Mathematics

Language and
Symbols
“The laws of nature
are written in the
language of
mathematics.”

- Galileo Galilei
Importance of Language
u To understand the expressed ideas
u To communicate ideas to others

u While we use our natural language to transmit our

mathematical ideas, the language has some undesirable
features which are not acceptable in mathematics.

u Alicesaw a man with a telescope.

u Two sisters were reunited after 10 years in the
checkout line at King Soopers.
English Language to Mathematics Language
u Noun to mathematical expressions
Example: x + 5; sin x; log x
u Sentence to mathematical sentence
Example: 2x + y = 6

The Grammar of Mathematics

u Structural rules governing the use of symbols
representing mathematical objects
Characteristics of the Mathematics Language

u Precise (able to make very fine distinctions or

definitions)
u Concise (able to say things briefly)
u Powerful (able to express complex thoughts with
relative ease)
Difficulties
u The word “is” could mean equality, inequality, or
membership in a set
u Different use of a number (cardinal, ordinal, nominal,
ratio)
u Mathematical objects may be represented in many
ways such as sets and functions.
u The words “and” and “or” mean differently in
mathematics from its English use.
 Expressions versus Sentences
u Expressions English Mathematics
u Name given to an object
1. Leizl 1. 2
of interest 2. Batangas City 2. 3x
u Noun such as person, 3. Book 3. 3x + 2
4. He 4. Ax + By + C
place and things and
pronouns 1. Leizl is pretty. 1. 3 + 2 = 5
2. She lives in Batangas City. 2. a + b = c
3. Carter loves to read books. 3. ax + by + c = 0
u Sentence 4. Run! 4.
5. Do you love me?
u Has a complete thought
u Group of words that
express a statement,
question or command
Verb, Connectives, Truth of Sentences

uThe capital of Philippines is Manila.

uRizal park is in Cebu.
u5 + 3 = 8
u5 + 3 = 9
Conventions in mathematics, some commonly
used symbols, its meaning and an example
Q.E.D. - quod erat demonstandum (What was to be shown)
*fixed variable = constant
Describe the error in each of the
following.
• 1⊂N
• (1, 2) ∈ 𝑓 where 𝑓 is a function
• 𝑥 > 2 or 𝑥 < 1 is equivalent to 2 < 𝑥 < 1
• Given the function 𝑥 + 10, find the value of
𝑓 4
• ∫(𝑒 ! + 𝑥)
Translating words into symbol
u Practical problems seldom, if ever, come in equation form.
The job of the problem solver is to translate the problem
from phrases and statements into mathematical expressions
and equations, and then to solve the equations.

u As problem solvers, our job is made simpler if we are able to

translate verbal phrases to mathematical expressions and if
we follow step in solving applied problems. To help us
translate from words to symbols, we can use the Mathematics
Dictionary.
Translate each sentence using mathematical
symbols

1. 0 is an integer.
2. 𝑥 is multiple of 5.
3. 𝑥 belongs to both sets A and B.
4. The values of x range from -2 to 5.
5. The square of the sum of x and y is not more than 20.
6. The square of a number is nonnegative.
7. The sum of two consecutive numbers is 31.
 Translate each of the following phrases into a
mathematical expression. Use as few variables as
possible:
u 1. The sum of a number and 10
u 2. The product of two numbers
u 3. The product of -1 and a number
u 4. One-half times the sum of two numbers
u 5. Twice a number
u 6. Five less than a number
u 7. A number less 8
u 8. Six more than a number
u 9. A number decreased by 6
u 10. The square of a number
u 11. Four times the square of a number
u 12. Three less than twice a number
u 13. Five more than three times a number
u 14. One-half of a number
u 15. The square of the sum of 5 and a number
u 16. The sum of the squares of two numbers
u 17. There are twice as many boys as there are girls.
u 18. There are 10 more cars than jeeps.
u 19. A man’s age 10 years ago
u 20. The area of a rectangle whose length is 7 more than its width
u 21. Lota’s age in 5 years
u 22.A three-digit number whose hundreds digit is half the tens
digit and the tens digit is 2 more than the units digit
u 23.The total interest earned after one year when P100 000 is
invested, part at 6% annual interest rate and the remaining part
at 7.5% annual interest rate
u 24. The distance traveled by a man driving at the rate of 60 kph
u 25.The fraction of work done by a man who can finish a job
in 2 hours
u 26. The age of a woman 15 years ago
u 27.
The perimeter of a rectangle whose length is twice the
width
u 28. The sum of three consecutive even integers
u 29.A three-digit number whose hundreds is twice the tens
digit and the tens digit is 3 more than the units digit
u 30.
The total peso value of 20 coins consisting of P5-coins
and P10-coins
SETS AND SUBSETS
u Use of the word “set” as a formal mathematical term was
introduced in 1879 by Georg Cantor. For most mathematical
purposes we can think of a set intuitively, as Cantor did,
simply as a collection of elements.
u So, by definition: A set is a collection of well-defined
distinct objects.

uA set of counting numbers from 1 to 10.

u A set of an English alphabet from a to e.
u A set of even numbers.
u A set of integers.
u Note: A set is denoted with braces or curly brackets { } and label
or name the set by a capital letter such as A, B, C,…etc.

u A set of counting numbers from 1 to 5. A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

u A set of English alphabet from a to d. B = { a, b, c, d }

u A set of all even positive integers. C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, … }

u A set of integers. D = { …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}

Terminologies of Sets
1. Unit set is a set that contains only one element.
A = { 1 }; B = { c }; C = { banana }
2. Empty set or Null set is a set that has no element.
A={}
A set of seven yellow carabaos.
3. A finite set is a set that the elements in a given set is countable.
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }
B = { a, b, c, d }
4. An infinite set is a set in which elements in a given set has no end or
not countable.
A set of counting numbers
A = { …-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … }
5. Cardinal numbers are numbers that used to measure the number of
elements in a given set. It is just similar in counting the total number of
element in a set.
A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } n=4
B = { a, c, e } n=3

6. Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equal if and only if they have
equal number of cardinality and the element/s are identical. There is a
1 -1 correspondence.
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = { 3, 5, 2, 4, 1}

7. Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equivalent if and only if they
have the exact number of element. There is a 1 – 1 correspondence.
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } B = { a, b, c, d, e }
8. The universal set U is the set of all elements under discussion.
A set of an English alphabet U = {a, b, c, d, …, z}

9. Two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint sets if and only if
they have common element/s.
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 2, 4, 6 }

10. Two sets, say A and B, are said to be disjoint if and only if
they are mutually exclusive or if they don’t have common
element/s.
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 4, 6, 8 }
Two ways of Describing a Set
Subsets
u A subset, A Í B, means that every element of A is also an element of B
if x Î A, then x Î B.
u In particular, every set is a subset of itself, A Í A.

u A is a proper subset of B, if A Ì B and there is at least one element of

B that is not in A:
u If x Ì A, then x Ì B and there is an element b such that b Î B and b Ï
A.
u NOTE1: The empty set. or {} has no elements and
is a subset of every set for every set A, A Ì A.
u *superset
Ordered Pair
Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of
a and b together with the specification that “a” is the first element of the pair and
“b” is the second element. Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal iff
a = c and b = d. Symbolically;
(a, b) = (c, d) means that a = c and b = d
If (a, b) = (3, 2), what would be the value of a and b.
u Here, by definition that two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal iff a = c Hence, a = 3
and b = 2.
Find x and y if (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2).
Since (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2), so 4x + 3 = 3x + 5
u Solving for x, we got x = 2 and obviously y = – 2.
OPERATION ON SETS
The union of sets A and B, denoted by A È B , is the set defined as: A È B
= { x | x Î A or x Î B }
u Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then A È B = {1, 2, 3, 4,
5} .
u Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , then A È B = {1, 2,
3, 4, 5} .
u Note that elements are not repeated in a set.

The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A Ç B , is the set defined as :

A Ç B = { x | x Î A and x Î B }
u Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} then A Ç B = {1, 2} .
u Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} then A Ç B = Æ
The difference of sets A from B , denoted by A - B , is the set defined as

Ex1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} then A - B = {3} .

Ex2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then A - B = {1, 2, 3} .
Ex3: If A = {a, b, c, d } and B = {a, c, e } , then A - B = {b, d } .
u Note that in general A - B ¹ B - A
For a set A, the difference U - A , where U is the universe, is called the
complement of A and it is denoted by . Thus is the set of everything
that is not in A.
u Example: Let U = { a, e, i, o, u } and A = { a, e }
then = { i, o u }
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A x B and read as
“A cross B”, is the set of all ordered pair (a,b) where a is in A and b is in B.
Symbolically:
Note that A x B is not equal to B x A.
u If A = { 1, 2} and B = {a, b}, what is A x B?
u A x B = {(1,a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}.
u How many elements in A x B?

u Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Then

u A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} .

u Example 2: For the same A and B as in Example 1,

u B x A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)} .
 Venn Diagram
u A Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between and among sets, groups of
objects that share something in common. Usually, Venn diagrams are used to depict set
intersections (denoted by an upside-down letter U). This type of diagram is used in scientific
and engineering presentations, in theoretical mathematics, in computer applications, and in
statistics.
u Venn Diagram on Sets Operation
Union of Sets
u If A = {2, 5, 7} and B = {1, 2, 5, 8}
Intersection of Sets

u If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 3, 9, 12}

Difference of Sets
u If A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and B = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}
Complement of a Set
u If
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
Examples:
1. In a certain school, 50 students in a certain class were enrolled in three subjects
as follows:
30 enrolled in Algebra 12 enrolled in Chemistry and Physics
25 enrolled in Physics 11 enrolled in Algebra and Physics
25 enrolled in Chemistry 5 enrolled in three subjects
14 enrolled in Chemistry and Algebra

How many students were enrolled in

a. Exactly one subject? e. Algebra and Physics but not Chemistry?

b. Exactly two subjects? f. Physics and Chemistry but not Algebra?

c. Algebra or Physics? h. Physics only?
d. Algebra and Physics?

How many students did not enroll in

a. Any of the three subjects? b. Algebra and Physics?
In a certain school, 50 students in a certain class were enrolled in three
subjects as follows:
30 enrolled in Algebra 12 enrolled in Chemistry and Physics
25 enrolled in Physics 11 enrolled in Algebra and Physics
25 enrolled in Chemistry 5 enrolled in three subjects
14 enrolled in Chemistry and Algebra
2. In a survey of 175 students, it was found out that 126 have
accounts on Facebook, 95 have accounts on Instagram and 62
have accounts on Twitter. Sixty-six have accounts on Facebook
and Instagram and of these, 30 also have an account on
Twitter. Fifty have accounts on Facebook only and 27 have
accounts on Instagram only. How many of the students have

a. At least two accounts? c. Exactly two accounts?

b. At most two accounts? d. Exactly three accounts?
f. Accounts on Instagram and Twitter but not on Facebook?
g. Accounts on Facebook and Twitter but not on Instragram?
h. Accounts on Twitter but not on Facebook and Instagram?
In a survey of 175 students, it was found out that 126 have accounts on
Facebook, 95 have accounts on Instagram and 62 have accounts on Twitter.
Sixty-six have accounts on Facebook and Instagram and of these, 30 also
have an account on Twitter. Fifty have accounts on Facebook only and 27
have accounts on Instagram only. How many of the students have
Sets of Numbers
BASIC PROPERTIES AND THEOREMS ON REAL NUMBERS
EQUALITY AXIOMS FIELD AXIOMS ORDER AXIOMS COMPLETENESS AXIOM

Reflexive Axiom Closure Axiom Closure Axiom Every nonempty set of

real numbers that has
Symmetric Axiom Associative Axiom Trichotomy Axiom an upper bound also has
a least upper bound
Transitive Axiom Commutative Axiom Transitive Axiom (supremum)

Addition Property of Distributive Axiom

Equality
Identity Axiom
Multiplication Property
of Equality Inverse Axiom
Equality Axioms
u Reflexive: a = a.
u Symmetric: If a = b, then b = a.
u Transitive: If a = b and b = c, then a = c.
u Addition Property of Equality (APE)
u A. If a = b, then a+c = b+c.
u B. If a = b and c = d, then a+c = b+d.
u Multiplication Property of Equality (MPE)
u A. If a = b, then ac = bc.
u B. If a = b and c = d, then ac = bd.
 Field Axioms
u Closure: For any
u Commutative: For any
u Identity: There exist two numbers such that

u Inverse:
u For each , such that
u For every nonzero , such that .

u Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition (DPMA)

u For any (left distributive)
(right distributive)
 Order Axioms

u Trichotomy: If then one and only one

of the following is true:
u Transitive: If
u Addition: If
If .
u Multiplication:
If
 Axiom of Completeness
u Consider the set of rational approximations for √2 an call this
C, that is
u There exists a real number b which is either greater than or
equal to any element of C (upper bound of C). The smallest of
these upper bounds is called the least upper bound of C.
u Possible bounds of C:
u The real number which is either less than or equal to any
element of C is the lower bound of C. The biggest of all lower
bounds is called the greatest lower bound.
u *supremum *infimum
FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS
u Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {2, 3, 4} and let us say that an
element x in A is related to an element y in B if and only
if, x is less than y and let us use the notation x R y as
translated mathematical term for the sentence “x is
related to y. Then, it follows that:
u1 R 2 since 1 < 2 R 3 since 2 < 3 1 R 4 since 1 < 4
u1 R 3 since 1 < 3 R 4 since 2 < 4 3 R 4 since 3 < 4
u Now, can we say that 1 R 1? Is 3 R 2?
FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS
Relation can be therefore be thought of the
totality of ordered pairs whose elements are
related by the given condition.

The formal mathematical definition of relation,

based on this idea, was introduced by the
American mathematicians and logician C.S.
Peirce in the nineteenth century.
 Relation
uA relation from set X to Y is the set of ordered pairs of real
numbers (x, y) such that to each element x of the set X there
corresponds at least one element of the set Y.

u LetA and B sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A x B.

Given an ordered pair (x, y) in A x B, x is related to y by R,
written x R y, if and only if, (x, y) is in R. The set A is called
the domain of R and the set B is called its co- domain.
Relation
Examples
u Given a set of an ordered pairs: {(0, -5),
(1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5, 0)}

u The domain: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

u The co-domain:{-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0}

u Let and and define a relation R from A to B as
follows: Given any means that is an integer.
u State explicitly which ordered pairs are in and which are in R.

u Thus, R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2)}

u What are the domain and co-domain of R?
FUNCTIONS
A relation F from A to B is a function if and only if:

Every element of A is the first element of the

ordered pair of F.
No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same
first element.
Function Notations
u The symbol f(x) means function of x and it is read as “f of
x.” Thus, the equation y = 2x + 1 could be written in a
form of f(x) = 2x + 1 meaning y = f(x). It can be stated
that y is a function of x.

u Because when vvvvvvvvvv , we have

u Given , find
u Given , find .
 Operations on Functions
u Thesum or difference of f and g, denoted by f ± g is the
function defined by (f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x).
u Theproduct of f and g, denoted by f · g is the function
defined by (f·g)(x) = f(x)·g(x).
u Thequotient of f and g denoted by f/g is the function
defined by f(x)/g(x), where g(x) is not equal to zero.
u Thecomposite function of f and g denoted by f ο g is the
function defined by (f ο g)(x) = f(g(x)). Similarly, the
composite function of g by f, denoted by g ο f, is the
function defined by ( g ο f)(x) = g(f(x)).
BINARY OPERATIONS

u Theword "binary" means composed of two pieces. A

binary operation is simply a rule for combining two
values to create a new value. The most widely known
binary operations are those learned in elementary
school: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
on various sets of numbers.
It is possible to define "new" binary operations. Consider this
example:
1. A new math binary operation, using the symbol Φ is defined
to be , where a and b are real numbers.
u What is 8 Φ 3 ?
Is a Φ b commutative?
Does a Φ b = b Φ a for all possible values?
3a + b = 3b + a ?
Is a Φ b associative?
Does a Φ (b Φ c) = (a Φ b) Φ c ?
a Φ (3b + c) = (3a + b) Φ c ?
3a + (3b + c) = 3(3a + b) + c
A binary operation * is defined on the set . The table
at the right shows the 16 possible answers using this
operation. To read the table, read the first value from the
left hand column and the second value from the top row. The
answer is the intersection point.
u What is 2*4?
u Is commutative?
u What is the identity element for the operation ?
u Is * associative for these values?
What is
u If , find the values of a such that ?
If and , find .
BINARY OPERATION
u Inmathematics, a binary operation on a set is a
calculation that combines two elements of the set (called
operands) to produce another element of the set.

u Let G be a non-empty set. An operation * on G is said to be a

binary operation on G if for every pair of elements, a, b is in
G that is ; the product
u Define an operation oplus on Z by

2⊕3

4⊕1
u Define an operation ominus on Z by a⊖b

1⊖5

6⊖3
u Define an operation otimes on Z by

5⊗2

-2⊗1
u Define an operation oslash on Z by a⊘b

6⊘4

2⊘(-4)
u Define an operation min on Z by

13 ∨ 8

-7 ∨ 7
u Define an operation max on Z by

2 ∧ 3=3

4∧0=4
Logic

u The study of the principles of correct reasoning.

u Allowsus to determine the validity of arguments in and out
of mathematics.
u Illustrates
the importance of precision and conciseness of the
language of mathematics.
u We could say actually that the language of mathematics is
logic.
Statement or Proposition
u Must express a complete thought.
uA declarative sentence or statement that is either
true or false but not both.

Determine whether proposition or not

• All multiples of 5 are odd numbers.
• x is a real number.
• Sketch the graph of 𝑓.
 Logical connectives
Conjunction 𝑃∧𝑄 P and Q True if and only if P and Q
are both true
Disjunction 𝑃 ∨𝑄 P or Q True if and only if P is true
or Q is true or both are
true
Implication 𝑃→𝑄 P implies Q True under all
If P then Q circumstances except
Q if P when P is true and Q is
P only if Q false.
Bi-conditional 𝑃↔𝑄 P if and only if Q True if and only if P and Q
are both true or both false
Quantification
u Universal Quantification
§ “For all” or “For every”
§ Symbol: ∀
§ Example: "for every object x in the universe, x > 1", which
is expressed as "∀x, x > 1"
u Existential Quantification
§ “There exists” or “For some”
§ Symbol: ∃
§ Example: “there exists an object x in the universe, x > 1",
which is expressed as "∃x, x > 1"
Express the following in symbolic form.

1. All Students are smart.

2. There exists a student.
3. There exists a smart student.
4. Every student loves some student.
Express the following in symbolic form.

1. All Students are smart.

2. There exists a student.

Express the following in symbolic form.

3. There exists a smart student.

4. Every student loves some student.

PROBLEM SOLVING AND
REASONING
Inductive Reasoning
u the
type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples.
u The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is often
called a conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
Conclusion may be probable but is not guaranteed.
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number.

5, 10, 15, 20, 25

2 4 12 48 240 240(6)=1440
Consider the following procedure. Use inductive reasoning
to make a conjecture about the relationship between the
size of the resulting number and the size of the original
number.
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 15 to the
product, divide the sum by 3, and subtract 5. Complete the
procedure for several different numbers.
Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture about the
relationship between the size of the resulting number and
the size of the original number.

Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply

the number by 8, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 2,
and subtract 3.
Write a conjecture that describes the pattern
shown below. How many segments could be
formed on the fifth figure?
u Step 1. Look for a pattern.

u Step 2. Analyze what is happening in the given pattern.

u Step 3. Make a conjecture

Use the data below and with the use of inductive reasoning, answer
each of the following questions:
1. If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is its period?
2. If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its
period?

Note: The period of a pendulum is the time it takes for the

pendulum to swing from left to right and back to its original
position.
u Thediagram below shows a series of squares formed by
small square tiles. Complete the table below.
u Two stamps are to be torn from the sheet shown below. The
four stamps must be intact so that each stamp is joined to
another stamp along at least one edge.

u Whatwould be the possible patterns for these four

stamps after the two stamps were torn?
The first possible pattern
is if we tear the two right
most stamps.

Next is if we tear the two

stamps on the lower right
portion.
Then, the next possible
pattern if we tear the lower
rightmost and leftmost
stamp.

Also, if we tear the upper

rightmost and upper leftmost
stamp could be another
possible pattern.
Next possible pattern is if we
tear the two upper right most
stamps.

Then, it could be followed two

stamps to be torn on the lower
leftmos.
Next is the two stamps at the upper
rightmost.

The eight possible pattern is if we

tear one stamp at the upper
leftmost and one stamp at the
lower rightmost.

Lastly, if we tear one stamp at the

upper rightmost and another one
stamp on the lower leftmost.
u Hence, below are the different possible pattern based
on the given question above.
Deductive Reasoning
u theprocess of reaching a
conclusion by applying
general assumptions,
procedures, or principles.

u theapplication of a general
statement to a specific
instance.
Deductive Reasoning
u Validity and truth do not mean the same thing. Validity
means only the reasoning used to obtain the conclusion is
logical.
u When we make a conclusion based on statements that we
accept as true, we are using deductive reasoning.
u The rules we follow when performing algebraic
manipulations are things that we accept (and know) as
true.
Example 1

First Premise: All positive counting numbers whose unit

digit is divisible by two are even numbers.

Second Premise: A positive counting number 1,236 has a

unit digit of 6 which is divisible by two.

Conclusion: Therefore, 1,236 is an even number.

Example 2
First Premise: If the Department of Education strictly observed
health conditions of the students due to Covid 19, then there is no
face-to-face teaching and learning activity in a classroom.

Second Premise: The Philippines is currently experiencing Covid 19

pandemic.

Conclusion: Therefore, there will be no face-to-face teaching

and learning style in a classroom.
uA statement is a true statement provided it is true in
all cases.

u Ifyou can find one case in which a statement is not

true, called a counterexample, then the statement is
a false statement.
Verify that each of the following statement is a false
statement by finding a counter example for each.
Find a number that provides a counterexample
to show that the given statement is false.
If the sum of two counting numbers is an even counting
number, then the product of the two counting numbers is an
even counting number.

Find a pair of numbers that provides a counterexample to

show that the given statement is false.
Statements that we know are true:

u Any integer multiplied by 2 is an even number.

u Thismeans that 2x or 2 (any combination of variables
and coefficients) will always be even.
u Ifyou add 1 to any even integer you will get an odd
number.
u This means that 2x+1 or 2(any combination of
variables and coefficients) +1 will always be odd.
Use deductive reasoning to prove the following:

u a.The sum of an odd number and an even number is

always odd.
Use deductive reasoning to prove the following:

u b. The square of an even integer is always even.

Use deductive reasoning to prove the following:

u Thesum of a two digit number and its reversal is a

multiple of 11.
Decide whether the statement is a theorem. If it is a
theorem, prove it. If it is not, give a counterexample.

A theorem is a statement that can be demonstrated to be

true by accepted mathematical operations and arguments.

a. If n is a nonnegative integer, then (n+3)2>9.

b. There exists one integer n such that n2+4=8.

Decide whether the statement is a theorem. If it is a
theorem, prove it. If it is not, give a counterexample.

c. There exists just one integer n such that n2+5=14.

d. n2>n for each negative integer n.

e. There exists an integer n such that n3<n.

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following
produces a number that is four times the original
number.
Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to the
product, divide the sum by 2 and subtract 3.
Use deductive reasoning to show that the result of the
number trick below is always the number you start with.

Choose a number. Add 2. Multiply by 3. Subtract 6. Subtract

your original number. Divide by 2
Determine whether each of the following argument is
an example of inductive reasoning or deductive
reasoning.
u a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year.
Last year, the tree did not produce plums, so this year, the tree will
produce plums.
u b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor
estimated that my home improvement will cost $35,000. Thus, my home
improvement will cost more than $35,000.
u c. All Janet Evanovich novels are worth reading. The novel Twelve Sharp
is a Janet Evanovich novel. Thus, Twelve Sharp is worth reading.
u d. I know I will win a jackpot on this slot machine in the next 10 tries
because it has not paid out any money during the last 45 minutes.
Problem Solving with Patterns

uA sequence is an ordered list of numbers. Each

number of a sequence is called a term of the
sequence. is used to designate the of a
sequence.

uA formula that can e used to generate a sequence is

called the -term formula.
Find the next number in the following
sequence

u 1, 4, 9, 16, 25,....

u 1, 4, 27, 256,....

u 2, 5, 10, 17, 26,....

u -4, -1, 2, 5, 8, 11, …

Use a difference method to predict the next
term in the sequence.
-4, -1, 2, 5, 8, 11, …
-4=a+b
-1=2a+b
1, 14, 51, 124, 245, 426, …
13,10,7,4,1,…
12,5,−2,−9,−16,…
1, 7, 17, 31, 49, 71, …
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, …
4, -7, -26, -53, -88, -131, …
1,0,−3,−8,−15,−24,−35,…
−4,2,12,26,44,66,92,…
-1, 7, 16, 23, 28, 25, 11, 11, …
0, 12, 10, 0, -12, -20, …
Assume that the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following
figure continues.

What is the -term formula for the number of tiles in the figure of the
sequence?
How many tiles are in the tenth figure of the sequence?
Find an nth term formula. Assume the pattern shown by
the square tiles in the following figures continues.

u a.What is the nth term formula for the number of tiles in

the nth figure of the sequence?
u b. How many tiles are in the eighth of the sequence?
u c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?
Logic Puzzles
1. Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian,
has a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbor.
u Maria gets home from work after the banker but before
the dentist.
u Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
editor.
u The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
u The banker lives next door to Brian.
u Maria gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
u Banker, Maria Maria, dentist
u Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
u The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.
u The banker lives next door to Brian.
Sean Maria Sarah Brian

Editor ✖ ✔ ✖ ✖

Banker ✔ ✖ ✖ ✖

Chef ✖ ✖ ✔ ✖

dentist ✖ ✖ ✖ ✔
2. Brianna, Ryan, Tyler and Ashley were recently elected as the new class officers (president, vice
president, secretary, treasurer) of the sophomore class at Summit College. From the following
clues, determine which position each holds.
u Ashley is younger than the president but older than the treasurer. Treas, Ashley, Pres
u Brianna and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest members of the
group.
u Tyler and the secretary are next-door neighbors.

Brianna Ryan Tyler Ashley

President ✖ ✖ ✔ ✖

VP ✖ ✖ ✖ ✔

Secretary ✖ ✔ ✖ ✖

Treasurer ✔ ✖ ✖ ✖
u Let us assume that there are five houses of 8. The man in the center house drinks milk.
different colors next to each other on the same
9. The Norwegian lives in the first house.
road. In each house lives a man of a different
nationality. Every man has his favorite drink, his 10. The Blend smoker has a neighbor who keeps cats.
favorite brand of cigarettes, and keeps pets of a 11. The man who smokes Blue Masters drinks beer.
particular kind.
12. The man who keeps horses lives next to the Dunhill
smoker.
1. The Englishman lives in the red house. 13. The German smokes Prince.
2. The Swede keeps dogs.
14. The Norwegian lives next to the blue house.
3. The Dane drinks tea. 15. The Blend smoker has a neighbor who drinks water.
4. The green house is just to the left of the white one.
5. The owner of the green house drinks coffee.
6. The Pall Mall smoker keeps birds.
7. The owner of the yellow house smokes Dunhill.
 1 2 3 4 5

NATIONALITY NORWEGIAN DANE ENGLISH GERMAN SWEDE

COLOR YELLOW BLUE RED GREEN WHITE

BEVERAGE WATER TEA MILK COFFEE BEER

SMOKES DUNHILL BLENDS PALL MALL PRINCE BLUE MASTERS

PET CATS HORSE BIRD DOGS

FISH
Problem-Solving Strategies

One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of

problem solving was George Polya (1887–1985).
The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of
the following four steps.

Polya’s Four-Step Problem-Solving Strategy

1. Understand the problem.
2. Devise a plan.
3. Carry out the plan.
4. Review the solution.
Karl Friedrich Gauss was a scientist and mathematician. It is reported that soon after
Gauss entered elementary school, his teacher assigned the problem of finding the sum
of the first 100 natural numbers. Gauss was able to determine the sum in a matter of a
few seconds.
Understand the Problem
The sum of the first 100 natural numbers is represented by 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + … + 98 + 99 + 100
Devise a plan

Carry Out the Plan

To find the sum of the 50 pairs, each with the sum of 101, Gauss computed 50*101 and arrived at 5050 as
the solution.
Review the Solution
Because the addends in an addition problem can be placed in any order without changing the sum, Gauss
was confident that he has the correct solution
An Extension
A summation formula for the first natural numbers:
A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many
different orders could they have two wins and two losses in four games?
Understand the problem
There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight games and lost the last
two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two games and won the last two (LLWW). There are other
possibilities such as LWLW.
Devise a plan
Make an organize list of all the possible orders making sure that each of the different orderswill
be listed once and only once.
Carry out the plan
WWLL LLWW LWLW WLWL WLLW LWWL
Review the solution
The list has no duplicates and considers all the possibilities
A true-false quiz contains five questions. In how many ways can a student
answer the questions if the student answers two of the questions with false
and the other with true?

Understand the problem

There are several ways to answer the questions so that two answers are false and three answers are
true. One way is TTTFF and FFTTT.
Devise a plan
Make an organize list of all the possible orders making sure that each of the different orders will be
listed once and only once.
Carry out the plan
TTTFF TTFTF TTFFT TFFTT TFTFT
FTTTF FTFTT FTTFT FFTTT TFTTF
Review the solution
The list has no duplicates and considers all the possibilities. There are 10 ways for a student to mark
two questions with false and other with true.
In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays each of the
other teams exactly three times. How many league games will be played?
Understand the problem
There are 10 teams in the league and each team plays exactly three games against each of the
other teams. The problem is to determine the total number of league games that will be played.
Devise a plan
Try working a similar but simpler problem. Consider a league with only four teams (A, B, C and D)
in which each team plays each of the other teams only once.
The possible pairings of a league with only four teams
If six people greet each other at a meeting by shaking
hands with one another, how many possible
handshakes will take place?
Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the
decimal point in the decimal representation of 7/27.
MATHEMATICAL SYSTEMS
Modulo Arithmetic
In mathematics, modular arithmetic (sometimes called clock arithmetic) is a
system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers wrap around after they reach a
certain value – the modulus.

There are 24 Hours in a Day, however time is divided to two twelve hour periods
Example:
22 Hours is 12 + 10, So it is Ten O'clock!

The Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler pioneered the modern approach to

congruence in 1750, when he explicitly introduced the idea of congruence modulo a
number N. Modular arithmetic was further advanced by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his
book published in 1801.
Modulo n
Two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n,
where n is a natural number, if is an integer. In this case, we
write . The number is called the modulus. The statement is
called a congruence.
2. Suppose today is Friday. Determine the day of the week 16 days from now.

3. July 4, 2017 was a Tuesday. What day of the week is July 4, 2022?

4. In 2016, Abraham Lincoln's birthday fell on Friday, February 12. On what day of
the week does Lincoln's birthday fall in 2025?
Arithmetic Operations Modulo n
We perform the arithmetic operation and then divide by the modulus. The answer is the
remainder. The result of an arithmetic operation mod n is always a whole number less than n.
Evaluate the following:
WORD PROBLEMS
Number Problem
1. The second of two numbers is 7 less than 3 times the first. Twice the first number plus the
second equals 18. Find the numbers.

2. The sum of two numbers is 36. If the larger is divided by the smaller number, the quotient is 2
and the remainder is 3. Find the numbers.
Age Problem
1. Six years ago, Emil was four times as old as Abe. In four years, he would be twice as old as Abe.
How old are they now?

2. The sum of the ages of two brothers is 20. In five years, one is twice the other. Find the present
ages of the two brothers.
Work Problem
1. Gino can finish an accounting work in 8 hrs. Pablo can finish the same work in 6 hrs. After 2 hrs of
working together, Gino left for lunch and Pablo finished the job. How long does it take Pablo to finish
the job?

2. Painters A and B can complete the job if A works two days and B works 3 days, or if both work 13/5
days. How long would it take each to do the job alone?
Investment Problem
1. Bianca has P6000 invested at 5% and 6%. How much would she have to invest at 6% so that their
total interest per year would be equal to P320?

2. How should P5000.00 be invested in order that the annual income from one investment at 10% shall
double the income from another investment at 15%
Solution Problem
1. 40L of a 60% salt solution are reduced to a 45% solution. How much solution must be drained off
and replaced with distilled water so that the resulting solution contains only 45% solution?

2. A 10 cu m solution brine is 25% pure salt. How much water must be added to produce a solution
which is 20% salt?
Coin Problem
1. A coin purse contains 5C, 10C and 25C coins. The number of 10C coins is 3 times as many 5C coin,
and the 25C coin is two more than the 10C coin. If the total value of its content is P4.9, how
many of each kind of coins are in the purse?

2. Mawin has twice as many 25 centavo coins than 10 centavo coin. If he has a total of P60, how
many of each kind of coin are there?
Digit Problem
1. Three times the tens digit of a certain two digit number is two more than four times the units
digit. The difference between the given number and the number obtained by reversing the digits is
two less than twice the sum of the digits. Find the numbers.

2. The units’ digit of a two digit number exceeds the tens’ digit by 2. Find the number of it is 4
times the sum of its digit.
Dimension Problem
1. A rectangular building was constructed so that its depth is twice its frontage. The building is
divided into two parts by a partition that is 30 ft from and parallel to the front wall. If the rear
portion of the building contains 3500 ft2, find the dimensions of the building.

2. Find the dimensions of the rectangle whose length is 9 less than twice its width if the perimeter
is 120 cm.
Distance Problem
1. A man leaves for Baguio in his car, averaging 50 kph. One hour later, another car leaves for Baguio
following the same route and travelling at an average of 60 kph. How long would it take the second
car to overtake the first car?

2. Suppose that a trip from the dormitory to the lake at 30 mi/h takes 12 min longer than the return
trip at 48 mi/h. How far apart are the dormitory and the lake?