Food Pacakging Lesson Plan Detailed-1

Seva Sanskar Sanstha's
SHRAMSHAKTI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL

ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, MALDAD
Tal. Sangamner, Dist. Ahmednagar 422 605 (M.S.)
Affiliated to
MAHATMA PHULE KRISHI VIDYAPEETH, RAHURI
(M.S.)
B.Tech. Agril. Engg.
LESSON PLAN
COURSE NO: ELE PFE-483
Course Title: FOOD PACKAGING
Course Credits: 3 (2+1)
SEMESTER VIII (New)
Course Teacher: Prof. P. K. Ambre
Department of Process and Food Engineering
2021
Prof. P. K. Ambre (Assistant Professor), Deptt. of Process and Food Engineering/APE, SCAET, Maldad
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Course No : ELE PFE 483 Course Title : Food Packaging
Semester : : VIII (New) Credits : : 3 (2+1)
Teaching Schedule
a) Lesson Plan- Theory
Lect. Title Book Chapter Page Weightage

(%)
No. No. /ArticleNo. No.
1. Introduction, 7 1 5-6
Definition and Functions of packaging 3 1.5 8-9
2–4 Factors affecting shelf life of food 7 4 15-16

material during storage,
Interactions of spoilage agents with 1 24.1 466 -
environmental factors as water, 474
oxygen, light, pH, etc. and general
principles of control of the spoilage
agents;
5–6 Packaging of foods, requirement, 3 1.3 & 1.4 4-8
importance and scope,
10
frame work of packaging strategy, 3 1.6 9
Environmental considerations, 1 24.5 502-

503
7–8 Packaging systems, types: flexible and 3 7.1 174-

rigid; retail and bulk; 178
10
Levels of packaging; 7 3 10
9 – Different types of packaging materials, 1 24.2 474

10
their key properties and applications, 3 1.7.1.3 16-17
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(%)
11. Metal cans, manufacture of two piece 1 24.2.2 474 -

and three piece cans, 477
12 – Plastic packaging, different types of 1 24.2.4 481-

13 polymers used in food packaging and 483
their barrier properties.
Manufacture of plastic packaging
materials, profile extrusion, blown 1 24.2.5
film/ sheet extrusion, blow molding, 487-
extrusion blow molding, injection 490
blow molding, stretch blow molding,
injection molding.
14 - Glass containers, types of glass used in 1 24.2.3 478-
15 food packaging, manufacture of glass 481
and glass containers, closures for glass
containers.
16 - Paper and paper board packaging, 1 24.2.6 490-
17 paper and paper board manufacture 494
process, modification of barrier
properties and characteristics of paper/
boards.
Lamination, 1 484-
485 40
18. Effect of these materials on packed 1 24.4 501
commodities.
19 - Printing and labelling, Nutritional 1 24.3 498-
20. labelling on packages, 499
21 - MAP, 7 7 22-24
22
23. Shrink packaging, 2 615-

620
24. Vacuum packaging; 2 593- 15

594
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(%)
25. Active packaging and Smart 1 24.2.8 497-

packaging, 498
3 9.1 282-
284
26. Packaging requirement for raw and 1 463-

processed foods, and their selection of 465
packaging materials,
27. Factors affecting the choice of 3 7.10 222-
packaging materials, 224
28. Disposal and recycle of packaging 3 1.7.1.6 26-28 10

waste,
29. Package testing: Testing methods for 7 31 105

flexible materials, rigid materials and
semi rigid materials;
30. Tests for paper (thickness, bursting 4 8.2.2 -
strength, breaking length, stiffness,
tear resistance, folding endurance, ply
bond test, surface oil absorption test,
etc.),
31. Tests for Plastic film and laminates 4 8.2.2 -

(thickness, tensile strength, gloss,
haze, burning test to identify polymer,
etc.),
15
Tests for aluminium foil (thickness,
pin holes, etc.),
32. Tests for Glass containers (visual 7 32 106-

defects, colour, dimensions, impact 107
strength, etc.),
Tests for metal containers (pressure

test, product compatibility, etc.)
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b) Practical Exercises
No. Title
Identification of different types of packaging materials
1
Determination of tensile/ compressive strength of given material/package
2
To perform different destructive and non-destructive tests for glass containers
3
Vacuum packaging of agricultural produces
4
Determination of tearing strength of paper board
5
Measurement of thickness of packaging materials
6
7 To perform grease-resistance test in plastic pouches
8 Determination of bursting strength of packaging material
9 Determination of water-vapour transmission rate
10 Shrink wrapping of various horticultural produce
11 Testing of chemical resistance of packaging materials
12 Determination of drop test of food package
13 Experiment on bottling of fruit products
14 Aseptic packaging
15 Modified atmospheric packaging
16 Visit to packaging industries
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Suggested readings
Text Books
Book Title Author Publisher Year
No.
1. Food Processing P. Fellow Wood head Publishing 2000

Technology-Principle and Ltd. Cambridge
Practices. Second Edition
2. Modern Food Packaging Compiled by Indian Institute of 1998

Packaging, E-2, MIDC,
Mrs. M. C. Indl. Area, Andheri (E),
Dordi Mumbai400 0093
3. Food Packaging Edited by Blackwell Publishing 2003

Technology, Coles R., D. Ltd, CRC Press USA
McDowell and
M.J. Kirwan,
4. Handbook of Food Edited by CRC Press Boca Raton 2003

Engineering Practice, New York
E. Rotstein,
R. P. Singh, &
K. J. Valentas
5 Handbook of food Frank Albert

packaging Paire.
6 Packaging of food A. P. Vaidya Indian Institute of

products Packaging, E-2, MIDC,
Indl. Area, Andheri (E),
Mumbai 400 093
7. Food Packaging – Study KaleemullahS. Department of Food

Material (e Engineering, College of
- Lecture Notes) Food Science &
Technology, (ANGRAU)
Pulivendula
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LECTURE NO. 1
Topics: Introduction, Defination and Functions of packaging
INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PACKAGING
 In today's society, packaging is pervasive and essential. It surrounds, enhances

and protects the goods we buy, from processing and manufacturing, through
handling and storage, to the final consumer.
 Without packaging, materials handling would be a messy, inefficient and costly

exercise and modem consumer marketing would be virtually impossible.
 The packaging sector represents about 2% of Gross National Product (GNP) in

developed countries and about half of all packaging is used to package food.
 Developments in Indian packaging:
1.Metal cans and glass bottles have lost large markets to rigid and flexible plastics and
printed monocartons.
2.Flexible packaging has replaced all forms of rigid packaging. The flexible packaging
segment has seen many new innovations. The concept of the single use unit pack is now
globally acknowledged as a marketing first.
3.Laminate tube has almost entirely replaced the aluminium collapsible tube for
toothpaste packaging, now making inroads into the pharmaceutical sector.
4.PET bottles & Jars have made a spectacular entry into the Indian market, recording
annual growth rates in excess of 20% per annum; in its wake, the demand for a whole
new range of plastic closures has also emerged replacing metal closures.
5.PET bottles are used for mineral water, edible oil, carbonated soft drinks and ahost of
other products.
DEFINITION OF PACKAGING:
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 Packaging has been defined as a socio scientific discipline which operates in
society to ensure delivery of goods to the ultimate consumer of those goods in the
best condition intended for their use.
 The Packaging Institute International (PII) defines packaging as the enclosure of

products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube,
bottle or other container form to perform one or more of the following functions:
containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance. If
the device or container performs one or more of these functions, it is considered a
package.
 Package, Packaging, Packing:
 It is important to distinguish between the words "package," "packaging" and

"packing”.
 The package is the physical entity that contains the product.
 Packaging was defined above and in addition, is also a discipline.
 The verb "packing" can be defined as the enclosing of an individual item (or
several items) in a package or container.
 Definitions and basic functions of packaging

There are many ways of defining packaging reflecting different emphases.
 For example:
 A means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound condition at

optimum cost.
 A coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution,storage,

retailing and end-use.
 A techno-commercial function aimed at optimising the costs of delivery while

maximising sales (and hence profits).
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 However, the basic functions of packaging are more specifically stated:
 Containment: depends on the product’s physical form and nature. For example, a
hygroscopic free-flowing powder or a viscous and acidic tomato concentrate
 Protection: prevention of mechanical damage due to the hazards of distribution
 Preservation: prevention or inhibition of chemical changes, biochemical changes

and microbiological spoilage
 Information about the product: legal requirements, product ingredients, use etc.
 Convenience: for the pack handlers and user(s) throughout the packaging chain
 Presentation: material type, shape, size, colour, merchandising display units etc.
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 Brand communication: e.g. pack persona by the use of typography, symbols,
illustrations, advertising and colour, thereby creating visual impact
 Promotion (Selling): free extra product, new product, money off etc.
 Economy: for example, efficiency in distribution, production and storage
 Environmental responsibility: in manufacture, use, reuse, or recycling and final

disposal.
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LECTURE NO. 2-4
TOPICS: Factors affecting shelf life of food material during storage, Interactions of
spoilage agents with environmental factors as water, oxygen, light, pH, etc. and
general principles of control of the spoilage agents.
Factors affecting shelf life of food material during storage:
 Shelf life is the length of time that foods, beverages, and many other perishable
items are given before they are considered unsuitable for sale, use, or
consumption.
 It is the time between the production and packaging of a product and the point at
which the product first becomes unacceptable under defined environmental
conditions.
 It is a function of the product, package and the environment through which the
product is transported, stored and sold.
 The main factors that cause deterioration of foods during storage are:
 climatic influences that cause physical or chemical changes (UV light,

moisture vapour, oxygen, temperature changes)
 contamination (by micro-organisms, insects or soils)
 mechanical forces (damage caused by impact, vibration, compression or

abrasion)
 pilferage, tampering or adulteration
 Packaging provides a barrier between the food and the environment.
 It controls light transmission, the rate of transfer of heat, moisture and gases, and
movement of micro organisms or insects.
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Interactions of spoilage agents with environmental factors as water, oxygen, light,
pH, etc. and general principles of control of the spoilage agents:
1. Light
 Light transmission is required in packages that are intended to display the

contents, but is restricted when foods are susceptible to deterioration by light (for
example by oxidation of lipids, destruction of riboflavin and natural pigments).
2. Heat
 The insulating effect of a package is determined by its thermal conductivity and

its reflectivity.
 Materials which have a low thermal conductivity (for example paperboard,

polystyrene or polyurethane) reduce conductive heat transfer, and reflective
materials (for example aluminium foil) reflect radiant heat.
 However, control over the temperature of storage is more important than reliance
on the packaging to protect foods from heat.
 In applications where the package is heated (e.g. in-container sterilisation or

microwaveable ready meals), the packaging material must be able to withstand
the processing conditions without damage and without interaction with the food.
3. Moisture and gases
 Moisture loss or uptake is one of the most important factors that controls the
shelf life of foods.
 There is a micro-climate within a package, which is determined by the vapour

pressure of moisture in the food at the temperature of storage and the permeability
of the packaging.
 Control of moisture exchange is necessary to prevent microbiological or enzymic

spoilage, drying out or softening of the food, condensation on the inside of
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packages and resulting mould growth (for example in fresh vegetables and bread),
or to prevent freezer burn in frozen foods.
 The effect of changes in moisture content is shown by a water sorption isotherm

of the food and this depends on the water vapour transmission rate of the package.
 Foods that have a low equilibrium relative humidity, such as dehydrated foods,
biscuits and snackfoods, require packaging that has a low permeability to
moisture or they will gain moisture from the atmosphere and lose their crispness.
 If the water activity rises above a level that permits microbial growth they will
spoil.
 Similarly, foods that contain appreciable quantities of lipids or other oxygen-

sensitive components are spoiled if the package has an inadequate barrier to
oxygen.
 Conversely, fresh foods that are respiring and have a high equilibrium relative
humidity, require a high degree of permeability to allow exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide with the atmosphere, without excessive loss of moisture that
would cause a loss of weight and shrivelling.
 Chilled foods require controlled movement of water vapour out of the pack to
prevent fogging in display packs when the storage temperature changes, and foods
packaged in modified atmospheres require careful control over both the gas
composition and water vapour movement to achieve the expected shelf life.
 Micro-organisms, insects, animals and soils Metal, glass and polymer packaging
materials are barriers to micro-organisms, but their seals are a potential source of
contamination.
 Packs that are folded, stapled or twist wrapped are not truly sealed.
 The main causes of microbial contamination of adequately processed foods are:
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• contaminated air or water drawn through pinholes in hermetically sealed
containers as the head space vacuum forms
• inadequate heat seals in polymer films caused by contamination of the seal

with product or faulty heat sealer settings poorly sealed lids or caps
• damage such as tears or creases to the packaging material.
5. Mechanical strength
 The suitability of a package to protect foods from mechanical damage depends on

its ability to withstand crushing, caused by stacking in warehouses or vehicles,
abrasion caused by rubbing against equipment or during handling, puncturing or
fracturing caused by impacts during handling or by vibration during transport.
 Some foods (for example fresh fruits, eggs, biscuits, etc.) are easily damaged and
require a higher level of protection from a package, including cushioning using
tissue paper, foamed polymer sheets, or from paperpulp that is formed into shaped
containers for individual pieces (e.g. egg cartons, fruit trays).
 For other foods, protection is provided by a rigid container and/ or restricted

movement by shrink- or stretch-wrapping or by using plastic packages that are
tightly formed around the product .
 Wooden crates and barrels or metal drums have a long history of use as shipping
containers as they provide good mechanical protection.
 These are now being replaced by cheaper composite intermediate bulk containers
(IBCs) made from fibreboard and polypropylene.
 The strength of polymer and paper or board materials can be assessed by

measuring the stress that results from an applied force to give the following (Fig.
24.1):
 the tensile strength
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 • Young's modulus
 • the tensile elongation
 the yield strength the impact strength
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LECTURE NO. 5-6
TOPICS: Packaging of foods, requirement, importance and scope, frame work of

packaging strategy, Environmental considerations,
Packaging of foods, requirement, importance and scope:
Food supply and the protective role of packaging
Packaging for consumer products is an area where supply and demand is

continuously changing due to the development of an international food market and
adaptation to consumer, distribution, legal and technological requirements. Broad
external influences on packaging for fast-moving consumer products may be summarised
as follows:
 technological
 political/legal
 socio-cultural
 demographic
 ecological
 raw material availability
 economic.
The world’s total food production has more than doubled over the past fifty years
due to improved methods in animal husbandry, the use of advanced seed varieties and
crop protection products that boost crop yields and quality. Mass production of
packaged food has been enabled by technological innovations in food production,
processing and logistics with packaging playing a key role.The economies of scale
involved and the intense industrial competition have made many products more
affordable.
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Packaging combined with developments in food science, processing and
preservation techniques, has been applied in a variety of ways to ensure the safety of the
consumer and integrity of the product. The success of both packaging and food
technology in this regard is reflected by the fact that the contents of billions of packs are
being safely consumed every day. In order to help minimise food waste throughout the
supply chain and save cost, an optimum level of packaging is required. Significant food
wastage occurs in many less developed countries – between 30% and 50% of food
produced iswasted due to inadequate means of preservation, protection, storage and
transportation (World Health Organisation). In developed countries, where modern
processing, packaging and distribution systems are commonplace, food wastage before it
reaches the consumer is only 2–3%.
Importance and scope:
The value of food packaging to society has never been greater nor, paradoxically, has
packaging attracted so much adverse media publicity and political attention. In response,
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stakeholders in the food industries need to fully appreciate and actively promote the
positive contributions that their packaging makes to the quality of life. Food packaging is
governed by a mass of laws, regulations, codes of practice and guidelines.
The societal benefits of packaging may include the following:
 prevents or reduces product damage and food spoilage, thereby saving energy and
vital nutrients, and protecting the health of the consumer
 requires less municipal solid waste disposal since it promotes processed food
residue recycling for use as animal feed or compost. For example, from 454 g (1
lb) of fresh corn-on-the-cob purchased at the supermarket, the customer eats
approximately only 170 g (six ounces), and the rest ends
up in the trash can and, ultimately, in the local landfill (Institute of Pack- aging
Professionals, IOPP, USA). This same amount of edible frozen corn can be
packed in a polyethylene bag weighing less than 5 g (less than 0.18 ounce)
 lowers the cost of many foods through economies of scale in mass production
and efficiency in bulk distribution. Savings are also derived from reduced product
damage
 reduces or eliminates the risk of tampering and adulteration
 presents food in an hygienic and often aesthetically attractive way
 communicates important information about the food and helps consumers make
informed purchases
 provides functional convenience in use or preparation, freeing up more time
 promotes goods in a competitive marketplace and increases consumer choice
 facilitates the development of modern retail formats that offer consumers the
convenience of the one-stop shop and the availability of food from around the
world throughout the year
 extends the shelf life with the benefit of prolonged product use, thereby reducing
wastage
 saves energy through the use of ambient packs that do not require refrigeration or
frozen distribution and storage.
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The food industry is aware of current public concerns related to packaging which include:
 packaging litter and the volume of packaging waste in municipal waste

 cost of disposal and recovery of discarded packaging in municipal waste
 pollution associated with methods of disposal, i.e. landfill and incineration
 ease of opening
 perception of over-packaging due to apparently excessive ullage (freespace)
resulting from product settlement
 legibility of labels
 integrity of information on labels
 contamination of food due to the packaging itself
 accidents involving packaging.
Frame work of packaging strategy:
Packaging may also be defined as: a means of safely and cost effectively
delivering products to the consumer in accordance with the marketing strategy of the
organisation.
A packaging strategy is a plan that addresses all aspectsand all activities involved
in delivering the packaged product to the consumer. Packaging strategy should be allied
to clearly defined marketing and manufacturing strategies that are consistent with the
corporate strategy or mission of the business. Key stakeholders in the strategic
development process include management from technical/quality, manufacturing,
procurement, marketing,supply chain, legal and finance functions. Packaging is both
strategically and tactically important in the exercise of themarketing function.
Where brands compete, distinctive or innovative packaging is often a key to the

competitive edge companies seek. In the UK, for example, the development of the
famous widget for canned draught beers opened up marketing opportunities and new
distribution channels for large breweries. The packaging strategy of a food manufacturer
should take into consideration the factors listed in Table 1.1.
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Environmental considerations:
The value of packaging materials to protect foods against losses is illustrated by

levels of food wastage of 2–3% in developed countries, compared to 30–50% in
developing countries where sophisticated packaging, storage and distribution are not
found.
In industrialised countries, 67% of all packaging is used by the food industry and
an average household uses around 200 different packaged items (INCPEN, undated).
There have been a number of developments in both the types of materials used for
packaging and themethods of handling and distribution of packaged foods that have
affected the environmental impact of food packaging.
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LECTURE NO. 7-8
TOPICS: Packaging systems, types: flexible and rigid; retail and bulk; Levels of
packaging
Packaging systems, types: flexible and rigid; retail and bulk:
 Definition and background:
The most recent EU Directive relating to ‘plastic materials and articles intended to
come into contact with foodstuffs’ defines plastics as being: ‘organic macromolecular
compounds obtained by polymerisation, polycondensation, polyaddition or any
similar process from molecules with a lower molecular weight or by chemical
alteration of natural macromolecular compounds’. Plastics are widely used for
packaging materials and in the construction of food processing plant and equipment,
because:
 they are flowable and mouldable under certain conditions, to make sheets, shapes
and structures
 they are generally chemically inert, though not necessarily impermeable
 they are cost effective in meeting market needs
 they are lightweight
 they provide choices in respect of transparency, colour, heat sealing, heat

resistance and barrier.
Referring again to the Directive, molecules with a lower molecular weight

are known as monomers and the macromolecular compounds are known as poly-
mers – a word derived from Greek, meaning many parts. The first plastics were
derived from natural raw materials and, subsequently, in the first half of the 20th
century, from coal, oil and natural gas.
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The most widely used plastic today, polyethylene, was invented in 1933 –
it was used in packaging from the late 1940s onwards in the form of squeeze
bottles, crates for fish replacing wooden boxes and film and extrusion coatings on
paper-board for milk cartons. In Europe, nearly 40% of all plastics is used in the
packaging sector, and packaging is the largest sector of plastics usage
(Association of Plastics Manufacturers in Europe, APME). About 50% of
Europe’s food is packed in plastic packaging (British Plastics Federation, BPF).
Plastics have properties of strength and toughness. For example,

polyethylene terephthalate (PET) film has a mechanical strength similar to that of
iron, but under load the PET film will stretch considerably more than iron before
break-ing. Specific plastics can meet the needs of a wide temperature range, from
deep frozen food processing (−40°C) and storage (−20°C) to the high
temperatures of retort sterilization (121°C), and reheating of packaged food
products by microwave(100°C) and radiant heat (200°C).
Most packaging plastics are thermoplastic, which means that they can be
repeatedly softened and melted when heated. This feature has several important
implications for the use and performance of plastics, as in the forming of
containers, film manufacture and heat sealability. Thermosetting plastics are
materials which can be moulded once by heat and pressure. They cannot be
resoftened, as reheating causes the material to degrade.
Thermosetting plastics such as phenol formaldehyde and urea

formaldehyde are used for threaded closures in cosmetics, toiletries and
pharmaceutical packaging but are not used to any great extent for food packaging.
Plastics are used in the packaging of food because they offer a wide range of
appearance and performance properties which are derived from the inherent
features of the individual plastic material and how it is processed and used.
Plastics are resistant to many types of compound – they are not very reactive with
inorganic chemicals, including acids, alkalis and organic solvents, thus making
them suitable, i.e. inert, for food packaging.
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Plastics do not support the growth of microorganisms. Some plastics may
absorb some food constituents, such as oils and fats, and hence it is important that
a thorough testing is conducted to check all food applications for absorption and
migration. Gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen together with water
vapour and organic solvents permeate through plastics. The rate of permeation
depends on:
• type of plastic
• thickness and surface area
• method of processing
• concentration or partial pressure of the permeant molecule
• storage temperature.
Plastics are chosen for specific technical applications taking the specific
needs, in packing, distribution and storage, and use of the product into
consideration, as well as for marketing reasons, which can include considerations
of environmental perception.
Use of plastics in food packaging:
Plastics are used as containers, container components and flexible

packaging. In usage, by weight, they are the second most widely used type of
packaging and first in terms of value. Examples are as follows:
• rigid plastic containers such as bottles, jars, pots, tubs and trays
• flexible plastic films in the form of bags, sachets, pouches and heat-sealable
flexible lidding materials
• plastics combined with paperboard in liquid packaging cartons
• expanded or foamed plastic for uses where some form of insulation, rigidity and
the ability to withstand compression is required
• plastic lids and caps and the wadding used in such closures
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• diaphragms on plastic and glass jars to provide product protection and tamper
evidence
• plastic bands to provide external tamper evidence
• pouring and dispensing devices
• to collate and group individual packs in multipacks, e.g. Hi-cone rings for cans
of beer, trays for jars of sugar preserves etc.
• plastic films used in cling, stretch and shrink wrapping
• films used as labels for bottles and jars, as flat glued labels or heat-shrinkable
sleeves
• components of coatings, adhesives and inks.
Plastic films may be combined with other plastics by coextrusion, blending,
lamination and coating to achieve properties which the components could not provide
alone. Coextrusion is a process which combines layers of two or more plastics together at
the point of extrusion. Lamination is a process which combines two or more layers of
plastics together with the use of adhesives. Different plastic granules can be blended
together prior to extrusion. Several types of coating process are available to apply plastic
coatings by extrusion, deposition from either solvent or aqueous mixtures or by vacuum
deposition.
Types of plastics used in food packaging:
The following are the types of plastics used in food-packaging
• polyethylene (PE)
• polypropylene (PP)
• polyesters (PET, PEN, PC) (note: PET is referred to as PETE in some

markets)
• ionomers
• ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
• polyamides (PA)
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• polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
• polyvinylidene chloride (PVdC)
• polystyrene (PS)
• styrene butadiene (SB)
• acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
• ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH)
• polymethyl pentene (TPX)
• high nitrile polymers (HNP)
• fluoropolymers (PCTFE/PTFE)
• cellulose-based materials
• polyvinyl acetate (PVA).
Many plastics are better known by their trade names and abbreviations. In the
European packaging market, PE constitutes the highest proportion of consumption, with
about 56% of the market by weight, and four others, PP, PET, PS (including expanded
polystyrene or EPS) and PVC, comprise most of the remaining 46% (source BPF). The
percentages may vary in other markets, but the ranking is similar. The other plastics listed
meet particular niche needs, such as improved barrier, heat sealability, adhesion, strength
or heat resistance. These materials are all thermoplastic polymers.
It is also important to appreciate the fact that plastics are continually being developed,
i.e. modified in the polymerisation process, to enhance specific properties to meet the
needs of the:
 manufacture of the film, sheet, moulded rigid plastic container etc.

 end use of the plastic film, container etc.
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 In the case of food packaging, end use properties relate to performance properties,
such as strength, permeability to gases and water vapour, heat sealability and heat
resistance, and optical properties, such as clarity.
 Additionally, the way the plastic is subsequently processed and converted in the
manufacture of the packaging film, sheet, container etc., will also have an effect
on the properties of that packaging item.
Levels of Packaging:
 A primary package is the one which is in direct contact with the contained
product. It provides the initial, and usually the major protective barrier. Example:
Metal cans, paperboard cartons, glass bottles and plastic pouches, aerosal spray
can, Beverage can, cushioning envelopes, plastic bottles, skin pack.
 A secondary package contains a number of primary packages. It is outside the
primary packaging perhaps used to group primary packages together. It is the
physical distribution carrier and is sometimes designed so that it can be used in
retail
outlets for the display of primary packages. Ex. Corrugated case, Boxes
 A tertiary package is made up of a number of secondary packages. It is used for
bulk handling. Example being a stretch-wrapped pallet of corrugated cases. A
quaternary package is frequently used to facilitate the handling of tertiary
packages. This is generally a metal container up to 40 m in length which can be
transferred to or from ships, trains, and flatbed trucks by giant cranes. Certain
containers are also able to have their temperature, humidity and gas atmosphere
controlled. This is necessary in particular situations such as the transportation of
frozen foods, chilled meats and fresh fruits and vegetables.
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LECTURE NO. 9-20
TOPICS: Different types of packaging materials, their key properties and

applications, Metal cans, manufacture of two piece and three piece cans, Plastic
packaging, different types of polymers used in food packaging and their barrier
properties. Manufacture of plastic packaging materials, profile extrusion, blown
film/ sheet extrusion, blow molding, extrusion blow molding, injection blow
molding, stretch blow molding, injection molding. Glass containers, types of glass
used in food packaging, manufacture of glass and glass containers, closures for glass
containers. Paper and paper board packaging, paper and paper board manufacture
process, modification of barrier properties and characteristics of paper/ boards.
Lamination, Effect of these materials on packed commodities, Printing and labeling,
Nutritional labeling on packages.
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 Three-piece cans
 Three-piece ‘sanitary’ cans, consisting of a can body and two end pieces, are used
to hermetically seal heat-sterilised foods and also to package powders, syrups and
cooking oils.
 They are made from mild steel that is rolled to a strip 1.8 mm thick, and then
dipped into hot dilute sulphuric acid, cold-rolled to 0.15–0.50 mm thick, and then
temper-rolled to give required hardness and surface finish.
 Further cold reduction produces steel with greater stiffness and so thinner sheet
can be used (known as ‘double cold-reduction’ steel).
 Tin is applied by electroplating to a different thickness of tin coatings on each
side of the steel (e.g. 2.8–1.2 g m2 or 0.1–0.3 mm thick).
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 However, this produces a dull surface, due to the porous finish and it is heated
quickly in a bath of hot oil or by electric induction (known as ‘flow brightening’)
to slightly melt the tin and improve surface brightness and resistance to corrosion.
 It is then treated with chromate solution to stabilise the finish.
 The tin may be coated with the following lacquers toprevent interactions with
foods
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 Single films
 Most polymer films are made by extrusion, in which pellets of the polymer are
meltedand extruded under pressure as a sheet or tube.
 Other methods are callandering, where the polymer is passed through heated
rollers until the required thickness is achieved, and casting, in which the extruded
polymer is cooled on chilled rollers.
 The most important types of film for food packaging are described below and a
selection of their properties is shown in Table 24.2.
 Cellulose films are produced by mixing sulphite paper pulp with caustic soda to
dissolve it and it is allowed to ‘ripen’ for 2–3 days to reduce the length of polymer
chains and form sodium cellulose.
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 This is then converted to cellulose xanthate by treatment with carbon disulphide,
ripened for 4–5 days to form ‘viscose’, and then cellulose is regenerated by
extrusion or casting into an acid–salt bath to form cellulose hydrate.
 Glycerol is added as a softener and the film is then dried on heated rollers.
 Higher quantities of softener and longer residence times in the acid–salt bath
produce more flexible and more permeable films.
Plain cellulose is a glossy transparent film which is odourless, tasteless and
biodegradable within approximately 100 days.
 It is tough and puncture resistant, although it tears easily.
 It has low-slip and dead-folding properties and is unaffected by static buildup,
which make it suitable for twist-wrapping.
 However, it is not heat sealable, and the dimensions and permeability of the film
vary with changes in humidity.
 It is used for foods that do not require a complete moisture or gas barrier,
including fresh bread and some types of confectionery (Table 24.2).
 An international code is used to identify the various types of cellulose film (Table
24.5).
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 High impact polystyrene (HIPS) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) are
widely used for thermoformed trays, tubs and cups to contain yoghurt, margarine,
cheeses, spreads, ice cream and desserts.
 In its natural state it is translucent but it can easily be
coloured.
 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) trays, tubs and bottles are made by extrusion- or
injection-stretch blow moulding.
 Food-grade PVC is tough, clear and easy to colour. It
has good oil resistance and low gas permeability and is therefore used in trays for
meat products and chocolates, in tubs for margarine or jams, and in bottles for
edible oils, fruit juices, squashes and concentrates.
 However, it has lower strength than PET and is not used for carbonated beverages
as it cannot withstand the pressure of carbonation.
 It also has a relatively low temperature resistance (65–70ºC). Polypropylene is
currently more expensive than HIPS or PVC and is less widely used for
rigid/semi-rigid containers.
 However, it is resistant to a wider temperature range (deep-freeze temperatures to
120–140ºC) and also provides a good barrier to water vapour and oxygen.
 High-density polyethylene is at present the most common material used for
bottles and jars.
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 It is used for vinegar, milk, syrups and as drums for salt and bulk fruit juices
(Briston, 1987).
 Polypropylene coextrusions, in which ethylene–vinyl alcohol copolymer is a
central barrier material, are used for mustard, mayonnaise, jams, tomato ketchup
and other sauces to give a shelf life of 18 months.
 They are shatterproof, oxygen and moisture resistant, squeezable and suitable for
hot filling
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 Coated papers-
 Many papers are treated with wax by coating, dry waxing (in which wax
penetrates the paper while hot) or wax sizing (in which the wax is added during
the preparation of the pulp).
 Wax provides a moisture barrier and allows the paper to be heat sealed.
 However, a simple wax coating is easily damaged by folding or by abrasive
foods, but this is overcome by laminating the wax between layers of paper and/or
polyethylene.
 Waxed papers are used for bread wrappers and inner liners for cereal cartons.
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LECTURE 21-22
TOPIC: MAP (Modified Atmospheric Packaging)

Modified Atmosphere Packaging:
Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) can be defined as the enclosure
of food in a package in which the atmosphere inside the package is modified or
altered to provide an optimum atmosphere for increasing shelf life and
maintaining quality of the food. Modification of the atmosphere may be achieved
either actively or passively.
Active modification involves displacing the air with a controlled, desired
mixture of gases, a procedure generally referred to as gas flushing. Passive
modification occurs as a consequence of the food's respiration or the metabolism
of micro-organisms associated with the food; the package structure normally
incorporates a polymeric film, and so the permeation of gases through the film
(which varies depending on the nature of the film and the storage temperature)
influences the composition of the atmosphere that develops.
Advantages and disadvantages of Modified atmosphere packaging:
Advantages:
1.Shelf life will be increased by 50 to 400%.
2. Reduced economic losses due to longer shelf life.
3.Provides a high quality product.
4.Centralized packaging and portion control.
5. Improved presentation – clear view of product and all –around visibility.
6. Little or no need for chemical preservatives.
7.Sealed packages are barriers against product recontamination and drip from
package.
8.Odorless and convenient packages.
Disadvantages:
1.Added costs for gases, packaging materials and machinery.
2.Temperature control necessary.
3.Different gas formulations for each product type.
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4. Special equipment and training required.
5. Increased pack volume adversely affects transport costs and retail display
space.
6. Loss benefits once the pack is opened or leaks.
7.CO2 dissolving into the food could lead to pack collapse and increased drip.
Gases used in MAP:
The three main gases used in MAP are CO2,, O2, and N2, either singly or in
combination.
Carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide is the most important gas in the MAP of foods
because of its bacteriostatic and fungistatic properties. It inhibits the growth of
many spoilage bacteria, the degree of inhibition increasing with increasing
concentration. It is particularly effective against aerobic spoilage bacteria such as
Pseudomonas species.
The solubility of CO2 increases with decreasing temperature and therefore
the antimicrobial activity of CO2 is markedly greater at lower temperatures. This
has significant implications for MAP of foods. The high solubility of CO2 in high
moisture/high fat foods such as meat, poultry and seafood can result in package
collapse owing to the reduction of heads pace volume. High levels of CO2 can
also result in increased drip or exudate from flesh foods, and the addition of
absorbent pads in the base of the package is used to compensate for this.
Oxygen: Oxygen promotes several types of deteriorative reactions in foods
including fat oxidation, browning reactions and pigment oxidation. Most of the
common spoilage bacteria and fungi require O2 for growth. For these reasons, O2
is either excluded or the level set as low as possible. Exceptions occur where O2
is needed for fruit and vegetable respiration or the retention of color in red meat.
Nitrogen: Nitrogen is an inert gas with no odor or taste. It has a lower density
than air and a low solubility in water and other food constituents, making it a
useful filler gas in MAP to counteract package collapse caused by CO2 dissolving
in the food. Nitrogen indirectly influences the micro-organisms in perishable
foods by retarding the growth of aerobic spoilage microbes but it does not prevent
the growth of anaerobic bacteria.
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LECTURE NO. 23
TOPIC: Shrink packaging

Among the specialised plastic packaging systems, shrink packaging
orcommonly known as shrink wrapping and stretch wrapping are very
commonand widely used. Though there are some apparent similarities in the two
systems, in overallanalysis, they are considered to be totally different in terms of
material andoperation. In the case of shrink wrapping, shrink film is used as the
basic material andheat forms an important part of the operation, whereas, in the
case of stretch wrapping, stretch film is used as the basicmaterial and no heat is
applied during the operation.
Shrink Wrapping is done in 3 or 4 stages, namely:
- wrapping (sleeve wrapping or over-wrapping)
- sealing (necessary for over-wrapping)
- shrinking (with application of hot air), and
- cooling
Most of the packaging films that are used for shrink and stretch
wrapping are from the polyolefin range. The most common plastic materials are
polyethylene, polypropylene and poly vinyl chloride.
Polypropylene is comparatively less used in shrink and stretch
wrapping, because it is slightly harder than the other commonly usedmaterials. It
has a higher melting temperature and is less stable when shrinking. However,
many over-wrapping machines use polypropylene and some can be put through a
shrink tunnel to give a slight tightening effect.
PVC is a dense material, however, it is still considered to be a common
material in India, when clarity is an important selection criterion, particularly for
consumer packaging. Polyethylene is the most commonly used material for shrink
andstretch wrapping because it is relatively cheap and can be produced in a range
ofdifferent densities and modified with additives to perform manyfunctions. The
vast majority of shrink film is LDPE and some of the moresophisticated films
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have blends of LLDPE as well. Sometimes a little quantity of HDPE material is
also added.
For selection of plastic material, besides type of plastics, the yield of the
film is also important to be considered from theeconomy point of view. The yield
means the area obtained or number of square meters of filmconverted from a
kilogram of material of a given thickness or gauge.
Shrink wrapping is covered loosely around a product andit shrinks tightly
when heat is applied This type of wrapping is employed to protect a product from
dust or weather Heating machine is essential when using any type of shrink wrap.
Shrink wrap machine available for heating arrangement are Heat gun
which releases a stream of hot air Shrink tunnel which are mounted over a
conveyor systemfor the product to flow through along with oven
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LECTURE NO. 24
TOPIC: Vacuum packaging
• Vacuum packaging is a form of modified atmosphere packaging in which food is placed in a

gas-impermeable package, most of the oxygen around the food is removed, and the package is
hermetically sealed.
• It helps to modifying the internal gaseous atmosphere in a pack. .Vacuum packaging inhibits
the growth of aerobic microorganism including food spoilage bacteria and molds that would
normally deteriorate the quality of products.
• The removal of oxygen can also prevent degradation or oxidative processes that limit product
shelf-life, for example, oxidative rancidity in fats and oils, or color deterioration in raw meats.
An added advantage for frozen foods is that the sealing of the food within a skin-tight
package prevents dehydration and evaporative water loss from the surface of the food, and can
minimize the effects of -freezer burn|| (excessive dehydration loss from the product surface) and
post-thaw exudate (drip loss).
Reduced oxygen packaging (ROP), which provides an environment that contains little or no
oxygen, offers particular advantages but also raises many microbiological concerns or no
oxygen favor the growth of anaerobic microorganism. successful vacuum packaging combined
with freezing technology is influenced by the nature of food, the nature of package, and
the freezing process.
• The vacuum packaging requires a high-barrier material to keep
almost no oxygen for food products inside package. Vacuum packaging consists of multilayer
films with a heat-seal layer and a high-barrier layer.
Aim of vacuum packaging :
To extends the shelf life of food and with flexible package forms, to reduce the volume of
contents and package.
Purpose of vacuum packaging :
a) Vacuum packaging refers to the technique of removing air from a pack prior to sealing and
it predates the use of gases as a means of food preservation.
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b) Its principal purpose is to remove oxygen by pulling the packaging material into intimate
contact with the product.
Factors affecting vacuum packaging :
a) Characteristics of food products to be packaged.
b) Reliability of packaging machine and packaging material.
Vacuum packaging for agricultural products :
The agricultural produce may be fresh fruit or fresh vegetables.
• The agricultural produce may be high acid food products such as fruit or acidified
vegetables.
• The vacuum may extract residual entrained or dissolved gasses present within the
agricultural produce.
Vacuum Packaging Machinery :
Packaging machine is used for vacuum packing with packaging materials having an extremely
high gas barrier for the persistence of food preservation. The four types of machines are
classified by mechanical faculty: nozzle, chamber, skin and deep-draw type.
Procedure :
1. Nozzle-Type Vacuum Packaging Machine :
Air in the bag is evacuated through a nozzle; a mouthpart of the bag is sealed by heater
or impulse system. The two processes o vacuuming and sealing on most of this type of
machines are automatically done, initiated by stepping on a foot switch. Accordingly,
although the operation is easier than those of other types of vacuum packaging
machines, the degree of vacuum of bags packaged by this type of machine is lower than
for others.
2.Chamber-Type
Vacuum Packaging Machine: The bag containing food placed in the chamber then
vacuum is created after that packet is sealed by an impulse system in a vacuum-seal
chamber. The appearance of food vacuum-packaged by this type machine increases
food value and display effect.
3.Skin-Type Vacuum Packaging Machine :
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it can be done by loading food in pack and applying a lid over it. In this vacuum packaging
machine, heated and softened upper film is applied skin-tight over food and a lower film in the
vacuum chamber. The appearance of food vacuum-packaged by this type machine
increases food value and display effect.
4.Deep-Draw Type Vacuum Packaging Machine :
The lower film is warmed by a hot plate and then deep drawn by vacuuming
through a pump. After food loaded in the bag is covered by the upper film, both films are
sealed in the vacuum chamber. The newest machine of this type is controlled by computer,
and deep drawing, loading, vacuuming, sealing, trimming, etc. are set going automatically.
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LECTURE NO.25
TOPICS: Active packaging and Smart packaging
Active packaging technologies
The rapid growth of chilled, MAP/CAP, and minimally processed foods during
the 1990s has been accompanied by a number of developments in packaging
technologies, which may be grouped under the term ‘active’ packaging. Active packaging
has been described by Labuza (1996), Plaut (1995) and Rooney (1995) and includes:
• oxygen scavenging
• CO2 production
• preservative release (e.g. ethanol production)
• antimicrobial action
• aroma release
• moisture removal
• removal of odours, off-flavours or ethylene
• time–temperature indicators
• gas indicators
• edible coatings and films (also Section 24.2.4)
• films to slow moisture transfer between ingredients that have different water activities
• microwave ‘susceptor’ films that create high temperature treatments.
In contrast to most microwave packs, which do not heat up in a microwave oven,

susceptors absorb a proportion of the microwave energy, become hot (up to 220ºC) and
therefore directly affect the rate and type of heating of the food. They are mostly used to
impart crispness or browning to the surface of foods. The most common susceptor is a
PET film that is lightly metallised with aluminium and laminated to a paperboard
substrate.
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It is used in packs for popcorn, French fries, pizzas, pies, baked goods, etc. De-
metallised susceptors have areas in which the metallisation is etched off during
production. This enables heat to be directed to specific areas of a pack and also
prevents carton glues from melting or producing volatiles that could contaminate the
product (Woods, 1993)
• infrared films that radiate energy to inactivate micro-organisms
• steam release films
• time–temperature indicators to display loss of shelf life and extreme-temperature
indicators to display temperature abuse conditions
• indicator labels that change colour when a specified level of CO2 is attained in a
modified atmosphere package
• tamper-evident labels that change colour when they are removed and leave
behind a message on the pack that cannot be hidden.
Possible future developments in active packaging include self-venting microwave
packs in which a vent opens at a pre-set temperature and closes on cooling, respiring
trays that respond to changing atmospheric conditions to optimise respiration, materials
that generate electrical impulses when moved; their electrical conductivity may change
when exposed to light and their opacity may change or they become softer or harder
when subjected to small electrical charges (Louis, 1998).
Active packaging refers to the incorporation of certain additives into packaging
film or within packaging containers with the aim of maintaining and extending
product shelf life (Day, 1989). Packaging may be termed active when it performs some
desired role in food preservation other than providing an inert barrier to external
conditions (Rooney, 1995; Hotchkiss, 1994). Active packaging includes additives or
freshness enhancers that are capable of scavenging oxygen; adsorbing carbon dioxide,
moisture, ethylene and/or flavour/odour taints; releasing ethanol, sorbates, antioxidants
and/or other preservatives; and/or maintaining temperature control. Table 9.1 lists
examples of active packaging systems, some of which may offer extended shelf life
opportunities for new categories of food products (Day, 1989, 2001; Rooney, 1995).
Active packaging has been used with many food products and is being tested with
numerous others. Table 9.1 lists some of the food applications that have benefited from
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active packaging technology. It should be noted that all food products have a unique
deterioration mechanism that must be understood before applying this technology.
The shelf life of packaged food is dependent on numerous factors such as the
intrinsic nature of the food, e.g. acidity (pH), water activity (aw), nutrient content,
occurrence of antimicrobial compounds, redox potential, respiration rate and biological
structure, and extrinsic factors, e.g. temperature, relative humidity (RH) and the
surrounding gaseous composition. These factors will directly influence the chemical,
biochemical, physical and microbiological spoilage mechanisms of individual food
products and their achievable shelf lives. By carefully considering all of
these factors, it is possible to evaluate existing and developing active packaging
technologies and apply them for maintaining the quality and extending the shelf life of
different food products (Day, 1989). Active packaging is not synonymous with intelligent
or smart packaging, which refers to packaging that senses and informs (Summers, 1992;
Day, 2001).
Intelligent packaging devices are capable of sensing and providing information
about the function and properties of packaged food and can provide assurances of pack
integrity, tamper evidence, product safety and quality, and are being utilised in
applications such as product authenticity, anti-theft and product traceability (Summers,
1992; Day, 2001).
Intelligent packaging devices include time-temperature indicators, gas sensing
dyes, microbial growth indicators, physical shock indicators, and numerous examples of
tamper proof, anti-counterfeiting and anti-theft technologies. Information on intelligent
packaging technology can be obtained from other reference sources (Summers, 1992;
Day, 1994, 2001). It is not the intention of this chapter to extensively review all active-
packaging technologies but rather to describe the different types of devices, the scientific
principles behind them, the principal food applications and the food safety and regulatory
issues that need to be considered by potential users. The major focus of this chapter is on
oxygen scavengers but other active packaging technologies are also discussed and some
recent developments highlighted. More detailed information on active packaging can be
obtained from the numerous references listed.
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LECTURE NO. 26
TOPICS: Packaging requirement for raw and processed foods, and their selection of
packaging materials.
The technical factors that should be taken into account when selecting a
packaging material for a particular product are described by Briston (1988). The
requirements of packaging to protect foods for their expected shelf life are discussed in
more detail in Section 24.1. The shelf life of packaged foods is controlled by the
properties of the food (including water activity, pH, susceptibility to enzymic or
microbiological deterioration and the requirement for, or sensitivity to, oxygen, light,
carbon dioxide and moisture) and the barrier properties of the package.
A summary of the packaging requirements of selected food groups is shown in

Table 24.1. Packaging materials can be grouped into two main types:
1. Shipping containers which contain and protect the contents during transport and
distribution, but have no marketing function. Corrugated fibreboard cases are the most
widely used shipping container for 5–20 kg loads, although they are steadily
being replaced by shrink wrapped or stretch wrapped corrugated trays. Other types of
shipping containers include wooden or metal cases, crates, barrels, drums and sacks.
More recently, intermediate bulk containers (IBCs), including combi-bins, large
boxes made from metal, plastic or corrugated fibreboard, and large bags made from
woven plastic fabric, have been introduced to increase handling efficiencies and have
largely displaced wooden crates and cases (see also Section 24.1.5 and Chapter 26).
IBCs have a capacity between that of a bulk road tanker and 220 l drums (e.g. 1000 l
containers with integral pallet and bottom discharge valve), and are mainly used for
powders and liquids. Many shipping containers are expensive and therefore made to
be returnable (e.g. plastic crates for milk, beer and soft drink bottles). Others (for
example expanded polystyrene shipping containers) provide insulation and mechanical
protection for tomatoes and grapes or cured and wet fish and are used
• contain products efficiently throughout the journey
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• protect against the climate and contamination
• be compatible with the product
• be easily and efficiently filled and sealed
• be easily handled
• remain securely closed in transit, open easily when required (e.g. customs inspection)
and reclose securely
• carry information for carriers, wholesalers, and manufacturers about contents,
destination, and how to handle and open the pack.
• have minimum cost
• be readily disposable, re-usable or have another use.
2. Retail containers (or consumer units) which protect and advertise the food in
convenient quantities for retail sale and home storage (for example metal cans, glass
bottles, jars, rigid and semi-rigid plastic tubs, collapsible tubes, paperboard cartons,
and flexible plastic bags, sachets and overwraps).For convenience, this section describes
both shipping and retail containers in categories that reflect their material of construction.
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LECTURE NO. 27
TOPICS: Factors affecting the choice of packaging materials
The key to successful food packaging is to identify the packaging needs of the
product. These relate to the nature of the product, the intended market, shelf life,
distribution and storage, point of sale to the ultimate consumer and the use and eventual
disposal of the packaging. The choice should take account of environmental and waste
management issues. Ensuring food safety with respect to biological risks and needs
relating to flavour, colour and texture is essential. Packaging needs can be considered in
terms of:
• protection of the product – quality, safety etc.
• appearance – sales promotion, pack design etc.
• production – extrusion, forming, printing, packing etc.
Having decided that a type of plastic pack selected from the range of possible
choices, such as a film sachet, lidded tray, bottle etc., the next decision concerns the type
of plastic or combination of plastics necessary to meet the functional needs. Performance
is related to the structural design of the pack and whether it is made from film, sheet,
moulding or expanded plastic. As we have seen, there are many plastics, each offering a
range of properties, and within each packaging type there are differences.
All plastics provide barriers to the ingress of gaseous and volatile materials from the
external environment into a hermetically sealed pack and from the food product both into
and through the pack into the external environment. The extent to which these effects
occur will depend on the food product and on the type of plastic(s), its thickness and on
the temperature and RH ranges to be experienced during the life of the product.
Some plastics are heat sealable so that packs can be sealed; some are also heat
resistant to meet defined needs, e.g. reheating by microwave, radiant heat and retort
sterilization. Some are suitable for storage in deep freeze. Many specific needs can be
met within the defined conditions of use. In a chapter of this type, we can make readers
aware of the choices and provide a basis for meaningful discussions between
technologists whether they be suppliers or users of plastic packaging. The following
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Tables 7.1 to 7.3 give some guidance in terms of ranking for moisture vapour
permeability, gas permeability, optical properties, packing machine performance and heat
sealability.
The commercial consideration of cost must also be considered. Run lengths and
lead times are also important. It is not unknown for there to be run length cost
differences, where at one point a particular solution is cost effective relative to an
alternative solution and for the position to be reversed at a different run length.
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LECTURE NO. 28
TOPICS: Disposal and recycle of packaging waste
Environmental performance of packaging
An important strategic issue facing the food industry is the political and public
pressure over the environment, particularly in relation to concerns over the amount of
packaging and packaging waste. For over a decade, packaging and packaging waste have
been the focus of attention from politicians as a result of pressure from the public, media
and environmental pressure groups. The industry’s options to improve the environmental
performance of packaging are summarised in Table 1.18.
Packaging forms only a small part of the total solid waste (TSW) stream. In the
UK, packaging waste represents approximately 6% of non-agricultural land-filled TSW
which amounts to 120 million tonnes per year. This packaging waste comprises 3% of
packaging from the household waste stream and 3% of packaging from
commercial/industrial waste streams (INCPEN). For many years, the packaging sectors
of the food industry have made significant efforts, for both commercial and
environmental reasons, to reduce the
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amount of packaging and its environmental impact through light-weighting and
packaging redesign. Examples of light-weighting are given below:
•Food cans – 50% lighter than 50 years ago
•Yoghurt pots – 60% lighter than 30 years ago
•PET bottles for carbonated drinks – 33% lighter than almost 30 years ago
•Drinks cartons – 16% lighter than 10 years ago
Source: INCPEN Environmental policy on packaging should focus on resource-
efficiency and not just waste and recycling. A full strategic response to the environmental
issue would include:
•minimising energy and raw material use
•minimising the impact on the waste stream
•not causing environmental damage.
There are many alternative routes to achieve these objectives but the key
possibility for gaining a competitive edge for a retailer or manufacturer is repositioning
all products to satisfy a comprehensive environmental audit. The risk and uncertainty
involves the relative strength of environmental concerns and other key consumer
attributes.
There are management tools to reduce or compare the environmental impacts of
industrial systems and these include life-cycle inventory analysis (LCI) and life-cycle
assessment (LCA). The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) has
responded to the need for an internationally recognised methodology for LCI and LCA.
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LECTURE NO. 29
TOPICS: Package testing: Testing methods for flexible materials, rigid materials
and semi rigid materials
Package Testing:
Package testing must be performed under standard conditions (see ISO 2206 or
BS 4826 pt.2). All packages should be tested in a controlled atmosphere, generally 23°C,
50% rh.
Thickness:
Thickness of a material is the perpendicular distance between the two outer
surfaces of the material. Many physical properties of packaging materials are dependent
upon the thickness e.g. Water Vapour Transmission Rate (WVTR) and Gas transmission
Rate (GTR) of a film is inversely proportional to thickness and decrease with increase in
thickness.
Dial gauge, micrometer, screw gauge, vernier calipers are used for the
measurement of thickness. For paper boards, thickness is reported in points or in mm (1
point = 1/1000 of an inch); for papers it is in mm or inches. For films, thickness is
reported in micron, mils or in gauge (25 micron = 1mil = 1/1000 of an inch = 100 gauge
= 0.25 mm).
Paper density:
Paper density (also known as basis weight and grammage) is a term used in the
pulp and paper industry to denote a measure of mass of the product per unit of area for a
type of paper or paperboard.
The term "density" is not used in its traditional sense of mass per unit volume.
"Paper density", rather, is a measure of the area density. Paper density can also be used to
distinguish paper from paperboard as the latter usually has a grammage
greater than 224 g/m².
Two ways of expressing paper density are commonly used:
• Expressed in grams per square meter (g/m²), paper density is also known as grammage.
This is the measure used in most parts of the world.
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• Expressed in terms of the mass (expressed as weight) per number of sheets, it is known
as basis weight.
The convention used in the United States and a few other countries using US
paper sizes is pounds of a ream of 500 (or in
some cases 1000) sheets of a given (raw, still uncut) basis size. Japanese paper is
expressed as the weight in kg of 1000 sheets.
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LECTURE NO. 30-31
TOPICS: Tests for paper (thickness, bursting strength, breaking length, stiffness,
tear resistance, folding endurance, ply bond test, surface oil absorption test, etc.),
Tests for Plastic film and laminates (thickness, tensile strength, gloss, haze, burning
test to identify polymer, etc.), Tests for aluminium foil (thickness, pin holes, etc.),
PROPERTIES OF SHEETS AND FILMS FOR FLEXIBLE PACKAGING:

Thickness —The unit in the SI system is the micrometer, μm (10 –6 m). The customary
unit used in the U.S. is mil (equals to 0.001 inch), gauge is 0.01 mil (TAPPI [Technical
Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry] 411).
Area Factor — Also referred to as yield, this gives the area of the film per unit of mass,
m2/kg. Area factor is calculated as the inverse of density times thickness in coherent
units (ASTM D 4321).
Tensile Characteristics — Stress-strain tensile characteristics of a flexible structure
include ultimate tensile strength to determine the maximum tensile stress the material can
sustain, elongation, and modulus of elasticity to determine the force required to deform
the structure.
Modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus, is a measure of the material stiffness in
N/m2 (ASTM D 882). The area under the stress-strain curve also gives the toughness of a
material.
Density — The density of a plastic is proportional to its crystallinity. The standard
ASTM D 1505 describes the “density gradient” method to evaluate the density of films
and resins; the units are kg/m3.
Bursting Strength — This is the hydrostatic pressure required to produce rupture of the
material when the pressure is applied at a controlled increased rate through a rubber
diaphragm to a circular area of 30.48 mm (1.2 in) in diameter. “Points bursting strength”
is the pressure in pounds per square inch. This is the same test used for the bursting
strength of paper andpaper products, ASTM D 774. Free falling dart method is described
in ASTM D 1709.
Page 88
Impact Strength — Impact strength is the energy required to puncture a flexible
structure to shock loading. This gives a measure of the toughness. The test is described in
the ASTM D 3420 and ASTM D1709.
Tear Strength — The measurement of tear strength takes into account the energy
absorbed by the film sample in propagating a tear. Two standard methods are available:
ASTM standard D 1004 describes the measurement for initial tear resistance, and ASTM
D 1922 refers to the energy absorbed by a test specimen in propagating the tear that has
already been initiated by cutting a small hole in the sample. The value of tear strength in
one film may vary widely depending on the degree of orientation such as oriented PP,
and whether the measurement is performed in the machine direction or cross machine
direction. This is described by ASTM D 1938.
Pinhole Flex Test — Pinhole flex resistance is the ability of a film to avoid the formation
of pinholes during repeated folding. A film that has a low value of pinhole flex resistance
will generate pinholes, at the folding line, following repeated flexing (ASTM F 456). A
related test is the folding endurance.
Folding Endurance — This test measures the resistance of the material to flexure or
creasing. The ASTM recommended procedure is described in the standard D 2176 which
is used to determine the number of folds necessary to break a sample film.
Heat sealing Temperature — Important properties for wrapping,bag making, or sealing
a flexible structure is the heat sealability characteristic of the material. To evaluate the
seal, two values are normally measured: the peel strength (ASTM F 88), and the hot tack
strength. As previously indicated, the absolute temperature and range of temperature
must be considered. The polymer’s average molecular weight determines the temperature
level and the MWD determines its range.
Coefficient of Friction — The coefficient of friction (COF) is a measurement of the
friction force between two surfaces. Cases in which friction is important include films
passing overfree-running rolls, bag forming, wrapping film around a product, and bag
stacking. Speed, temperature, static, humidity, blocking, and surface smoothness affect
the COF (TAPPI T 503 and ASTM D 1894).
Blocking — This is the tendency of two films to stick together when they are contacting
each other. This effect is enhanced by a smooth surface and when the films are left under
Page 89
pressure, as is the case of stacked sheets or compacted rolls of film. Blocking can be
measured by the force needed to separate two sheets when force is applied perpendicular
to them, (ASTM D 1893 and D 3354, or Packaging Institute Procedure T 3629).
Haze — Haze is the percentage of transmitted light that, in passing through the sample,
deviates by more than 2.5° from an incident parallel beam. The appearance of haze is
caused by light being scattered by surface imperfections and non-homogenous materials,
Gloss — Gloss is the percentage of incident light that is reflected at an angle equal to the
angle of incidence (normally 45°). It is a measure of the ability of a surface to reflect the
incident light. High gloss produces a sharp image of any light source and gives a pleasing
sparkle, (ASTM D 2457).
Transparency and Opacity — A transparent material has a transmittance above 90%.
Transmittance is the percent of incident light that passes through a material sample and is
determined by the effectiveness of the absorption and scattering of light by the material.
In most polymers light absorption is insignificant, therefore, scattering controls the light
trans-mission. The scattering of power of a polymer results from morphological in
homogeneities and/or the presence of crystal and fillers. The less crystalline a polymer is,
the more transparent it is. Amorphous homogeneous polymer, such as “crystal”
polystyrene, showing little or no scattering power, is transparent. A highly crystalline
polymer as HDPE will be mostly opaque.
Transmittance is measured according to ASTM D 1003.
Dimensional Stability — Dimensional stability refers to the capability of a structure to
maintain its dimensions under changing conditions of temperature and humidity.
Machine and transverse directions may produce different changes in dimensional
stability. Dimensional stability is important in any flexible material converting process
particularly in printing, since even small changes in dimensions during printing may lead
to serious problems in holding a print pattern (ASTM D 1204).
Permeability — The barrier properties of a plastic material is commonly expressed by its
permeability coefficient value P. As the permeability increases, the barrier value
decreases. But the permeability coefficient actually depends on the combined effect of
the diffusion and solubility process. The well known relationship P = DS where D is the
diffusion coefficient and S is the Henry’s law solubility applies well to relatively low
Page 90
concentration values of permeant, which is the case found in many food systems. Several
factors affect D, S, and P of polymers: (1) chemical composition of polymer and
permeant; (2) polymer crystallinity; the diffusion and sorption occur mainly through the
polymer’s amorphous phase; (3) temperature, as temperature increases permeation
increases; and (4) presence of plasticizers andfillers in the polymer. In food systems, the
values of permeability of water, gases as well as aromas and flavor components. ASTM
1434 describes the standard method for measuring gas permeability of plastic film and
sheeting. The oxygen permeability of films using a coulometric sensor is described in
ASTM D 3985, and for packages in ASTM F 1307. Water vapor permeability method for
flexible barrier materials is describe in ASTM 372, for film/sheeting using infrared
sensor in F 1249, and for packages in ASTM D 895, D 1251, and D 3079.
Water vapor transmission rate (WVTR) for pressure sensitive tapes is in ASMT D
3833. Permeability of organic compounds, flavors, and aroma are described by
Hernandez et al. (1986).
Chemical Resistance — The evaluation of plastics resistance to chemicals is as follows:
acids, ASTM D 543; for alkalis, ASTM D 543; greases and oils, ASTM D 722; solvents,
ASTM D 543; and sunlight, ASTM D 1435.
Wettability — Adhesion and printing operations to a plastic surface depend on the value
of the plastic surface tension. A measure of a material’s surface tension is given by the
wettability(ASTM D2578).
Page 91
LECTURE NO. 32
TOPICS: Tests for Glass containers (visual defects, colour, dimensions, impact
strength, etc.), Tests for metal containers (pressure test, product compatibility, etc.)
Burst Strength: The test measures the ability of a paper or paper board to withstand
pneumatic or hydraulic pressure built up. For films, foils, laminates and papers, the
pneumatic test is used. Heavy papers and paper boards are tested on hydraulic type of
testers (lbs/sq. inch or kg/sq. cm).
The test gives a sort of combined tear and tensile properties. In many cases it
serves as good index of the quality of fabrication of packaging materials.
Tear Resistance:
The papers are tested for their tearing resistance properties in two ways:
Internal tearing: The energy required to propagate an internal tear is measured.
Edge tearing: The energy required to initiate a tear is measured.
The test is done on both directions of the paper. The work done in tearing is measured by
the loss in potential energy of the pendulum of the instrument.
Tensile Strength:
The tensile strength of a paper is defined as the force applied parallel to the plane
of the specimen of specified width and length under specified condition of loading. The
test indicates the durability and serviceability of papers in many packaging operations
such as wrapping, bagging, printing etc.
Plastic films are normally tested at higher speeds because of higher extensibility.
The stress strain curve helps in locating the yield point and knowing the yield strength
Grease Resistance:
Grease resistance is measured by exposing one of the test specimen creased to
grease containing red dye. The time required for the red stain to show on the unexposed
Page 92
side is taken as a measure of this property. For plastic films, the test can be performed
directly in pouches using groundnut oil coloured with red Sudan dye.
Gas Transmission Rate (GTR):
The gas transmission rate is normally determined by measuring the change in
pressure at constant volume. The quantity of gas flowing across the film is compiled
as volume at NTP (Normal Temperature and pressure). GTR is an important property to
estimate the efficiency of the packaging material or a package resistance to the flow of
gases and helps in selection of barrier materials for oxygen sensitive foods.
Water Vapour Transmission Rate (WVTR):
The WVTR is measured as the quantity of water vapour in grams that will
permeate from one side to other side of the film of an area of one square meter in 24
hours, when the relative humidity difference between the two sides is maintained at
90 per cent gradient at 37.8°C. The property is important to estimate the efficiency of the
packaging material or a package for resistance to the flow of water vapour and is
helpful in considering the selection of barrier materials for hygroscopic foods.
Impact Strength:
These tests are designed to measure the ability of the films to withstand fracture
by shock the test is a measure of toughness of the material. It is a combination of
deformation and breaking properties.
Abrasion Resistance:
This test is designed to measure the ability to withstand surface wear and rubbing.
It is a measure of some mechanical properties like hard resilience. The procedure consists
of abrading the sample with a wheel of standard abrade for a definite number of
revolutions and finding the weight loss of the sample.
Page 93

Food Pacakging Lesson Plan Detailed-1

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Food Pacakging Lesson Plan Detailed-1

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Seva Sanskar Sanstha's

SHRAMSHAKTI COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURAL

Course Title: FOOD PACKAGING

Course Credits: 3 (2+1)

SEMESTER VIII (New)

Course Teacher: Prof. P. K. Ambre

Department of Process and Food Engineering

Semester : : VIII (New) Credits : : 3 (2+1)

Lect. Title Book Chapter Page Weightage

Definition and Functions of packaging 3 1.5 8-9

2–4 Factors affecting shelf life of food 7 4 15-16

Environmental considerations, 1 24.5 502-

7–8 Packaging systems, types: flexible and 3 7.1 174-

9 – Different types of packaging materials, 1 24.2 474

11. Metal cans, manufacture of two piece 1 24.2.2 474 -

12 – Plastic packaging, different types of 1 24.2.4 481-

23. Shrink packaging, 2 615-

24. Vacuum packaging; 2 593- 15

25. Active packaging and Smart 1 24.2.8 497-

26. Packaging requirement for raw and 1 463-

28. Disposal and recycle of packaging 3 1.7.1.6 26-28 10

29. Package testing: Testing methods for 7 31 105

31. Tests for Plastic film and laminates 4 8.2.2 -

32. Tests for Glass containers (visual 7 32 106-

Tests for metal containers (pressure

7 To perform grease-resistance test in plastic pouches

8 Determination of bursting strength of packaging material

9 Determination of water-vapour transmission rate

10 Shrink wrapping of various horticultural produce

11 Testing of chemical resistance of packaging materials

12 Determination of drop test of food package

13 Experiment on bottling of fruit products

15 Modified atmospheric packaging

16 Visit to packaging industries

1. Food Processing P. Fellow Wood head Publishing 2000

2. Modern Food Packaging Compiled by Indian Institute of 1998

3. Food Packaging Edited by Blackwell Publishing 2003

4. Handbook of Food Edited by CRC Press Boca Raton 2003

5 Handbook of food Frank Albert

6 Packaging of food A. P. Vaidya Indian Institute of

7. Food Packaging – Study KaleemullahS. Department of Food

Topics: Introduction, Defination and Functions of packaging

INTRODUCTION TO FOOD PACKAGING

 In today's society, packaging is pervasive and essential. It surrounds, enhances

 Without packaging, materials handling would be a messy, inefficient and costly

 The packaging sector represents about 2% of Gross National Product (GNP) in

 Developments in Indian packaging:

 The Packaging Institute International (PII) defines packaging as the enclosure of

 Package, Packaging, Packing:

 It is important to distinguish between the words "package," "packaging" and

 The package is the physical entity that contains the product.

 Packaging was defined above and in addition, is also a discipline.

 Definitions and basic functions of packaging

 A means of ensuring safe delivery to the ultimate consumer in sound condition at

 A coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, distribution,storage,

 A techno-commercial function aimed at optimising the costs of delivery while

 Protection: prevention of mechanical damage due to the hazards of distribution

 Preservation: prevention or inhibition of chemical changes, biochemical changes

 Economy: for example, efficiency in distribution, production and storage

 Environmental responsibility: in manufacture, use, reuse, or recycling and final

Factors affecting shelf life of food material during storage:

 climatic influences that cause physical or chemical changes (UV light,

 contamination (by micro-organisms, insects or soils)

 mechanical forces (damage caused by impact, vibration, compression or