Physics I Laboratory Manual Updated: January 2017

July, 2018

Siliguri Institute of Technology

Department of Engineering Sciences & Humanities
B.Tech 1st Year 1st Sem & 2nd Sem

Paper Name : Physics I Laboratory

st
Paper Code : BS-PH191
PH191 (for
(for11stsem)
Sem)
BS-PH291 nd Sem)
(for22nd
PH291 (for sem)
Experiment No : Miscellaneous
PH191 -6 (for(03)1st sem)
PH291 -6 (for 2nd sem)
Experiment Name: Determination of Modulus of Rigidity by Static
Method.

Purpose of the experiment

experiment:
To measure the angle of twist corresponding to different load and to measure the rigidity modlus
of the wire using Barton’s apparatus.

Basic Theory:
Direct Stress (σ): When a force is applied to an elastic body, the body deforms. The way in
which the body deforms depends upon the type of force applied to it. A compression force makes
the body shorter(fig 1). A tensile force makes the body longer longer(fig 2).. Tensile and compressive
compr
forces are called direct forces. Stress is the force per unit area upon which it acts.

i.e, Stress  σ  N/m2 or Pascal

fig 1 fig 2

Direct Strain (ε): A force applied in a body produces a deformation. Say a body of length L is
deformed by length x due to the application of a force F. Strain is the deformation per unit of the
original length. It is a unit-less
less quantity.

i.e, Strain  

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Hooke’s Law: Within the elastic limit strain is proportional to the applied stress for a solid.
Hooke’s law holds up to a maximum stress called the proportional limit. If the stress exceeds the
proportional limit, the strain is no longer proportional to the stress. The solid will no longer
return to its original shape when the stress is removed.

Shearing Stress: Shear stress is the case where the stress is parallel to the surface of the material
i.e, the force acts parallel to the edge of the solid. Whereas normal stress acts perpendicular to

the surface. Mathematically, Shear Stress  τ 

Shearing Strain: Shear strain is the ratio of deformation to its original dimensions. In the case of
shear strain, it is the amount of deformation perpendicular to a given line rather than parallel to

it. Mathematically, Shear Strain  γ  

Modulus of rigidity (): It is the coefficient of elasticity for a shearing force. It is defined as the
ratio of shear stress to shear strain. Modulus of Rigidity can be experimentally determined from
the slope of a stress-strain curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the
material, as shown below(fig 3).

fig 3 fig 4


The gradient of the graph is constant so   constant which is the spring stiffness of the block in
N/m. If we divide F by area A and x by the height L, the relationship is still a constant and we
   
get, ÷    η  constant
   ϒ

This constant η is called the Modulus of Rigidity and is different for different materials.

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fig 5 fig 6 fig 7

Let us consider, a cylinder fixed at one end and twisted at the other by means of a couple of
moment C,(fig 4) whose axis coincides with the axis of the cylinder. The angular displacement ɸ,
at a distance l from both the fixed end, is proportional both to l and C. This is an example of pure
shear, since there can be no change either in the length or the radius of the cylinder. Each circular
cross-section is rotated about the axis of the cylinder by an amount which is determined by its
distance from the fixed point ratio.

As shown in fig 5, a wedge of the cylinder is strained from the position ABCD into the position
ABED, so that CE = r1ɸ, where r1 is the radius of the cylinder. In fig 6 an element FGHI of the
lower end is moved JKLM. Now, if BF = r and FG = dr, while GH = dx, then the parallelepiped
with FGHI as base is sheared as shown in fig 7, where GK = rɸ. The force f acting tangentially

on the face FGHI and producing the shear θ, constitutes a shearing stress of magnitude ! 
.
Thus the modulus of rigidity according to its definition is given by the relation
 .% !&
"  , since ' 
!. .$ !. .!& %

!&
Or, f  η. dr. dx
%

This force f has a moment = rf , about the axis of the cylinder and thus the total moment is
ƞ&
given by, C = % ∬ , - .,. ./

The integral of dx must be taken round the circle of radius r, and hence
5
06 , - .,. (23,)
ƞ.&
C=
%

-7ɸƞ 5
or, C=
%
06 , : .,

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ƞ7&5 ;
or, C=
-%

Hence from the above equation we find that the couple C due to torsional reaction is given by –
ƞ75 ;
C= <
-%

where the twist < is expressed in radians. However, if < be measured in degrees, then
ƞ7&5 ; 7
C=
-% =>6

If this twist in the wire is produced by placing a load m in each of the pans, then the couple due
to equal loads in the two pans is mgD, where D is the diameter of the heavy cylinder attached to
the lower end of the wire. Equating these two couples we have
ƞ 7 ? 5; ɸ
:@6 %
= mgD

:@6 AB% D
Or, " 7? 5;
C E
&

Apparatus Used:

• Barton’s rigidity apparatus

• Screw Gauge
• Slide Calipers
• Weight Box
• Meter Scale

Procedure:

• Level the whole apparatus using spirit level.

• Determine the least count and error of a screw gauge.
• Measure the radius of the wire with the help of the screw gauge.
• Determine the vernier constant of a slide caliper.
• Measure the diameter of the cylinder with the help of the slide calliper.
• Hang the wire with the cylinder from the support.
• Measure the length of the wire.
• Put equal increasing weights in each pan in steps of 0.5 kg, starting from 0 kg to a
maximum of 3.5 kg. Note the reading of the indicator attached to the cylinder on the
circular scale in each case.

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• Decrease the weights in each pan in step of 0.5 kg in the inverse manner as of increasing.
Note the reading.
• Determine the average of the scale readings during increasing and decreasing load.

• Determine the angle of twist corresponding to different loads.

• Draw a graph of the load vs. angle of twist.

Precautions:
• The whole apparatus should be levelled properly.
• The diameter of the wire should be measured very carefully as this quantity is in 3rd
order.
• The load should be placed on and removed from the pan gently.

Observation:

1. Determination of least count and error of the screw gauge:

• Pitch=For one complete rotation of the circular scale, the displacement in the
main scale= .............................mm
• Total number of division in circular scale= ............N..................
QRSTU
• HIJKL MNOPL  V
=.......................mm
• Error type in the screw gauge=...........................
• No of division in circular scale away from index line=..........M.............
• Error value=..........M x Least Count.................mm

2. Determination of radius(R) of the wire:

No. Measurement of the diameter (F6 ) of the wire Radius R in Corrected

of Linear Circular Total Mean of the cm radius R
obs. scale scale reading= Diameter wire, R cm
B
reading reading [L.S.R. + (in mm) = -G
(L.S.R.) (C.S.R.) (C.S.R. X (in mm)
(in mm) L.C.)] (in
mm)
1
2
3
4

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3. Determine the vernier constant of the Slide Calliper:

• Value of one smallest division of the main scale =..a..cm

• Total number of divisions on the Vernier scale= ..x.., which are equal to ..y..
division of main scale.
• So value of one division of the Vernier scale =..y/x...
Y
• Hence vernier constant VC= C1 −  E × J cm

4. Determination of diameter(D) of the cylinder:

No. of obs Main scale Vernier scale Total reading = Mean diameter
reading reading [M.S.R. + (D) (in cm)
(M.S.R.) (in (V.S.R.) (V.S.R. X
cm) V.C.)] (in cm)
1
2
3

5. Determination of length([) of the wire:

No. of Length of the wire Mean length \

obs (in cm) (in cm)
1
2
3

6. Load vs. angular shift data for a fixed value l of the wire:

No Load First indicator Second indicator Mean Mean Angle of

of on reading reading reading in reading in Twist
obs each first indicator second
pan m while while while while $ ^$
'  ]- ? indicator < <′
in gm load load load load $]′ ^$?′
deg '′  in in
increase decrease increase decrease -
deg deg
'= deg '- deg '=_ deg '-_ deg deg
0 α α~α
500 β α~β
1000 γ α~γ
1500 δ α~δ
2000 .. ..
2500 .. ..
3000 .. ..
3500 .. ..

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7. Calculations:
• Plot a graph of m Vs. < and m Vs. < ′
• Draw the straight line to best fit.
∆(cdA%e f SgRhS)
• Calculate the K\NaI  of the two lines separately.
∆D
:@6 AB% ∆D
• Find the value " and " using the formula " 
′
C E dyne/cm2
7? 5; ∆&
• Find the mean rigidity modulus.

8. Error:

(ijklmknm okpqr~ sturnorm vkpqr)

Percentage error = × 100%
ijklmknm okpqr

Sample Questions & Answers

1. Define Hooke’s Law.

• It states that when the material is loaded within the elastic limit the stress is directly
proportional to strain. i.e. Stress α strain. or Stress = constant x Strain
2. Define Strength of materials.
• The strength of a material is its ability to withstand an applied stress without failure.
3. What is stress?
• When load is applied on any object then a resisting force is induced, that resisting or
reacting per unit area of cross-section is called stress.
4. What is strain?
• Strain is change in dimensions upon original dimensions.
5. What is deformation?
• Deformation is change in dimensions of any object due to applied load.
6. Define Rigidity of modulus.
• When tangential surface forces are applied on a body , the successive layers of the material
are moved or sheared. This type of strain is called shearing strain. “The ratio of tangential
stress to shearing strain is called Rigidity of modulus”.
7. Define Moment Of Inertia.
• It is the measure of the inertia of a body in rotatory motion. It depends upon the axis of
rotation, mass of the body and also on the distribution of the mass about the axis.
8. Define temperature stress.
• Stress introduced by uniform or nonuniform temperature change in a structure or material
which is constrained against expansion or contraction.
9. What is hardness of a material?
• Hardness is the resistance of a material to localized deformation. Or Hardness is the
mechanical resistance which a material asserts against the mechanical penetration of a
harder test body.
10. What are the different types of stresses.
• Normal stresses(tensile & compressive), shear stresses
11. What are the different types of strain.

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• Longitudinal strain(tensile & compressive), shear strain, volumetric strain.

12. What is poisson’s ratio?
• It is the ratio of lateral(or transverse) strain to longitudinal strain.
13. Define longitudinal strain and lateral (transverse) strain.
• Longitudinal strain is change in length upon original length. Lateral strain is change in
lateral dimensions (i.e. dimensions perpendicular to length) upon original lateral
dimensions.
14. Differentiate Shear Strain and Shear stress.
• Stress is a measure of how much force is taken by an object of particular size. shear stress
is therefore shear force divided by area under shear. Clearly, increasing the force and/or
decreasing the size or cross sectional area will result in larger stresses. Shear strain is a
measure of the deflection caused by a shear stress, and is related via the shear modulus (or
modulus of rigidity) G, where G= shear stress/shear strain.
15. Difference between tension and compression force.
• Tension means applied force is pull and which causes elongation. Compression means
applied force is push and which causes decrease in length.
16. Define tensile stress and compressive stress.
• The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pulls, as a result
ofwhich there is increase in length, is known as tensile stressThe stress induced in a body,
when subjected to two equal and opposite pushes, as a result ofwhich there is decrease in
length, is known as Compressive stress.
17. Define- elastic limit.
• Some external force is acting on the body, the body tends to deformation. If the force is
released from the body its regain to the original position. This is called elastic limit.
18. What is a rigid body?
• It is an idealization of a solid body in which deformation is neglected. In other words, the
distance between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant in time regardless
of external forces exerted on it.
19. What is inertia?
• Moment of inertia is second moment of area or second moment of mass.
20. Explain radius of gyration.
• It refers to the distribution of the components of an object around an axis. In terms of mass
moment of inertia, it is the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to a point mass
(of mass, m) that gives an equivalent inertia to the original object.

21. What is torque?

• Torque is the tendency of a force to cause or change rotational motion of a body. A force
applied at a right angle to a lever multiplied by its distance from the lever's fulcrum (the
length of the lever arm) is its torque.
22. What is Torsional force?
• A force acting on a body that tends to twist the body.
23. What is torsional rigidity?
• The applied torque needed to produce a unit angle of twist in a circular elastic material, it
is a measure of a body's resistance to torsion.

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24. Which one is more elastic, foam or iron?

• Iron, because iron can regain its original shape or length more easily than foam.
25. Gases and liquids have elasticity or not?
• Yes, they have.