Physics I Laboratory Manual Updated: July, 2018

Siliguri Institute of Technology

Department of Engineering Sciences & Humanities
B.Tech. 1st Year 1st Sem & 2nd Sem

Paper Name: Physics I Laboratory

Paper Code: BS-PH191 (for 1st Sem)
BS-PH291 (for 2nd Sem)
Experiment No: Quantum Physics (05)
Experiment Name: Determination of Band Gap
of Semiconductor

Purpose of the experiment:

Determination of band gap of a given semiconductor (Germanium) by four probe method.

Apparatus:

1. Probes Arrangement :-

It has four individually spring loaded probes. The probes are collinear and equally spaced. The probes are
mounted in a teflon bush, which ensure a good electrical insulation between the probes. A teflon spacer near
the tips is also provided to keep the probes at equal distance. The whole arrangement is mounted on a suitable
stand and leads are provided for the voltage measurement.

2. Sample :-

Germanium crystal in the form of a chip

3. Oven :-

It is a small oven for the variation of temperature of the crystal from the room temperature to about
200°C (max).

4. Four Probe Set-up, DFP-02 :-

The set-up consists of three units in the same cabinet.

Basic Theory:

Semiconductors are materials whose electronic properties are intermediate between those of metals and
insulators. These characteristics are determined by the structure of the crystal, bonding characteristics,
electronic energy bands, and also by the fact that unlike metals, a semiconductor has both the positive (hole)
and the negative (electron) carriers of electricity whose densities can be controlled by doping the pure
semiconductor with chemical impurities during the crystal growth. In classifying the solids by their electrical
properties, it should be understood that there are two types of materials; the metals and the semiconductors .

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Physics I Laboratory Manual Updated: July, 2018

The highest filled energy band which includes electrons shared in covalent bond or transferred in ionic bonds
in a semiconductor is known as valence band, the energy level corresponding to the bottom of the conduction
band in an intrinsic semiconductor is denoted by as E c the energy gap between the top of the valence band
and the bottom of the conduction Band is known as band gap.

So band gap is = Eg = (Ec – Ev )

The Band gap of a semiconductor can be found from the working formula:
𝐄𝐠
loge ρ = - loge A
𝟐𝑲𝑻
Where,

V= applied voltage

I = current

W = the thickness of the crystal whose value is supplied

S = the distance between the probes, value of which is supplied.

A = constant

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 Physics I Laboratory Manual Updated: July, 2018

Procedure:

1. Insert the thermometer through the whole of the oven.

2. Turn on the apparatus. Set a current on the order of 5 mA.

3. Note down the temperature and the voltage obtained.

4. Turn on the oven, Record the voltage at an interval of 100C up to at least 1200C.

5. Turn off the light oven. Record the voltages at the same temperatures while temperature is decreasing.

6. Calculate the average voltage at each temperature, Calculate ln ρ. Convert the temperatures into Kelvin scale.

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 Physics I Laboratory Manual Updated: July, 2018

Precaution:

1. The surface of the semiconductor should be flat.

2. All the four probes should be collinear.
3. The adjustment of 4-point probes should be done gently, as the semiconductor chip is brittle.
4. The voltage should be measured using inner probes only using a high impedance millivoltmeter.
5. Temperature of the oven should not exceed the limits set by manufacturer of the probes and chip set.

Tabulation:

i) Current (I) = ........... mA (const.)

ii) The width of the semiconductor, W = ........... cm (Supplied)

iii) Distance between probes, S = ......... cm (Supplied)

𝑊
iv) G7 ( 𝑆 ) = ............

Voltage (V) in mV
No. Resistivity
of Temp. When When Average Temp. T-1 X 10-3 ρ0 (ρ) loge ρ
obs. (T0C) temp. temp. Voltage (K) in K-1 (Ω-cm) (Ω-cm)
Increases decreases (mV)
(mV) (mV)
1 400C

2 500C

3 600C

4 700C

5 800C

6 900C

7 1000C

8 1100C

9 1200C

Graph Plotting:

1. A graph will be plotted between T-1 × 10-3 (k-1) [along x axis] vs. loge ρ [along y axis].
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝛒
Slope = 𝟏
𝑻

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Physics I Laboratory Manual Updated: July, 2018

Calculation:
𝑉
We have equation ρ₀= 2πS .
𝐼

Since the thickness of the crystal is small compared to the probe distance a correction factor for it has
to be applied.
Further as the bottom surface is non-conducting in the present case, for that
ρ₀
ρ= 𝑤
𝐺₇( 𝑠 )

[Where G₇ (𝑊𝑆) = 2𝑆
𝑊
× 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 2 is the correction factor for resistivity]

Eg
loge ρ = - loge A
2𝐾𝑇

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝛒
or, Eg = X 2k
𝐓 −𝟏

..... [Since A is a constant, log A = 0]

[k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38X10-23 J/K]

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Physics I Laboratory Manual Updated: July, 2018

Percentage of Error:
(Actual value~ Value obtained in the experiment)
% of error = [ ] ×100%
Actual value
_______

Sample Questions & Answers

1. What is the equation giving the variation of conductivity/resistivity of a semiconductor with

temperature?
For resistivity:

For conductivity:

2. How do the conductivities of metals and semiconductor depend on temperature?

The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with increasing temperature while that of a metal decreases
with increasing temperature.

3. What are the values of band gaps for Silicon and Germanium?
The value of band gap for Silicon = 1.1 eV
The value of band gap for Germanium = 0.7 eV

4. How does the band gap of a semiconductor vary with temperature?

The energy band gap of semiconductors tends to decrease as the temperature is increased. This behaviour can
be better understood if one considers that the inter-atomic spacing increases when the amplitude of the atomic
vibrations increases due to the increased thermal energy.

5. Why we use constant current in four probe method for finding the resistivity of a semiconductor?
The method of measurement of resistance involves current and voltage measurement across it. If current is held
constant, the voltage directly gives value of resistance, and voltmeter can be calibrated for resistance value.

6. State Ohm’s law.

If physical conditions (like temperature, mechanical stress) remains unchanged, then potential difference
across two ends of a conductor is proportional to current flowing through a conductor.
V∝I
or, V = IR
The constant of proportionality, R, is called the resistance of the conductor.

7. What is the advantage of the four probe method over others to find resistivity?
The four point probe is preferable over a two-point probe because the contact and spreading resistances
associated with the two point probe are large and the true resistivity can't be actually separated from the
measured resistivity. In a four point probe, very little contact and spreading resistance is associated with the
voltage probes and hence one can obtain a fairly accurate calculation of the resistivity. Using four
probe eliminates measurement errors due to the probe resistance, the spreading resistance under each probe,
and the contact resistance between each metal probe and semiconductor material.

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Physics I Laboratory Manual Updated: July, 2018

8. What do you mean by intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?

Intrinsic semiconductor -An intrinsic semiconductor is an un-doped semiconductor.
This means that holes in the valence band are vacancies created by electrons that have been
thermally excited to the conduction band, as opposed to doped semiconductors where holes or
electrons are supplied by a “foreign” atom acting as an impurity.
Extrinsic semiconductor - An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor doped by a specific impurity
which is able to deeply modify its electrical properties, making it suitable for electronic applications
(diodes, transistors, etc.) or optoelectronic applications (light emitters and detectors).

9. What is the effect of temperature on resistance of a semiconductor?

In case of semiconductors as the temperature increases the electrons in the valence band get excited
and jump into the conduction band and hence the conductance increases resulting in the dwindling
of resistance. As resistance is directly proportional to resistivity, resistivity decreases, too.

10. Explain the band gap of semi-conductor, insulator and conductor.