Mathematics

Language and
Symbols
“The laws of nature
are written in the
language of
mathematics.”

- Galileo Galilei
Importance of Language
u To understand the expressed ideas
u To communicate ideas to others

u While we use our natural language to transmit our

mathematical ideas, the language has some undesirable
features which are not acceptable in mathematics.

u Alicesaw a man with a telescope.

u Two sisters were reunited after 10 years in the
checkout line at King Soopers.
English Language to Mathematics Language
u Noun to mathematical expressions
Example: x + 5; sin x; log x
u Sentence to mathematical sentence
Example: 2x + y = 6

The Grammar of Mathematics

u Structural rules governing the use of symbols
representing mathematical objects
Characteristics of the Mathematics Language

u Precise (able to make very fine distinctions or

definitions)
u Concise (able to say things briefly)
u Powerful (able to express complex thoughts with
relative ease)
Difficulties
u The word “is” could mean equality, inequality, or
membership in a set
u Different use of a number (cardinal, ordinal, nominal,
ratio)
u Mathematical objects may be represented in many
ways such as sets and functions.
u The words “and” and “or” mean differently in
mathematics from its English use.
 Expressions versus Sentences
u Expressions English Mathematics
u Name given to an object
1. Leizl 1. 2
of interest 2. Batangas City 2. 3x
u Noun such as person, 3. Book 3. 3x + 2
4. He 4. Ax + By + C
place and things and
pronouns 1. Leizl is pretty. 1. 3 + 2 = 5
2. She lives in Batangas City. 2. a + b = c
3. Carter loves to read books. 3. ax + by + c = 0
u Sentence 4. Run! 4.
5. Do you love me?
u Has a complete thought
u Group of words that
express a statement,
question or command
Verb, Connectives, Truth of Sentences

uThe capital of Philippines is Manila.

uRizal park is in Cebu.
u5 + 3 = 8
u5 + 3 = 9
Conventions in mathematics, some commonly
used symbols, its meaning and an example
Q.E.D. - quod erat demonstandum (What was to be shown)
*fixed variable = constant
Describe the error in each of the
following.
• 1⊂N
• (1, 2) ∈ 𝑓 where 𝑓 is a function
• 𝑥 > 2 or 𝑥 < 1 is equivalent to 2 < 𝑥 < 1
• Given the function 𝑥 + 10, find the value of
𝑓 4
• ∫(𝑒 ! + 𝑥)
Translating words into symbol
u Practical problems seldom, if ever, come in equation form.
The job of the problem solver is to translate the problem
from phrases and statements into mathematical expressions
and equations, and then to solve the equations.

u As problem solvers, our job is made simpler if we are able to

translate verbal phrases to mathematical expressions and if
we follow step in solving applied problems. To help us
translate from words to symbols, we can use the Mathematics
Dictionary.
Translate each sentence using mathematical
symbols

1. 0 is an integer.
2. 𝑥 is multiple of 5.
3. 𝑥 belongs to both sets A and B.
4. The values of x range from -2 to 5.
5. The square of the sum of x and y is not more than 20.
6. The square of a number is nonnegative.
7. The sum of two consecutive numbers is 31.
 Translate each of the following phrases into a
mathematical expression. Use as few variables as
possible:
u 1. The sum of a number and 10
u 2. The product of two numbers
u 3. The product of -1 and a number
u 4. One-half times the sum of two numbers
u 5. Twice a number
u 6. Five less than a number
u 7. A number less 8
u 8. Six more than a number
u 9. A number decreased by 6
u 10. The square of a number
u 11. Four times the square of a number
u 12. Three less than twice a number
u 13. Five more than three times a number
u 14. One-half of a number
u 15. The square of the sum of 5 and a number
u 16. The sum of the squares of two numbers
u 17. There are twice as many boys as there are girls.
u 18. There are 10 more cars than jeeps.
u 19. A man’s age 10 years ago
u 20. The area of a rectangle whose length is 7 more than its width
u 21. Lota’s age in 5 years
u 22.A three-digit number whose hundreds digit is half the tens
digit and the tens digit is 2 more than the units digit
u 23.The total interest earned after one year when P100 000 is
invested, part at 6% annual interest rate and the remaining part
at 7.5% annual interest rate
u 24. The distance traveled by a man driving at the rate of 60 kph
u 25.The fraction of work done by a man who can finish a job
in 2 hours
u 26. The age of a woman 15 years ago
u 27.
The perimeter of a rectangle whose length is twice the
width
u 28. The sum of three consecutive even integers
u 29.A three-digit number whose hundreds is twice the tens
digit and the tens digit is 3 more than the units digit
u 30.
The total peso value of 20 coins consisting of P5-coins
and P10-coins
SETS AND SUBSETS
u Use of the word “set” as a formal mathematical term was
introduced in 1879 by Georg Cantor. For most mathematical
purposes we can think of a set intuitively, as Cantor did,
simply as a collection of elements.
u So, by definition: A set is a collection of well-defined
distinct objects.

uA set of counting numbers from 1 to 10.

u A set of an English alphabet from a to e.
u A set of even numbers.
u A set of integers.
u Note: A set is denoted with braces or curly brackets { } and label
or name the set by a capital letter such as A, B, C,…etc.

u A set of counting numbers from 1 to 5. A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }

u A set of English alphabet from a to d. B = { a, b, c, d }

u A set of all even positive integers. C = { 2, 4, 6, 8, … }

u A set of integers. D = { …, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}

Terminologies of Sets
1. Unit set is a set that contains only one element.
A = { 1 }; B = { c }; C = { banana }
2. Empty set or Null set is a set that has no element.
A={}
A set of seven yellow carabaos.
3. A finite set is a set that the elements in a given set is countable.
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 }
B = { a, b, c, d }
4. An infinite set is a set in which elements in a given set has no end or
not countable.
A set of counting numbers
A = { …-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … }
5. Cardinal numbers are numbers that used to measure the number of
elements in a given set. It is just similar in counting the total number of
element in a set.
A = { 2, 4, 6, 8 } n=4
B = { a, c, e } n=3

6. Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equal if and only if they have
equal number of cardinality and the element/s are identical. There is a
1 -1 correspondence.
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} B = { 3, 5, 2, 4, 1}

7. Two sets, say A and B, are said to be equivalent if and only if they
have the exact number of element. There is a 1 – 1 correspondence.
A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 } B = { a, b, c, d, e }
8. The universal set U is the set of all elements under discussion.
A set of an English alphabet U = {a, b, c, d, …, z}

9. Two sets, say A and B, are said to be joint sets if and only if
they have common element/s.
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 2, 4, 6 }

10. Two sets, say A and B, are said to be disjoint if and only if
they are mutually exclusive or if they don’t have common
element/s.
A = { 1, 2, 3} B = { 4, 6, 8 }
Two ways of Describing a Set
Subsets
u A subset, A Í B, means that every element of A is also an element of B
if x Î A, then x Î B.
u In particular, every set is a subset of itself, A Í A.

u A is a proper subset of B, if A Ì B and there is at least one element of

B that is not in A:
u If x Ì A, then x Ì B and there is an element b such that b Î B and b Ï
A.
u NOTE1: The empty set. or {} has no elements and
is a subset of every set for every set A, A Ì A.
u *superset
Ordered Pair
Given elements a and b, the symbol (a, b) denotes the ordered pair consisting of
a and b together with the specification that “a” is the first element of the pair and
“b” is the second element. Two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal iff
a = c and b = d. Symbolically;
(a, b) = (c, d) means that a = c and b = d
If (a, b) = (3, 2), what would be the value of a and b.
u Here, by definition that two ordered pairs (a,b) and (c,d) are equal iff a = c Hence, a = 3
and b = 2.
Find x and y if (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2).
Since (4x + 3, y) = (3x + 5, – 2), so 4x + 3 = 3x + 5
u Solving for x, we got x = 2 and obviously y = – 2.
OPERATION ON SETS
The union of sets A and B, denoted by A È B , is the set defined as: A È B
= { x | x Î A or x Î B }
u Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then A È B = {1, 2, 3, 4,
5} .
u Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} , then A È B = {1, 2,
3, 4, 5} .
u Note that elements are not repeated in a set.

The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by A Ç B , is the set defined as :

A Ç B = { x | x Î A and x Î B }
u Example 1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} then A Ç B = {1, 2} .
u Example 2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} then A Ç B = Æ
The difference of sets A from B , denoted by A - B , is the set defined as

Ex1: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {1, 2, 4, 5} then A - B = {3} .

Ex2: If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5} , then A - B = {1, 2, 3} .
Ex3: If A = {a, b, c, d } and B = {a, c, e } , then A - B = {b, d } .
u Note that in general A - B ¹ B - A
For a set A, the difference U - A , where U is the universe, is called the
complement of A and it is denoted by . Thus is the set of everything
that is not in A.
u Example: Let U = { a, e, i, o, u } and A = { a, e }
then = { i, o u }
Given sets A and B, the Cartesian product of A and B, denoted by A x B and read as
“A cross B”, is the set of all ordered pair (a,b) where a is in A and b is in B.
Symbolically:
Note that A x B is not equal to B x A.
u If A = { 1, 2} and B = {a, b}, what is A x B?
u A x B = {(1,a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b)}.
u How many elements in A x B?

u Example 1: Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}. Then

u A x B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)} .

u Example 2: For the same A and B as in Example 1,

u B x A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (a, 3), (b, 1), (b, 2), (b, 3)} .
 Venn Diagram
u A Venn diagram is an illustration of the relationships between and among sets, groups of
objects that share something in common. Usually, Venn diagrams are used to depict set
intersections (denoted by an upside-down letter U). This type of diagram is used in scientific
and engineering presentations, in theoretical mathematics, in computer applications, and in
statistics.
u Venn Diagram on Sets Operation
Union of Sets
u If A = {2, 5, 7} and B = {1, 2, 5, 8}
Intersection of Sets

u If A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B = {1, 3, 9, 12}

Difference of Sets
u If A = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and B = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}
Complement of a Set
u If
U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
Examples:
1. In a certain school, 50 students in a certain class were enrolled in three subjects
as follows:
30 enrolled in Algebra 12 enrolled in Chemistry and Physics
25 enrolled in Physics 11 enrolled in Algebra and Physics
25 enrolled in Chemistry 5 enrolled in three subjects
14 enrolled in Chemistry and Algebra

How many students were enrolled in

a. Exactly one subject? e. Algebra and Physics but not Chemistry?

b. Exactly two subjects? f. Physics and Chemistry but not Algebra?

c. Algebra or Physics? h. Physics only?
d. Algebra and Physics?

How many students did not enroll in

a. Any of the three subjects? b. Algebra and Physics?
In a certain school, 50 students in a certain class were enrolled in three
subjects as follows:
30 enrolled in Algebra 12 enrolled in Chemistry and Physics
25 enrolled in Physics 11 enrolled in Algebra and Physics
25 enrolled in Chemistry 5 enrolled in three subjects
14 enrolled in Chemistry and Algebra
2. In a survey of 175 students, it was found out that 126 have
accounts on Facebook, 95 have accounts on Instagram and 62
have accounts on Twitter. Sixty-six have accounts on Facebook
and Instagram and of these, 30 also have an account on
Twitter. Fifty have accounts on Facebook only and 27 have
accounts on Instagram only. How many of the students have

a. At least two accounts? c. Exactly two accounts?

b. At most two accounts? d. Exactly three accounts?
f. Accounts on Instagram and Twitter but not on Facebook?
g. Accounts on Facebook and Twitter but not on Instragram?
h. Accounts on Twitter but not on Facebook and Instagram?
In a survey of 175 students, it was found out that 126 have accounts on
Facebook, 95 have accounts on Instagram and 62 have accounts on Twitter.
Sixty-six have accounts on Facebook and Instagram and of these, 30 also
have an account on Twitter. Fifty have accounts on Facebook only and 27
have accounts on Instagram only. How many of the students have
Sets of Numbers
BASIC PROPERTIES AND THEOREMS ON REAL NUMBERS
EQUALITY AXIOMS FIELD AXIOMS ORDER AXIOMS COMPLETENESS AXIOM

Reflexive Axiom Closure Axiom Closure Axiom Every nonempty set of

real numbers that has
Symmetric Axiom Associative Axiom Trichotomy Axiom an upper bound also has
a least upper bound
Transitive Axiom Commutative Axiom Transitive Axiom (supremum)

Addition Property of Distributive Axiom

Equality
Identity Axiom
Multiplication Property
of Equality Inverse Axiom
Equality Axioms
u Reflexive: a = a.
u Symmetric: If a = b, then b = a.
u Transitive: If a = b and b = c, then a = c.
u Addition Property of Equality (APE)
u A. If a = b, then a+c = b+c.
u B. If a = b and c = d, then a+c = b+d.
u Multiplication Property of Equality (MPE)
u A. If a = b, then ac = bc.
u B. If a = b and c = d, then ac = bd.
 Field Axioms
u Closure: For any
u Commutative: For any
u Identity: There exist two numbers such that

u Inverse:
u For each , such that
u For every nonzero , such that .

u Distributive Property of Multiplication over Addition (DPMA)

u For any (left distributive)
(right distributive)
 Order Axioms

u Trichotomy: If then one and only one

of the following is true:
u Transitive: If
u Addition: If
If .
u Multiplication:
If
 Axiom of Completeness
u Consider the set of rational approximations for √2 an call this
C, that is
u There exists a real number b which is either greater than or
equal to any element of C (upper bound of C). The smallest of
these upper bounds is called the least upper bound of C.
u Possible bounds of C:
u The real number which is either less than or equal to any
element of C is the lower bound of C. The biggest of all lower
bounds is called the greatest lower bound.
u *supremum *infimum
FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS
u Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {2, 3, 4} and let us say that an
element x in A is related to an element y in B if and only
if, x is less than y and let us use the notation x R y as
translated mathematical term for the sentence “x is
related to y. Then, it follows that:
u1 R 2 since 1 < 2 R 3 since 2 < 3 1 R 4 since 1 < 4
u1 R 3 since 1 < 3 R 4 since 2 < 4 3 R 4 since 3 < 4
u Now, can we say that 1 R 1? Is 3 R 2?
FUNCTIONS AND RELATIONS
Relation can be therefore be thought of the
totality of ordered pairs whose elements are
related by the given condition.

The formal mathematical definition of relation,

based on this idea, was introduced by the
American mathematicians and logician C.S.
Peirce in the nineteenth century.
 Relation
uA relation from set X to Y is the set of ordered pairs of real
numbers (x, y) such that to each element x of the set X there
corresponds at least one element of the set Y.

u LetA and B sets. A relation R from A to B is a subset of A x B.

Given an ordered pair (x, y) in A x B, x is related to y by R,
written x R y, if and only if, (x, y) is in R. The set A is called
the domain of R and the set B is called its co- domain.
Relation
Examples
u Given a set of an ordered pairs: {(0, -5),
(1, -4), (2, -3), (3, -2), (4, -1), (5, 0)}

u The domain: {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

u The co-domain:{-5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0}

u Let and and define a relation R from A to B as
follows: Given any means that is an integer.
u State explicitly which ordered pairs are in and which are in R.

u Thus, R = {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2)}

u What are the domain and co-domain of R?
FUNCTIONS
A relation F from A to B is a function if and only if:

Every element of A is the first element of the

ordered pair of F.
No two distinct ordered pairs in F have the same
first element.
Function Notations
u The symbol f(x) means function of x and it is read as “f of
x.” Thus, the equation y = 2x + 1 could be written in a
form of f(x) = 2x + 1 meaning y = f(x). It can be stated
that y is a function of x.

u Because when vvvvvvvvvv , we have

u Given , find
u Given , find .
 Operations on Functions
u Thesum or difference of f and g, denoted by f ± g is the
function defined by (f ± g)(x) = f(x) ± g(x).
u Theproduct of f and g, denoted by f · g is the function
defined by (f·g)(x) = f(x)·g(x).
u Thequotient of f and g denoted by f/g is the function
defined by f(x)/g(x), where g(x) is not equal to zero.
u Thecomposite function of f and g denoted by f ο g is the
function defined by (f ο g)(x) = f(g(x)). Similarly, the
composite function of g by f, denoted by g ο f, is the
function defined by ( g ο f)(x) = g(f(x)).
BINARY OPERATIONS

u Theword "binary" means composed of two pieces. A

binary operation is simply a rule for combining two
values to create a new value. The most widely known
binary operations are those learned in elementary
school: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
on various sets of numbers.
It is possible to define "new" binary operations. Consider this
example:
1. A new math binary operation, using the symbol Φ is defined
to be , where a and b are real numbers.
u What is 8 Φ 3 ?
Is a Φ b commutative?
Does a Φ b = b Φ a for all possible values?
3a + b = 3b + a ?
Is a Φ b associative?
Does a Φ (b Φ c) = (a Φ b) Φ c ?
a Φ (3b + c) = (3a + b) Φ c ?
3a + (3b + c) = 3(3a + b) + c
A binary operation * is defined on the set . The table
at the right shows the 16 possible answers using this
operation. To read the table, read the first value from the
left hand column and the second value from the top row. The
answer is the intersection point.
u What is 2*4?
u Is commutative?
u What is the identity element for the operation ?
u Is * associative for these values?
What is
u If , find the values of a such that ?
If and , find .