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Q. Consider the following pairs of port cities and countries:
Port City : : Country
1. Piraeus : : Greece
2. Haifa : : UAE
3. Jabel Ali : : Israel
4. Eilat : : Jordan
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
a) Only one
b) Only two
c) Only Three
d) All four

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• It has been speculated that one of the reasons behind Israel’s desire to eliminate Hamas
from the Gaza Strip is to tap economic opportunities through Ben Gurion Canal.
• It was first envisioned in the 1960s and seen as an alternative to Suez canal route.
The Ben Gurion Canal Project is a proposed canal project through the Israel’s Negev
•
Desert.
• It would connect the Gulf of Aqaba to the Mediterranean Sea.
• The canal would rival the Suez Canal, which runs through Egypt.

Gulf of Aqaba
Geographical Location:
It is located at the northern tip of the Red Sea, bordered by four countries:
Israel, Jordan,
Egypt, and Saudi Arabia.

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There are two main deserts in Israel – the Negev Desert
and the Judean Desert. The Negev Desert is the larger of
the two, covering over 60% of Israel's total land area.
Negev Desert (Negev meaning "to dry")
• Location and Size: Situated in southern Israel, it covers over half of Israel's total land
area. The Negev stretches from the Sinai Peninsula in the south to the Negev Highlands
in the north.
• It is shaped like triangle with the apex at the south.
• The unique feature of desert is makhteshim, which is steep walls of resistant rock
surrounding a deep closed valley

• It was a pastoral region in ancient times and an important source of grain for the Roman
Empire
• Precipitation varies, which decreases as moved towards south (Negligible at Elat)
• The region produces grain, fruit, and vegetables, mineral resources such as Potash,
• bromine, magnesium and copper
Chief cities include Port city of Elat, Israel’s outlet to the Red Sea.

LEVANT
https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explainedhistory/ who-are-palestinians-israel-
hamas-8990440/

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Levant
• The Levant is an approximate historical
geographical term referring to a large area in the
• Eastern Mediterranean region of Western Asia.
Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon,
Palestine, Syria, and Turkey are sometimes
considered Levant countries

Israel
• Capital: Jerusalem
• Golan heights: Syrian territory captured by Israel in six day war 1967
• Maritime: Opens to Mediterranean sea (Port Tel Aviv) and to red sea through Gulf of
Aqaba (Port Eilat)
• I2U2: West Asian Quad by India, Israel, UAE and USA for cooperation in diverse fields

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Water bodies around Israel
• Mediterranean sea to the West
• Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias): Israel’s main source of freshwater, lowest freshwater lake
in the world, 2nd lowest lake in the world after Dead Sea
• Dead Sea: 2nd most saline lake in the world, bordered by Jordan, Israel and West Bank,
• Jordan river
• Gulf of Aqaba

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Sea of Galilee
•Geographical Location: The Sea of Galilee is situated in northeast Israel. It is the lowest
freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in the world
known
• as Lake Kinneret or Lake Tiberias

The lake is fed partly by underground springs, but its main source is the Jordan River

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Origin: Rises from springs at the base of Mount Hermon, located on the borders of Lebanon
and Syria.

Course: Flows south through the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias) into the Dead Sea.

Length: Approximately 251 kilometers (156 miles).

The Dead Sea also known by other names, is a salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east and
Palestine's West Bank and Israel to the west.

It lies in the Jordan Rift Valley, and its main tributary is the Jordan River.

Dead Sea:
• High Salinity: One of the world's saltiest bodies of water, making it denser and more sea-
like.
• Historical Context: Referred to as a sea in ancient texts, including the Bible.
Geographic Features: Surrounded by desert and resembling a sea in appearance and
•
mineral content.

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Golan heights
• Why in news?
Israel bombarded Syrian towns near Golan heights

About:
• Located in Levant region, between syria and Israel
• Territorial border: Jordan, Syria, Israel, Lebanon
• Since six day war of 1967 Israel taken control of Golan height from Syria, territorial
conflict between syria and Israel continues for Golan heights

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Rafah Crossing
• The Rafah border crossing in southern Gaza has gained global attention as part of the
ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
• The Rafah crossing is the southernmost exit point from the Gaza Strip, and it shares a
border with Egypt's Sinai Peninsula.
• It is the only exit that does not lead to Israeli territory.
It is under the management of Egypt as per a 2007 agreement with Israel.
•
The Gaza strip, currently has three functional entry and exit points
•
— the Erez or the Beit Hanoun crossing in the north, and the Karem Abu Salem and Rafah
crossings in the south.

Other crossings:
There are only two other border crossings in and out of Gaza:

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1Erez is located in the north and is used by people in Israel.
. Kerem Shalom, in the south, which is exclusively for commercial goods.
2
Both
. Erez and Kerem Shalom controlled by Israel are currently closed.

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India-Middle East-EU corridor
• Recently, the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor (IMEC) Project was signed at
the G20 Summit in New Delhi.
• The project forms part of the Partnership for Global Infrastructure and Investment (PGII)
which is a G7 initiative .

Objective: The proposed IMEC will consist of Railroad, Shipto- Rail networks and Road
transport routes extending across two corridors, that is,
− The East Corridor – connecting India to the Arabian Gulf,
− The Northern Corridor – connecting the Gulf to Europe.
• Signatories: India, the US, Saudi Arabia, UAE, the EuropeanUnion, Italy, France, and
Germany.
• Ports to be Connected:
− India: Mundra , Kandla, and JNPT.
− Middle East: Fujairah, Jebel Ali, and Abu Dhabi (UAE);
Dammam and Ras Al Khair ports (Saudi Arabia).
− Railway will connect Fujairah port to Haifa port via: Saudi
Arabia (Ghuwaifat and Haradh) and Jordan.
− Israel: Haifa port.
− Europe: Piraeus in Greece, Messina in Italy, and Marseille in France.

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Q. Murmansk, popularly called the capital of the Arctic region and the beginning point of
the Northern Sea Route (NSR), is located on the coast of which of the following seas?
a) Barents Sea
b) Kara Sea
c) Bering Sea
d) Sea of Okhotsk

News:
• India’s engagement with Russia’s Arctic region has been strengthening with India-bound
goods constituting the maximum share of cargo handled this year by Murmansk, located
• about 2,000 km northwest of Moscow.
India accounted for 35% of cargo handled by the Murmansk port.

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Murmansk port
• Popularly called the capital of the Arctic region and the beginning point of the Northern
Sea Route (NSR)
• It is a seaport located on the eastern shore of the Kola Bay of the Barents Sea.
• Murmansk seaport is one of the largest ice-free ports in Russia

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The Northern Sea Route (NSR)
• The Northern Sea Route (NSR), the shortest shipping route for freight transportation
between Europe and countries of the Asia-Pacific region, straddles four seas of the Arctic
• Ocean.
Running to 5,600 km, the Route begins at the boundary between the Barents and the Kara
seas (Kara Strait) and ends in the Bering Strait (Provideniya Bay).
•
The 2021 blockage of the Suez Canal, which forms part of the widely-used maritime route
involving Europe and Asia, has led to greater attention on the NSR.

Seas along the Northern

Sea Route from east to west:
Chukchi Sea
East Siberian Sea
Laptev Sea
Kara Sea
Barents Sea

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White sea
− Recently Russia's nuclear-powered submarine Imperator Alexander III carried out a
successful test launch of the Bulava ballistic missile in white sea
− The White Sea is a southern inlet of the Barents Sea located on the northwest coast of
Russia.
− It is surrounded by Karelia to the west, the Kola Peninsula to the north, and the Kanin
Peninsula to the northeast.
− The major Sea port of Arkhangelsk is located on the White Sea.

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Arctic Ocean
− The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest among the world's five major oceans.
− It is one of the coldest oceans and is recognized by the International Hydrographic
Organization (IHO).
− Some oceanographers refer to it as the Arctic Mediterranean Sea.

Countries Bordering the Arctic Ocean

− Russia: Has the longest coastline along the Arctic Ocean.
− Canada
− United States (Alaska)
− Norway
− Denmark (Greenland)

Arctic Council
− The Arctic Council is a high-level intergovernmental forum that addresses issues faced by
the Arctic governments and the indigenous people of the Arctic.

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− The 1996 Ottawa Declaration established the Arctic Council
− Headquarters Tromsø, Norway (since 2012)

Member Countries
Canada
Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands)
Finland
Iceland
Norway
Russia
Sweden
United States

Permanent Participants: In addition to the member states, the Council includes Permanent
Participants, which are organizations representing the indigenous peoples of the Arctic.

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India’s research centres at Antarctica
Dakshin Gangotri: first Indian research base in Antarctica, now only used as a supply base
Maitri: second permanent station established in 1989
Bharti: latest research centre operational since 2012

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 Q. Consider the following statements about colour coding for

ships: 1. White shipping refers to commercial ships.

2. Grey shipping refers to illegal ships.

3. Black Shipping refers to a vessel operating with its Automatic

Identification System (AIS) turned off.

4. Dark shipping refers to military vessels.

How many of the above are correct descriptions?

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 (a) Only One

(b) Only Two

(c) Only Three

(d) All Four

The Indian Navy has completed its second antipiracy patrol in the

Gulf of Guinea (GoG) in the Atlantic Ocean.

● Offshore Patrol Vessel INS Sumedha which is on an extended range operational

deployment, currently operating in the Atlantic Ocean along the West Coast of
Africa, undertook a 31day antipiracy patrol.
Gulf of Guinea

● The Gulf of Guinea is the northeasternmost part of the tropicalAtlantic Ocean

from Cape Lopez in Gabon to Cape Palmas in Liberia.

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 Cameroon line

● It is a 1,600 km (1,000 mi)

long chain of volcanoes that
includes islands in the Gulf
of Guinea and mountains on
the African mainland, from
Mount Cameroon on the
coast towards Lake Chad on
the northeast.
● They form a natural border
between eastern Nigeria
and the West Region of
Cameroon.

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 Djibouti Code of Conduct (DCOC)

● AimstoconcerntheRepressionofPiracyandArmedRobberyagainstShipsinthe
Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden.
● The signatories agreed to cooperate to the fullest possible extent in the
repression of piracy and armed robbery against ships.
● Adoptedon29thJanuary2009
● EstablishedundertheInternationalMaritimeOrganization(IMO).
● Indiajoinedin2020asanobserver

Jeddah Amendment:

● An amendment to DCOC was made in 2017 to cover other illicit maritime

activities, including human trafficking and illegal, unreported unregulated fishing
● Tobuildnationalandregionalcapacitytoaddresswidermaritimesecurityissues,
as a basis for sustainable development of the maritime sector.

Gulf of Aden

● Connects the Arabian Sea with

the Red Sea.
● North: Yemen,
● South: Somalia, located in the
Horn of Africa.
● West: It is connected to the
Red Sea through the
BabelMandeb strait
● East: Opens into the Arabian
Sea, which is a part of the
Indian Ocean.

International Maritime Organization (IMO)

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 ● A specialized agency of the United Nations focused on global shipping safety and
security.
● Established post the 1948 Geneva Conference, officially operational since 1959.
● Headquarters located in London, United Kingdom.
● Key responsibilities include ensuring shipping safety, security, and preventing
marine pollution by ships.

Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)

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 ● Zanzibar Consensus is a set of policy recommendations to advance blue economy
sector in the Indian Ocean region.
● The Indian Ocean Dialogue (IOD) is a flagship initiative of the IORA, starting in
2013 at Perth, Australia.

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 Indian Ocean Commission:

● IntergovernmentalorganizationthatbringstogetherfiveMember

States:

1. Comoros

2. France on behalf of Reunion

3. Madagascar

4. Mauritius

5. Seychelles

● Created by the Port Louis Declaration in 1982, the IOC was institutionalized in
Seychelles in 1984 by the General Agreement on Cooperation, better known as
the “Victoria Agreement”.
● ItisonlyregionalorganizationinAfricacomposedexclusivelyofislands
India is observer

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 IndoPacific Maritime Domain Awareness (IPMDA)

● IntroducedbytheQuadgroupattheTokyosummit,2022Aimstomonitor"dark
shipping" and create a more comprehensive and precise realtime maritime
overview of partner nations' waters.
● FocusesonintegratingthePacificIslands,SoutheastAsia,andtheIndianOcean
region (IOR) in the IndoPacific.
● Dark shipping is a term used to describe a vessel operatingwith its Automatic
Identification System (AIS) turned off .

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 Information Fusion Centre – Indian Ocean Region (IFCIOR)

● Established at the Indian Navy’s Information Management and Analysis Centre

(IMAC) in Gurugram, Haryana in 2018.
● Established for regional collaboration on maritime security issues. It will serve
countries that have White Shipping Information
● ExchangeagreementswithIndia.
● White shipping information refers to exchange of advance information on the
identity and movement of commercial , nonmilitary merchant vessels. Color Code
for Ships
1. White is for the commercial ships

2. Grey is for the military vessels

3. Black is for the illegal ships

Q. Consider the following island countries of the Indian Ocean:

1. Mauritius

2. Comoros

3. Reunion

4. Maldives

5. Seychelles

6. Madagascar

Q. How many of the above are the members of both Indian Ocean Rim Association and
Indian Ocean Commission?
(a) Only three

(b) Only four

(c) Only five

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 (d) All six

Answer: a. Only ONE

● Grey shipping is military vessels Black Shipping is illegal ships Dark shipping refers
to a vessel operating with its
● Automatic Identification System (AIS) turned off.

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 IR & Mappin g Lecture

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Thwaites Glacier/ ‘Doomsday’ glacier

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The Thwaites Glacier, often referred to as the "Doomsday Glacier,".

It is rapidly melting glacier located in West Antarctica.

The glacier flows into Pine Island Bay, part of the Amundsen Sea

Southern Ocean is defined by the International Hydrographic Organization as the waters

encircling Antarctica, generally recognized as south of 60°S latitude.

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International Hydrographic Organization
Intergovernmental organisation representing hydrography (branch of applied sciences
which deals with the measurement and description of the physical features of oceans, seas,
coastal areas, lakes and rivers)

99 Member States.

Principal aim: world's seas, oceans and navigable waters are properly surveyed and charted

Location: Principality of Monaco

Antarctica
Geography:
• Antarctica stands as the world's southernmost continent.
• Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, being nearly twice the size of Australia, and has
an area of 14,200,000 km2 (5,500,000 sq mi).
• Most of Antarctica is covered by ice, with an average thickness of 1.9 km (1.2 mi).
− -No Coastal plains

2 intels to enter Antarctic

✓ Ross Ice Shelf
✓Weddel Sea, Ronne Ice Shelf

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•
Rivers: Rivers exist in Antarctica, the longest being the Onyx.
• Antarctica is divided in two by the Transantarctic Mountains close to the neck between
the Ross Sea and the Weddell Sea.

The portion west of the Weddell Sea and east of the Ross Sea is called West Antarctica and
the remainder East Antarctica
Flora: Limited to mosses, lichens, some grasses, and algae, adapted to extreme cold and long
periods of darkness.

Fauna:
Marine: Includes krill (a key species in the food web), various fish species with antifreeze
proteins, seals like the Weddell and Leopard seals, and whales such as Blue and Orca.

Birds: Dominated by penguins (Emperor and Adélie), along with seabirds like albatrosses.

Penguin

About Penguin
Penguins

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• Penguins are a group of aquatic flightless birds.
• They live almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere - only one species, the
Galápagos penguin, is found north of the Equator
• They are highly adapted for life in the water: countershaded dark and white colours,
flippers for swimming, spiny tongue and powerful jaws to grip slippery prey.
• largest living species: The Emperor Penguin smallest living species: The Little Blue
Penguin
(or fairy penguin)
Emperor Penguin
• In news - According to a recent study, Antarctica’s Emperor Penguins may go extinct by
2100
• Around 10,000 Penguin Chicks Drowned Or Froze To Death Due To Ice Breakup In
Antarctic

About:
• Emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri) is the largest and heaviest of all living penguin
species

• It is endemic to Antarctica
• IUCN Status: Near threatened.
• Its diet consists primarily of fish, krill, squid, etc
• Height: Standing tall at approximately 120cm
• Weight: up to 40 kg. Females are generally 18 kg lighter than their male counterparts.

King Penguin
In news: They survived the hunters: Now king penguins face climate change

Characteristics
• Size: As the second-largest penguin species.

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• Habitat: King Penguins predominantly reside on Antarctic and sub- Antarctic islands.
• Conservation Status: IUCN "Least Concern".

Dakshin Gangotri:
− Dakshin Gangotri was the first Indian scientific research base station established in
Antarctica, as a part of the Indian Antarctic Program. It has weakened and become just a
supply base.

Maitri
− Maitri is India’s second permanent research station in Antarctica. It was built and
finished in 1989.
− Maitri is situated on the rocky mountainous region called Schirmacher Oasis. India also
built a freshwater lake around Maitri known as Lake Priyadarshini.

Bharti:
− Bharti, India’s latest research station operation since 2012. It has been constructed to
help researchers work in safety despite the harsh weather.
− It is India’s first committed research facility and is located about 3000 km east of Maitri.

Sagar Kanya - Research vessel to Antarctica

• Research Vessel (Ships) is an important tool for ocean research and the development of
ocean technology.

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• The Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) has at present has 6 ships namely Sagar Nidhi, Sagar
Manjusha, Sagar Kanya, Sagar Sampada, Sagar Tara and Sagar Anveshika.

National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR):

• It is India’s premier R&D institution responsible for the country’s research activities in
the Polar and Southern Ocean realms.
• NCPOR is an autonomous institute under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.

Global Common
International law identifies four global commons
− High Seas
− Atmosphere
− Antarctica
− Outer Space

• Global Commons: No one state can impose its sole authority over it. It is for common use
for all.
− High Sea: Region of water beyond 200nautical miles
− Space: 100 km beyond mean sea level aka karman Line
− Atmosphere
− Antarctica: The are of land and ice shelves south of 60* latitude

Antarctic Treaty
• The Antarctic Treaty was signed between 12 countries in Washington on 1st December
1959 for making the Antarctic Continent a demilitarized zone to be preserved for scientific
•research only.
The twelve original signatories are Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan,
New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the UK and
the US.
•
India became a member of this treaty in 1983.
•It was signed by 56 members.
•Antarctica is defined as all of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude.
• According to this treaty Antarctica is part of global common and not to any specific country.

Provisions of the treaty:

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a) Promoting the freedom of scientific research.
b) Countries can use the continent only for peaceful purposes.
c) Prohibition of military activities, nuclear tests and the disposal of radioactive waste.

HQ: The Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty is located in downtown Buenos Aires, Argentina.

Madrid Protocol
− The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, also known as the
Madrid Protocol, is a complementary legal instrument to the Antarctic Treaty signed in
−Madrid on October 4, 1991.
It entered into force on January 14, 1998.
−
The Madrid Protocol designates Antarctica as a “natural reserve, devoted to peace and
−science” (Art. 2).
It complements and reinforces the Antarctic Treaty in order to increase the protection of
the Antarctic environment and dependent and associated ecosystems.

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Q. Consider the following statements about India's research programmes in the continent
of Antarctica:
1. Bharti is the latest operational research station after Maitri.
2. The India Antarctic Program is under the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research,
which operates under the Ministry of Science and Technology.
Which of the above statements are correct?
a) 1 only
b) 2 only
c) Both 1 and 2
d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Nordic
- Norway
- Swedwn
- Denmark
- Island
- Finland

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Nordic Council
• It is an official body which facilitates inter-parliamentary cooperation between the Nordic
nations of Sweden. Denmark, Finland, Norway and Iceland as well as from the
• autonomous areas of the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and the Åland Islands.
Headquarters is located in Copenhagen, Denmark
•
It seeks "to provide a forum for consultation among the legislatures and governments of
the member-states on matters of common interest".

IC
2018 1st Summit= Stockholm
2022 2nd Summit= Copenhagen

IndARC
• IndARC is India's first underwater moored observatory in the Arctic region.
• It was deployed in 2014 at Kongsfjorden fjord, Svalbard, Norway which is midway
between Norway and the North Pole.
• Its research goal is to study the Arctic climate and its influence on the monsoon

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Svalbard Global Seed Vault
referred to as the earth's 'doomsday vault

It is a facility located on a remote island in the Arctic Ocean

The vault in the island of Spitsbergen, midway between Norway and the North Pole

It houses the world's largest collection of seeds

- BNHS
- Forest dept.
- A ‘seed bank’ which collects and stores seeds of species of plant t

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India's seed vault?
There is a storage facility with over 5,000 seed accessions at Chang La in the Himalayas, at a
height of 17.300 feet

The vault is a joint venture of the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (which comes
under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research) and the Defence Institute of High Altitude
Research (under Defence Research and Development Organisation)

Scandinavian Countries
- Nowday
- Sweden
- Denmart

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Baltic Sea
• The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean.
• It is enclosed by Following countries- Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia,
Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden.
• The Baltic Sea is connected by artificial waterways to the White Sea via the White Sea-
Baltic Canal and to the German Bight of the North Sea via the Kiel Canal.

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Council of the Baltic Sea States (CBSS)
• It is a regional intergovernmental organisation.
• The CBSS has 10 member states as well as the EU.
• Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, Poland,
• Sweden Russia was suspended in March 2022 and withdrew in May 2022
• Headquarters: Stockholm, Sweden

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Minister of State for Ports, Shipping and Waterways and the Vice Minister in the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Lithuania met in New Delhi.
Both the ministers discussed the unique advantage of the Klaipėda port, being ice-free
throughout the year.

Klaipėda port
• The Port of Klaipeda is the leading Baltic port for container transshipment.
• It has the shortest land distances to the most important industrial regions of the East.
• The main shipping lines to various European ports pass through Klaipeda.
• The port is served by two railway stations and a highway which together link Klaipėda to
Kaunas, Vilnius and cities in the nearby countries, such as Minsk, Kyiv and Moscow.

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Baltic States Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania
• The Baltic states or the Baltic countries is a geopolitical term encompassing Estonia,
Latvia, and Lithuania.
• All three countries are members of NATO, the European Union, the Eurozone, and the
OECD.
• The three governments engage in intergovernmental and parliamentary cooperation.

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On April 4, 2023, Finland joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), becoming its
31st member.
The two Nordic states of Finland and Sweden have long maintained military neutrality, but
that changed in February 2022 when Russia launched its full-scale invasion of Ukraine.
Finland and Sweden applied to join NATO on 18 May 2022.

Turkey and Hungary are the only NATO members yet to ratify Sweden's bid.

NATO
− The North Atlantic Treaty Organization also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an
intergovernmental military alliance
−Members 28 European countries, 2 North American countries. and I Eurasian country.
−Its headquarters is located in Brussels, Belgium.
− NATO is committed to the principle that an attack against one or several of its members is
16 considered as an attack against all.

Collective Security Treaty Organization

An intergovernmental military alliance in Eurasia consisting of six post-Soviet states:
Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, and Tajikistan.

Similar to Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty. Article 4 of the Collective Security Treaty

(CST)
establishes that an aggression against one signatory would be perceived as an aggression
against all.

Headquarters: Moscow, Russia

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Q. Consider the following pairs conflict provinces/regions and affected countries:
Region/Province : : Country
1. Saada : : Yemen
2. Pashtunistan : : Turkey
3. Kurdistan : : Iran
4. Shan : : Myanmar
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
a) Only one
b) Only two
c) Only Three
d) All four

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The "Axis of Resistance" is an informal political and military coalition led by the Iranian
government. It primarily includes the Syrian Arab Republic, Lebanese Shia militant group
Hezbollah, and various militant groups in Palestine.

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Houthis
The Houthi is a predominately Zaidi Shia force, whose leadership is drawn largely from the
Houthi tribe.

The group emerged as an opposition to former Yemeni president Ali Abdullah Saleh. They
accused
United him of corruption and criticized him for being backed by Saudi Arabia and the
States.

The Houthis aim to govern all of Yemen, and external anti-imperialist movements against

the
United States, Israel, and Saudi Arabia.
The conflict is widely seen as a proxy war between Saudi Arabia and Iran.

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Origins of the War: The conflict began with a popular uprising in 2011 that forced President
Ali Abdullah Saleh to hand over power to his deputy, Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi. Hadi
struggled with economic and security problems, leading to the Houthi group seizing control
of Saada province and later the capital, Sana'a, in 2014.

Saudi-led Coalition Intervention: In March 2015, alarmed by the Houthi takeover, Saudi
Arabia and other Arab states began an air campaign to oust the Houthis and restore Hadi's
government, with support from the US, UK, and France.

Continued Conflict: Despite initial successes, the coalition could not dislodge the Houthis
from Sana'a or northern Yemen. The official government is now based in Aden, while Hadi
remains in Saudi Arabia.

Shifts in Alliances: The Houthis initially allied with former president Saleh, but after a fallout
in December 2017, Saleh was killed, and his loyalists joined the Saudi-led coalition.
Presidential Leadership Council

Southern Transitional Council (STC)

Objectives: The primary objective of the STC is to advocate for the independence of South
Yemen. They seek to re-establish South Yemen as a separate entity from the north,
reflecting a broader southern separatist movement that has existed since the unification
of Yemen.

Sunni Islam: The majority sect in Islam, Sunnis constitute about 85-90% of the global

Muslim
population. Sunni Islam is characterized by a diverse range of beliefs and practices but
generally follows the Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki, and Hanbali schools of jurisprudence.

Shia Islam: Shia Muslims make up about 10-15% of all Muslims. Shia Islam is primarily

divided
into three branches: Twelvers (Ithna Ashariyyah), Ismailis, and Zaidis. The largest group
among Shia is the Twelvers.

Sunnis believe the first four caliphs were rightful leaders; leadership should be elected or
chosen by consensus.
Shias believe leadership should have remained within Prophet Muhammad’s family,
recognizing Ali (Prophet's cousin and son-in-law) as the first Imam

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Alawite Islam:
A branch of Shia Islam, primarily found in Syria. Alawites follow a unique interpretation of
Islam, which incorporates elements of Christianity, and other philosophies.

Countries with Sunni Majorities: Most Muslim-majority countries are Sunni-dominated. This
includes nations like Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Turkey, Indonesia, Pakistan, and Bangladesh.

Countries with Shia Majorities or Significant Populations:

Iran: The largest Shia-majority country, with about 90-95% of its Muslim population
adhering to Twelver Shia Islam.

Iraq: A significant Shia majority, with approximately 60-65% of the Muslim population being
Shia.
Bahrain: Shia Muslims constitute around 70% of the Muslim population.

Azerbaijan: Majority Shia, but exact percentages vary in different sources.

Lebanon: Shia Muslims, primarily Twelvers, make up a significant portion of the population,
though Lebanon is religiously diverse.
Yemen: Zaidi Shias (a branch of Shia Islam) form a significant part of the population.

Syria:
Sunni Majority: Sunni Muslims constitute the majority in Syria, making up about 74% of the
population.

Shia Minority: This includes several groups, most notably the Alawites, who are a significant
minority. Alawites, a Shia sect, have played a prominent role in Syria's political landscape,
including the leadership of President Bashar al-Assad. Other Shia groups are smaller in
number.
Iran's support for Hamas, despite being a Shia-dominated country supporting a Sunni
organization, is primarily based on geopolitical and strategic considerations.
Shared Opposition to Israel: Both Iran and Hamas oppose Israel's policies and existence.

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Strategic Influence: Supporting Hamas extends Iran's influence in the Middle East.

Beyond Sectarian Lines: The alliance is based on political goals, not religious sect.

Regional Power Play: Iran uses proxies like Hamas to counter rivals like Saudi Arabia.

Islamic Solidarity: Iran positions itself as a defender of Muslim causes, including the
Palestinian struggle.

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Bordering Countries:
Surrounded by Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Sudan, Eritrea, and Djibouti.

Connections:
South: Linked to the Indian Ocean through the Bab el Mandeb Strait and the Gulf of Aden.

North: Bordered by the Sinai Peninsula, Gulf of Aqaba, and Gulf of Suez, leading to the Suez
Canal.

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Geographical Location:
− Located in northeastern Egypt. Spans 193 kilometers (120 miles) from Port Said in the
north to Suez in the south.
− Separates the African continent from the Sinai Peninsula.

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Importance for International Trade:
− Handles 12% of world trade, 7% of the world’s oil, and 30% of container ships daily.
− No locks, capable of handling large vessels including aircraft carriers.
− Reduces transportation costs and time, making trade more efficient.

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Cape Agulhas: The southernmost point of the African continent and the beginning of the
dividing line between the Atlantic and Indian Oceans.

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Panama Canal:
Location: Connects the Atlantic Ocean (via the Caribbean Sea) to the Pacific Ocean in
Panama.

Construction and Opening: Built by the United States, opened in 1914.

Purpose: Significantly reduces travel time between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, avoiding
the Cape Horn route.

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Control: Originally under U.S. control, transferred to Panama in 1999. Structure: Features a
system of locks (Miraflores, Pedro Miguel, and Gatun) and an artificial lake (Gatun Lake) for
ship navigation.

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Darién Gap
• Geographic region in the Isthmus of Darién or Isthmus of Panama connecting the
American continents within Central America.
• The "Gap" interrupts the Pan-American Highway (world's longest "motorable road",
linking almost all coastal countries of Americas).
• Consists of a large watershed, forest, and mountains
• An isthmus is a narrow strip of land that connects two larger landmasses and separates
two bodies of water. Eg: Isthmus of Suez, Kra Isthmus

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Strait of Malacca:
Geographic Location:
It is a narrow stretch of water between the Malay Peninsula (Peninsular Malaysia) and the
Indonesian island of Sumatra.
Connects the Andaman Sea (and thereby the Indian Ocean) to the South China Sea (and
thereby the Pacific Ocean).
Bordering Countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand

Bordering Bodies of Water: Andaman Sea, Singapore Strait, South China Sea

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Hezbollah
Backed by Iran, the Shi'ite group has risen from a shadowy faction established during
Lebanon's 1975-90 civil war to a heavily armed force with big sway over the Lebanese state.

Iran's Revolutionary Guards founded Hezbollah in 1982 to export its Islamic Revolution and
fight Israeli forces that had invaded Lebanon.
Sharing Tehran's Shi'ite Islamist ideology, Hezbollah recruited among Lebanese Shi'ite
Muslims.
Hezbollah kept its weapons at the end of the civil war to fight Israeli forces occupying the
predominantly Shi'ite south.

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Kurds
Iranian ethnic group native to the mountainous region of Kurdistan in Western Asia.

Recent history of the Kurds includes numerous genocides and rebellions, along with ongoing
armed conflicts in Turkish, Iranian, Syrian, and Iraqi Kurdistan.
Kurds in Iraq and Syria have autonomous regions, while Kurdish movements continue to
pursue greater cultural rights, autonomy, and independence throughout Kurdistan.

Kurdish nationalism stirred in the 1890s when the Ottoman Empire was on its last legs.

The 1920 Treaty of Sevres promised Kurds independence. Three years later. Turkish leader
Kemal Ataturk tore up that accord.
The Treaty of Lausanne, ratified in 1924, divided the Kurds among the new nations of the
Middle East.

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Ethnic Composition: The Kurds are a large ethnic group.

Religious Affiliation: They are predominantly Muslim.

Language: Kurdish, their language, is related to Farsi.

Geographical Distribution: They primarily inhabit a mountainous region at the juncture of

several countries: Armenia, Iraq, Iran, Syria, and Turkey.
Sunni Muslims: The majority of Kurds practice Sunni Islam, particularly adhering to the Shafi'i
school, one of the four major schools of Sunni Islamic legal reasoning.
Shia Muslims: There is a notable minority of Shia Muslims among the Kurds, especially in
areas of Iran and Iraq

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Pashtunistan is a historical region located on the Iranian Plateau.

The Pashtun movement have been fighting for the creation of an independent state of
Pashtunistan to include all Pashtuns from either side of the Durand Line, and greater political
autonomy and independence within the state of Pakistan.

The Pashtuns practice Pashtunwali, the indigenous culture of the Pashtuns, and this pre-
Islamic identity remains significant for many Pashtuns and is one of the factors that have kept
the Pashtunistan issue alive.

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Against the governments of Pakistan and Iran in the Balochistan region.

Rich in natural resources like natural gas, oil, coal, copper, sulphur, fluoride and gold, this is
the largest, least populated and least developed province in Pakistan.
Armed groups demand greater control of the province's natural resources and political
autonomy.
Baloch separatists argue they are economically marginalised and poor compared to the rest
of Pakistan.

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Turkistan Islamic Party
Uyghur Islamic extremist organization founded in Pakistan

Its stated goals are to establish an Islamic state in Xinjiang and Central Asia, and eventually a
caliphate.
Uyghurs are a Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general
region of Central and East Asia.
The Uyghurs are recognized as the titular nationality of the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous
Region in Northwest China.

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Republic of Cabinda
It was an independent protectorate of Portugal that was taken over by Angola after
Portugal declared Angola a free country.

currently an unrecognized state which Angola considers its Cabinda Province.

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Mapuche conflict
involves indigenous Mapuche communities, also known as the Araucanians located in
Araucanía and nearby regions of Chile and Argentina

conflict between the Mapuche and the Chilean government and a variety of other actors

Mapuche activists demand greater autonomy, recognition of rights, and the return of
historical lands.

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Ambazonia
a political entity proclaimed by Anglophone separatists who are seeking independence from
Cameroon.

Since 2017, Ambazonian rebels are in an armed conflict with the Cameroonian military, in
what is known as the Anglophone Crisis.
No country has recognized Ambazonia's existence as of 2023.

Cameroon is dominated by Francophones

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Oromo Liberation Front
to promote self-determination for the Oromo people inhabiting today's Oromia Region and
Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region of Ethiopia.
The OLF has offices in Addis Ababa, Washington, D.C. and Berlin from where it operates
Amharic and Oromo radio stations.

Tigray War
The Tigray War was an armed conflict that lasted from 3 November 2020 to 3 November 2022,
between forces allied to the Ethiopian federal government and Eritrea on one side, and the
Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) on the other.

Tigray is homeland of the Tigrayan, Irob, and Kunama people.

The Tigray People's Liberation Front is a left-wing ethnic nationalist, paramilitary group and
the former ruling party of Ethiopia.

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Casamance conflict
ongoing low-level conflict that has been waged between the Government of Senegal and the
Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance (MFDC) since 1982.
MFDC has called for the independence of the Casamance region, whose population is
religiously and ethnically distinct from the rest of Senegal.
principal inhabitants of the region are members of the Jola (Djiola, Diola) ethnic group.

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War in Sudan
A war between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the paramilitary Rapid Support Forces
(RSF), rival factions of the military government of Sudan, began on 15 April 2023, with the
fighting concentrated around the capital city of Khartoum and the Darfur region.
By the turn of the 21st century, Sudan's western Darfur region had endured prolonged
instability and social strife due to a combination of racial and ethnic tensions and disputes
over land and water.

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Q. Consider the following pairs of disputed territories and the states claiming them:
Disputed region : : States involved
1. Abyei : : Sudan and South Sudan
2. Essequibo : : Venezuela and Guyana
3. Kinmen Island : : Japan and Russia
4. Balochistan : : Iran and Pakistan
How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
a) Only one
b) Only two
c) Only Three
d) All four

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Abyei Area
Location: Situated on the border between South Sudan and Sudan.

Size: Covers an area of 10,546 square kilometers (4,072 square miles).

Special Administrative Status: Accorded by the 2004 Protocol on the Resolution of the
Abyei Conflict (Abyei Protocol).
Part of the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA): The Abyei Protocol is included in the
CPA that ended the Second Sudanese Civil War.

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UN Peace keeping
Origin and Purpose: Established in 1948, UN Peacekeeping was created to help countries
torn by conflict create conditions for lasting peace. They are often deployed to conflict
areas to maintain ceasefires and stabilize post-conflict situations.

Principles: UN Peacekeeping operates on three core principles:

 Consent of the parties involved.
 Non-use of force except in self-defense and defense of the mandate.
 Impartiality in dealing with all parties
Composition: Peacekeepers (often referred to as 'Blue Helmets') are contributed by
member states. They include military personnel, police officers, and civilian personnel.
Funding: The operations are funded through assessments on UN member states, separate
from the main UN budget.
Indian personnel have made significant contributions, with 6,097 currently in service,
ranking third after Bangladesh (7,237) and Nepal (6,264).
There are currently 12 UN peacekeeping operations deployed on three continents.

White Helmets
The Syria Civil Defence, better known as the White Helmets, consists of about 3,000
volunteer first responders who "come from all walks of life," including bakers, tailors,
pharmacists, firefighters and engineers,

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Socotra archipelago
 Composed of four small Yemeni islands
 The archipelago is listed as a Unesco World Heritage site to protect what is considered
one of the world’s most biodiverse and distinctive islands.
 UAE is looking at Socotra ever since the civil war in Yemen erupted in September 2014
because of its strategic location between the navigable waterways of the Gulf, Africa
and Asia.
 Somalia, while not formally claiming the archipelago, asked for the United Nations to
look into "the status" of the Socotran archipelago (i.e. whether or not it "should" belong
to Yemen or rather Somalia).

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Essequibo region
 The people of Venezuela voted in a referendum if they agreed that Essequibo region
belongs to Venezuela.
 The bone of contention lies in the densely forested Essequibo region of Guyana, which
Venezuela claims as its territory.
 Essequibo region accounts for almost two-thirds of Guyana's territory and its boundaries
were set by a ruling of the international tribunal in 1,899, as a British colony.
 Venezuela has rejected the ruling and claimed the Essequibo region as part of its own
territory.

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Kinmen island
 Kinmen, which lies 200 kilometres from Taiwan but only seven kilometre from China,
was a battlefield front line for the nationalists who fled to Taiwan in 1949, and the
 target of frequent bombardments up until 1979.
China’s bombardments of Kinmen only stopped in 1979 when the U.S. switched
diplomatic recognition from Taiwan to Beijing.

China has long claimed Taiwan as part of its territory, with President Xi Jinping — who
has never ruled out the use of force to bring it under Beijing’s control — describing
“unification” as “inevitable”.

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 Argentina’s new President Javier Milei has reopened the debate on the disputed Islas
Malvinas (Malvinas Islands) with the United Kingdom (UK), reigniting memories of the
74-day bitterly fought Falklands War, as the islands are called in England.

The islands are officially classified as British Overseas Territory (BOT), the Falklands have
internal self-governance, but the United Kingdom takes responsibility for their defence
and foreign affairs.

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 The Falklands (or Islas Malvinas) archipelago, 600 kilometers from the Patagonian coast,
erupted in a war after the military Junta – then headed by General Leopoldo Fortunato
Galtieri – tried to retake the British-controlled islands by force.

Eventually ending in a British victory, the war also saw significant losses for Great Britain.

Balochistan
On January 16, Iran carried out a surprise attack in Panjgur, a border town in neighbouring
Pakistan’s Balochistan, targeting what it called the training camps of Jaish al-Adl, which
had taken responsibility for the December 15 attack in Rask.

Jaish al-Adl, a Sunni Islamist group, seeks to separate Iran’s eastern province of Sistan-
Baluchistan, which is mostly Sunni, from the rest of the country, which is ruled by the Shia
clergy.

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Erbil, the capital of Iraq’s Kurdistan Iraq is a de facto Iranian ally, but the Iraqi Kurdistan, a
close partner of the U.S., is an autonomous region.
Syria’s Idlib
On the same day, Iran launched at least four ballistic missiles into
Syria’s Idlib, the northwestern region controlled by jihadists and
Rebels

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Kuril islands
Dispute between Russia Japan over sovereignty over Kuril Islands.
 Japan demands sovereignty over southern Kuril Islands (Etorufu, Kunashiri, Shikotan,
Habomai)
 Stretches between Japand Hokkaido island and Russia's Kamchutka peninsula,
separating north Pacific ocean from okhotsk sea.
 Kuril island chain is part of Pacific Ring of Fire (Perimeter of high seismicity and
Volcanism).
 Significance: Fishing potential, natural oil and gas reserve, strategic for missile
deployment, cultural importance for japan.

Modern Japan has no plans of using military force to resolve the dispute. Still, there are
those who hope that Vladimir Putin’s regime might weaken enough that changes could be
made possible with

diplomatic and economic incentives. But even if the Ukraine conflict escalates to the point
that it actually jeopardises the Kremlin’s hold on the remote region, Russia’s ally China
might have plans of its own.

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