of all processes, and a period of rest in a
spherical condition. A milder shock will only arrest the movements. But a stronger shock may arrest
them permanently. We may often note a relation of the movements towards a surface, tending to keep
the Amoeba in contact with it, whether it be the surface of a solid or that of an air-bubble in the liquid
(see also p. 20).

Fig. 2.—Ovum of a Sea-Urchin, showing the radially striated cell-membrane, the cytoplasm containing yolk-granules, the
large nucleus (germinal vesicle), with its network of linin containing chromatin granules, and a large nucleole (germinal
spot). (From Balfour's Embryology, after Hertwig.)

If a gentle current be set up in the water, we find that the movements of the Amoeba are so co-ordinated
that it moves upstream; this must of course be of advantage in nature, as keeping the being in its place,
against the streams set up by larger creatures, etc. (see also p. 21).

If substances soluble in water be introduced the Amoeba will, as a rule, move away from the region of
greater concentration for some substances, but towards it (provided it be not excessive) for others. (See
also pp. 22, 23.) We find, indeed, that there is for substances of the latter category a minimum of
concentration, below which no effect is seen, and a maximum beyond which further concentration
repels. The easiest way to make such observations is to take up a little strong solution in a capillary tube
sealed at the far end, and to introduce its open end into the water, and let the solution diffuse out, so
that this end may be regarded as surrounded by zones of continuously decreasing strength. In the
process of inflammation (of a Higher Animal) it has been found that the white corpuscles are so
attracted by the source of irritation that they creep out of the capillaries, and crowd towards it.

We cannot imagine a piece of dough exhibiting any of these reactions, or the like of them; it can only
move passively under the action of some one or other of the recognised physical forces, and that only in
direct quantitative relation to the work that such forces can effect; in other words, the dough can have
work done on it, but it cannot do work. The Amoeba or leucocyte on the contrary does work. It moves
under the various circumstances by the transformation of some of its internal energy from the "potential"
into the "kinetic" state, the condition corresponding with this being essentially a liberation of heat or
work, either by the breaking down of its internal substances, or by the combination of some of them with
oxygen.[11] Such of these changes as involve the excretion of carbonic acid are termed "respiratory."

This liberation of energy is the "response" to an action of itself inadequate to produce it; and has been
compared not inaptly to the discharge of a cannon, where foot-tons of energy are liberated in
consequence of the pull of a few inch-grains on the trigger, or to an indefinitely small push which makes
electric contact: the energy set free is that which was stored up in the charge. This capacity for liberating
energy stored up within, in response to a relatively small impulse from without, is termed "irritability"; the
external impulse is termed the "stimulus." The responsive act has been termed "contractility," because it
so often means an obvious contraction, but is better termed "motility "; and irritability evinced by motility
is characteristic of all living beings save when in the temporary condition of "rest."