GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

COURSE MATERIAL NO. 1

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 WHAT WILL YOU
LEARN?

ORGANISIMAL
This module has been
designed to help you:
 Compare and

BIOLOGY
contrast the
following processes
in plants and
animals.
 Explain how some
organisms
maintain steady
internal conditions.
 Describe examples
of homeostasis and
the major feedback
loops.

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Your body is composed of different organ systems that work together
for your body to function normally. The study of biology is an important
tool in understanding how different organ systems function. By now, FOCUS
you already have an in-depth grasp of how your body parts work QUESTIONS
together. This unit will expand your knowledge on biology by focusing
on two major topics, namely, organismal biology and genetics.  How do our
growth,
maturation, and
PLANT and ANIMAL ORGAN aging complete
SYSTEMS and their FUNCTIONS the human life
cycle?

Reproduction
Plants, animals, and other organisms have the ability to reproduce.
Reproduction is a biological process in which different organisms have
the ability to produce another of their kind. With this ability, organisms
are able to improve their species and enhance their physical
characteristics, because only those that have the genes necessary for
survival can proliferate and pass them on to the next generation. In
plants and animals, reproduction may either be asexual or sexual.

Asexual Reproduction Reproduction is

Asexual reproduction does not involve gametes or sex cells. This type essential in
of reproduction can be observed in some plants and in lower forms of multiplying species
animals. Table 1.1 shows the different kinds of asexual reproduction of its own kind,
and the organisms that exhibit them. ensuring that the
species continues
Table 1.1. Types of asexual reproduction to produce for
Kind of Asexual Example future generations.
Picture/Illustration
Reproduction Organism
Budding Cnidarians
An organism is reproduced (hydra),
by forming an outgrowth, or tunicates
a “bud”, from a part of the
parent organism’s body.

Source:
https://cdn.britannica.com/84/95884-
050-59B92081/version-one.jpg

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 Kind of Asexual Example
Picture/Illustration
Reproduction Organism
Fragmentation
An organism is produced
from the detached body Some species of
part of its parent. sea stars (star
fish), flatworms
Source:
https://t1.ea.ltmcdn.com/en/posts/7/1
/6/how_starfish_reproduce_asexually_
3617_3_600.webp
Binary fission
A parent organism splits
into two “daughter”
organisms. This type of Cyanobacteria
asexual reproduction is and sea
usually done by anemone
prokaryotic organisms
and some invertebrates. Source:
http://cfb.unh.edu/phycokey/Choices/C
yanobacteria/cyano_unicells/SYNECHO
COCCUS/Synechococcus_03_600x450.j
Vegetative reproduction pg

A plant part is used to

reproduce another plant.
Some plants

Source:
https://images.slideplayer.com/19/572
0797/slides/slide_6.jpg

Spore formation
This involves the
production of spores,
which are specialized
asexual reproductive Ferns
Source: cells.
https://www.vce.bioninja.com.au/_Media

Source: https://i.redd.it/are-these-
sori-going-to-release-spores-soon-
v0-
31alajpu40791.jpg?width=3024&for
mat=pjpg&auto=webp&s=d949afd1
6db2e75e8c348618afd4a3cb9a1d0
Asexual reproduction has several potential advantages. For instance, it
695

enables animals living in isolation to produce offspring without locating

mates. It can also create numerous offspring in a short amount of time,
which is ideal for colonizing a habitat rapidly. Theoretically, asexual
reproduction is most advantageous in stable, favorable environments
because it perpetuates successful genotypes precisely.

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Sexual Reproduction
On the other hand, sexual reproduction involves the union of FOCUS
gametes (sex cells) inside or outside the body of an organisms. This QUESTIONS
type of reproduction is exhibited only by higher forms of organisms,
including humans. The sperm and egg fuse to create a fertilized egg
known as the zygote, which eventually become the embryo.  Which organism that
undergoes asexual
The union of gametes creates genetic diversity by inheriting genes reproduction are
from both parents. This process results in an organism that you most interested
possesses the blended qualities contributed by both parents. Figure in? Explain why.
1.1 shows the process necessary for sexual reproduction to occur.  How do fertilized
eggs become
Fig.1.1 Sexual reproduction in humans embryos?

An ostrich egg housed

in its thick shell is not
only the largest ostrich
cell but the largest
living cell so far
discovered.
Source: https://bam.files.bbci.co.uk/bam/live/content/zk7wmp3/large

Reproductive Traits in Organisms

The reproduction of different organisms plays a vital role in the
continuation of their species, as well as their survival. There are a lot
of physical differences in the reproductive systems of plants and
animals, but they also share certain similarities. Plants and animals
both use color display for reproduction.

Plants use their physical characteristics to attract pollinators. Some

plants have bright-colored flowers to attract insects, and thus
enabling the transfer of pollen from one flower to another. Figure
1.2 shows a bee feeding on nectar from a dandelion. As the bee
feeds itself, the pollen grains get attached to its hairy body. When
the bee sips nectar from another flower, the pollen grains that
previously got attached to it are then transferred;
Fig.1.2 Pollination of dandelion by a bee
thus, reproduction happens.
Source: https://img.freepik.com/premium-photo/bee-
dandelion-flower-with-bee-it_654821-533.jpg

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 Some animals also use color display to attract a mate. The peacock in figure
1.3 shows a magnificent color display of its feathers during courtship. The
peacock does this to attract the female peafowl, the peahen.

One distinguishing characteristic of animals is sexual selection, wherein

Fig. 1.3 A peacock displaying
his plumage to a peafowl
Source:
https://qph.cf2.quoracdn.net/main-qimg-
e4e82f00114ac883fd75c06a625bd5e0-lq
some male species compete with other males to copulate with females.
This form of natural selection allows successful transfer of genes from one
generation to the next. Another difference between plants and animals is
their method of fertilization. Sexual reproduction in most animals requires
physical interaction with each other in close proximity. In comparison,
plants need a vector, such as an insect or a bird. Thus, animals and plants
have different ways of reproduction, but their main goal is the same: to
propagate their own kind.

Development
Plants and animals have progressed differently. Based on phylogenetic evidence or the evolutionary
history of organisms, the primitive ancestor of plants and animals was likely a unicellular eukaryote.
However, based on molecular evidence from gene comparisons, there is not much similarity
between the genes that make up the body plan of plants and of animals.

At the unicellular stages of their development, plant cells position is fixed, which means that they
are not capable of movement, whereas animal cells are motile or capable of movement. During the
growth stages, the body plan of plants is highly regulated by the environment because plants cannot
choose or change their growing locations, whereas the body plan of animals is clearly determined
by its genes. Plant and animal life cycles are also different from one another. Most plants undergo
alternation of generations, where they have sexual and asexual life cycles, whereas the animal life
cycle has only one continuous multicellular stage (after fertilization). Figure 1.4 shows the
comparison between the life cycles of plants and animals.

Fig.1.4 Comparison between life cycles of animals and plants

Source: https://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/images/pollen/pollen-white-lifecycle_eng.gif

The processes in the formation of gametes are also different between plants and animals. During
meiosis, plants produce spores first before forming the gametes, whereas in animals, the gametes
are directly formed. Another developmental difference between plants and animals is shown in
their morphogenesis, or change in shape. Plants develop by going through a longer period of
morphogenesis than animals. Many plants grow primarily by increasing the size of their cells.
Animals, on the other hand, grow because their cells increase in number.

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Nutrition
All organisms need energy to perform various life processes. Energy is
FOCUS
necessary because it allows organisms to move, respire, and digest, to QUESTION
name a few body processes. Nutrition is the process of providing or S see any
obtaining food necessary for health, survival, and growth of an organism.  Do you
disruption or
In this process, an organism takes in, digests, and uses the different disadvantage on
substances obtained from various food sources. These substances, called the existence of
nutrients, provide energy for the organism's metabolic processes such as carnivorous
growth, maintenance, reproduction, and even immunity. plant? Justify
your answer.
Modes of Nutrition
Organisms have different modes of nutrition. Thus, they can be classified
based on how they obtain food.
1. Autotrophic - Autotrophic organisms can manufacture their own
nutrients by synthesizing inorganic materials. Depending on the
energy source, autotrophs are of two types.
a. Photoautotrophic - Photoautotrophic organisms directly
use the energy from the sun and other inorganic
substances such as carbon dioxide and water to form
organic food. Organisms that have this type of nutrition
are called photoautotrophs. Examples of
photoautotrophs are plants and some forms of bacteria
and protists.
b. Chemoautotrophic - Chemoautotrophic organisms use
chemicals to create simpler organic substances important
for their survival. Such organisms are called Fig.1.5. (up) Plants are most common
examples of photoautotrophs. (down)
chemoautotrophs. Most bacteria and members of the Chemoautotrophs can be found on
hydrothermal vents.
group Archaea that live in extreme environments such as Sources:
https://i0.wp.com/www.differencebetween.co
volcanoes and deep-sea vents are classified in this group. m/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/Difference-

Common inorganic substances synthesized by the

chemoautotrophs include hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, and
ammonia.

2. Heterotrophic - Heterotrophic organisms, which are called

heterotrophs, cannot make their own food, and thus obtain their
energy by digesting organic matter. Heterotrophs include all
animals, fungi, and some bacteria. The heterotrophic mode of
nutrition can be classified into saprophytic, parasitic, and
holozoic nutrition.
a. Saprophytic or saprotrophic - In this type of nutrition,
organisms obtain their nutrients from dead organic
matter. These organisms secrete digestive juices to the
surroundings, which will be later absorbed through their
Fig.1.6. Examples of saprophytic organisms
body surface. Such organisms are called saprophytes, and Sources: https://www.sciencefacts.net/wp-
content/uploads/2023/07/Saprophytes.jpg
they include fungi and bacteria.

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 b. Parasitic - In this type of nutrition, an organism takes
food from another organism. Parasitic nutrition is
exhibited by some plants and animals. The organism
that takes food is called a parasite, and the organism
from where the food is taken is called the host. The
parasite can be either outside or inside the host.
 Ectoparasitism - This type of parasitism
Fig.1.7. Ascaris lumbricoides, a roundworm
Source:https://labmedicineblog.files.wordpress.co happens when the parasite is outside the body
m/2021/04/ascar1-1.png?w=600
of the host. Some examples are fleas in dogs
and head lice in humans.
 Endoparasitism - This type of parasitism
involves parasites that live inside the body of
the host. Some endoparasites include
roundworms and hookworms. Both worms
negatively affect the health of humans.
c. Holozoic - In this mode of nutrition, organisms ingest
solid or liquid food. The food is then digested and
absorbed by the body. This type of nutrition is
subdivided based on the type of organic matter
ingested.
 Herbivorous — Organisms that take in only
plants as source of their energy are classified as
herbivores. Sheep, rabbits, and cows are
examples of herbivorous animals.
 Carnivorous - Organisms that eat other animals
are called carnivores. Lions, tigers, and sharks
are examples of carnivorous animals.
 Omnivorous - Organisms that take in both
plants and animals are called omnivores. Pigs,
Fig.1.8. Examples of holozoic species
Source: https://www.activewild.com/what-do-
hens, and bears are examples of omnivorous
animals-eat/ animals.

Directions: Listed in the first column of the following table are different organisms. For each organism,
identify its mode of nutrition by checking the appropriate boxes in its corresponding row.

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Gas Exchange
Gases are important because they are required for different metabolic
reactions to proceed. Thus, gas exchange is also an important biological You know that pollution
process that allows organisms to survive. Through this process, different negatively affects the
gases are transferred in opposite directions across a respiratory surface. health of organisms.
Gas exchange involves the use of oxygen produced by photosynthetic What are the practical
organisms and the release of carbon dioxide to the environment as a steps that you can do to
waste product of respiration. reduce the amount of
pollutants in your
Different organisms have various ways of exchanging gases inside and community, in your
outside their bodies. It varies from the simplest to the most complex school, and at your
respiratory system. Table 1.8 lists the different structures used by animals home? Share your
for gas exchange. answer with the class.

Figure 1.8 Lists of different structures used by animals for gas exchange.
Structure Description
It is a structure used by unicellular organisms for gas exchange. Gases
Cell Membrane
directly pass through the cell membrane through diffusion.
It is a respiratory surface covered with thin and moist epithelial cells
that allow oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange. Gases can only cross
Body surface/skin
the cell membrane when they are dissolved in an aqueous solution, and
thus the surface should be moist.
They greatly increase the surface area for gas exchange in aquatic
organisms. Gills are convoluted outgrowths containing blood vessels
Gills
covered by a thin layer of epithelial cells. They can be found either
externally or internally.
They are composed of a series of respiratory tubes that carry the gases
Tracheal systems directly to the cells for gas exchange. Gases enter and exit through the
openings at the body surface called spiracles.
These are ingrowths of the body wall that connect to the outside
Lungs environment by a series of respiratory tubes and small openings. The
lungs are one of the most complex respiratory organs of animals.

Fig.1.9. Different structures used by animals for gas exchange.

Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fslideplayer.com%2Fslide%2F1711625%2F&psig=AOvVaw07w7xRwR1Y8zKmzyU2ueAZ&ust=17012276997520
00&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89978449&ved=0CBMQjhxqFwoTCLC-p6Pd5YIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAI

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Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=htt
ps%3A%2F%2Fwww.pathwayz.org%2F
Tree%2FPlain%2FCROSS%2BSECTIO
N%2BOF%2BA%2BLEAF%2B%255BB
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us9u96V3q_j2YBilffgy&ust=1701228054
682000&source=images&cd=vfe&opi=89
978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCJCit8T
e5YIDFQAAAAAdAAAAABAD
The process of gas exchange in animals involves a system of parts and
processes. It starts with the diffusion of oxygen from the respiratory
surface into the blood, which will then transport the oxygen to the
cells of the different parts of the body. As oxygen diffuses into the
cells, carbon dioxide is absorbed into the bloodstream, which will
subsequently be released to the environment through the respiratory
surface.
In plants, gas exchange mainly occurs in the leaves. Photosynthesis
and cellular respiration are two biological processes involved in gas
exchange in plants. In photosynthesis, plants take in carbon dioxide
from the air to make food; during the process, oxygen is released as a
by-product. At the same time, plants take in oxygen to be used in
cellular respiration, releasing energy and carbon dioxide as by-
products.

Plants have different mechanisms for gas exchange compared to

animals. Plants are able to perform this process using the structures
present in the leaves.

Gases enter the leaves through specialized pores called stomata

(singular: stoma). Each stoma contains guard cells that control the
opening and closing of the pores.

Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3
A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGuard_ce
ll&psig=AOvVaw2S0lkjMmSu61a0f9IJb516&ust=
1701228288233000&source=images&cd=vfe&o
pi=89978449&ved=0CBEQjRxqFwoTCOCSj7bf5YI
DFQAAAAAdAAAAABAP
The stomata normally open when light strikes the leaves in the
morning, and they close during the night. This happens because of the
change in turgor pressure, or the pressure involved when the guard
cell is pushed against the cell wall. When turgor pressure develops
within guard cells, the thin outer walls of the guard cells bulge out,
and the inner walls form into a crescent shape. This change in shape
opens the stomata. When the guard cells lose turgor pressure, the
elastic inner walls regain their original shape, closing the stomata. The
closing and opening of the guard cells allow the exchange of gases
between the leaves of the plant and the environment.

Roots and stems also contribute to gas exchange but only with a
minimal effect. Woody stems and mature roots are covered with an
outer bark composed of cork cells. These cork cells are impregnated
with suberin, a waxy, waterproof substance that does not allow gases
and water to pass through. However, these woody stems and mature
roots are perforated by nonsuberized pores called lenticels. Lenticels
provide a pathway for the direct exchange of gases between the
internal tissue of the plant and the atmosphere.
Source:
https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%
3A%2F%2Fwww.bio.tamu.edu%2Fwp-
content%2Fuploads%2F2019%2F02%2Fveg10.jp
g&tbnid=jzw6TY8MmwKgfM&vet=12ahUKEwjn
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%2F%2Fwww.bio.tamu.edu%2Fbiology-honors-
program%2Fundergrad-honors-vegetative-
characters%2F&docid=E_uTIjf6WjjsGM&w=166
&h=179&q=lenticels%20in%20stem&ved=2ahUK
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Transport/Circulation
All organisms should be able to transport important particles or molecules
into their bodies. At the same time, they should be able to remove wastes
and other unwanted substances from them. This is why plants and animals
have various types of circulatory systems. These circulatory systems allow
important biological fluids to be transported around the organism, so that
the organism can breathe, gain nutrition, and maintain its internal Source:
environment for survival. https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=h
ttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.olympiadgenius.co
m%2Fstudy-material%2Fgrade-3-

Fig. 1.10. Differences in the circulatory systems of plants and animals.

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Plants have two main circulatory Animals have the following
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organs. (see figure 1.11) circulatory organs and tissues:

 Xylem - transports water  Blood - has the following
and nutrients from the roots functions:
to the different parts of the a. transports gases
plant and nutrients in the
 Phloem - transports sugars animal's body;
and other metabolic b. carries waste out of
products from the leaves to the body;
the rest of the plant c. regulates the
organism's body
Plants also have the following temperature and
supporting organs. pH level of acidity);
 Tracheid - elongated cells in d. helps in healing and
the xylem that help in the prevention of
Organs
transport of water and further damage
associated/Medium
nutrients (through platelet
used for circulation
 Sieve tubes - elongated cells formation); and
in the phloem that serve as e. plays an important
conduits of sugar transport role in the immune
system.

Most invertebrates such as

mollusks and arthropods have
hemolymph instead of blood.
 Blood vessels - tubular
structures carrying blood
 Heart - hollow muscular
organ that pumps blood
throughout the different
parts of the body

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 Transport in Animals (more
Transport in Plants
focused on mammals)
Fluids circulate through Blood is forcefully pumped
transpiration pull, or the throughout the body by the
Circulation process
evaporation of water from the heart.
plant's leaves.
Water is transported through About 90% of water is
Water transport the xylem. transported
through the blood plasma.
Food (sugars and other Food in the form of glucose is
metabolic the phloem. present nutrients) are
Food transport
transported through in blood
plasma.
Gases are diffused through the In mammals, oxygen is taken
air spaces, such as the stomata into the bloodstream by
and the lenticels. combining with the blood
protein called hemoglobin.
Gas exchange (involves This enables the oxygen to be
oxygen and carbon dioxide circulated throughout the
transport) body. Carbon dioxide, on the
other hand, is also taken into
the bloodstream by combining
with hemoglobin, so it can be
transported out of the body.

The blood delivers

nutrients to all the parts of
the body. It also picks up
wastes and other
substances from the cells
and delivers them to the
secretory organs (e.g.,
liver, kidney)

Fig.1.11. Structure of xylem and phloem

Source: https://img.freepik.com/free-vector/diagram-showing-xylem-phloem-plant_1308-106365.jpg

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Regulation of Fluids
Both plants and animals need to regulate the fluids inside their bodies. This is because body fluids
are essential for carrying out the different bodily functions in organisms. However, there are certain
differences that can be observed between plants and animals.

Fluid Regulation in Plants

In plants, the most important fluid is water. Water is one of the main substances needed by plants
to survive. In photosynthesis, water is used in photolysis, a photochemical process that allows water
molecules to split in the presence of light.

The amount of water that enters and leaves the plants is important. If the plants absorb less water
than needed, they may dry out and wither. Excessive amount of water is also dangerous for plants.
Thus, plants have several different ways of regulating the amount of water that comes in and out
of their bodies. Here are the following processes that play a role in water regulation.

Osmosis
This is the tendency of water to pass through the semipermeable
membrane of plant cells. In this process, water movement is from
an area with low solute concentration to an area with high solute
concentration. The solute concentration inside the plant cell is
higher than that of the soil. Thus, water moves from the soil to the
plant cells.
Transpiration
This is the process wherein water exits the plant through the
stomata of the leaves because of evaporation. Plants do not have
any specialized organs that transport water throughout their parts.
However, transpiration allows the water to travel from the soil
throughout the plants because it basically pulls the water up the
bodies of the plants. As water evaporates through the stomata, it
creates a negative pressure, exerting a pulling force that draws the
water upward.

Adhesion-cohesion property of water

This also allows the water to move up through a plant. As the water
and nutrients get inside the xylem, adhesion occurs because the
water molecules cling to the xylem tissue. At the same time,
cohesion occurs because the water molecules stick to one another.
When this happens, the water molecules may form a huge chain
that fills up an entire column in the xylem.
Capillary action
This refers to the movement of liquid across a solid surface, which is
caused by adhesion. The narrow xylem tubes allow the water
molecules to climb up on their own because the water molecules
adhere to the surface of the xylem tubes.

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Fluid Regulation in Animals
Body fluids are vital to animals. Different animals exert various ways of regulating their internal
body fluids. Fluid regulation in animals depends on their excretory systems. It also depends on the
concentration of water and mineral ions such as sodium, chlorine, and potassium, to name a few.
Water and minerals enter the body of the animals when they drink and eat food. However, most of
the water and the minerals are lost by evaporation from the skin and lungs, as well as by excretion.
To maintain homeostasis in animals, the amount of water acquired by the body should be equal to
the amount of water lost. Terrestrial and aquatic animals have different ways of regulating their
body fluids. Table 1.4 shows the ways by which animals adjust to their environment.

Fig. 1.12. Different mechanisms of fluid regulation in animals

The marine environment has a greater solute
concentration than that of the body of marine
invertebrates. For this reason, seawater may be
toxic to them. However, marine invertebrates,
Marine invertebrates
such as lobsters, starfishes, and sea slugs, have a
high concentration of solute in their blood, which
matches the tonicity of the water. This allows the
animals to survive in their environment.
The body fluids of marine vertebrates, such as
tunas and marine eels, are at a lower
concentration than that of seawater, which is why
marine vertebrates must reabsorb the water for
Marine vertebrates
Aquatic Animals them to remain in a healthy state. They excrete
ions such as sodium and chloride at a minimal
rate because a high amount of water must be
retained inside them.
The body of freshwater vertebrates is hypertonic,
as compared to their environment. This allows
water to continue to diffuse into the body of the
fish. The kidneys, which deal with water uptake,
Freshwater vertebrates allow large amounts of ions such as sodium and
chloride to go out of their bloodstream. However,
these organisms need to reabsorb some
important ions via active transport. Examples of
freshwater vertebrates are arowanas and carps.
Body fluids are regulated by the excretory system.
The excretory system removes the metabolic
wastes and retains proper amounts of water,
salts, and nutrients. Terrestrial animals, such as
dogs and cats, have various ways of reducing
Terrestrial Animals water loss. Some live in moist environments,
develop impermeable covering, and even
produce concentrated urine. The excretory
system of terrestrial animals serves to collect
water and filter body fluids, and it eliminates
excretory wastes from the body.

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 Plants and animals need to maintain an optimum water
concentration in their internal environment so they can still function
normally and optimally.

Chemical and Nervous Control

Higher forms of animals have complex forms of nervous control.
Plants may not have such organ systems, but they do have parts that
may be likened to certain nervous control mechanisms in animals.

Table below shows the nervous control mechanisms in animals and

Fig.1.13. Nerve nets in an invertebrate their possible counterparts in plants.
Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3
A%2F%2Fwww.zoologytalks.com%2Fnervous-
system-of-coelenterate-and-
echinoderm%2F&psig=AOvVaw0Rt7HuwSrnJSa
008MMl05j&ust=1701244442567000&source=i
Fig.1.14. Nervous control mechanisms in animals and their possible counterparts in plants.
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Animals Plants
The brain is the main organ used by Plants have a serial nervous
vertebrates for nervous control. It system. The root tip or apex
controls all the activities of the body. On serves as a unit of its nervous
the other hand, some invertebrates do system. Numerous apices in the
not have a main organ for nervous plant body connect to the vascular
control. Instead, they have a simple strands, which are classified as
Main organ for
kind of nervous system known as nerve plant nerves. These parallel
nervous control
nets. Nerve nets consist of individual interconnections form the serial
nerve cells that form a netlike nervous system in plants.
arrangement throughout the animal's
body. More complex nervous systems
can be found with more enhanced
sense organs
Vascular strands serve as the
nerves in plants. The leaves
contain strands that combine to
Channel or form the vascular bundles of the
Animals have nerves that carry stem and the vascular cylinder of
medium where
information from the brain and spinal the roots.
information
cord to the muscles and glands. The roots contain vascular tissues
travels
and its strands are supported by
numerous cells forming the
vascular cylinder.
Chemical control in animals involves Chemical control in plants also
Chemical hormones that are important for involve hormones needed for
control growth and survival. certain physiological processes in
the body.

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Immune Systems
The role of the immune system is to protect the organism
from diseases or other potentially damaging foreign
bodies. It identifies threats and finds ways to fight them.
Animals have the ability to become immune when they
are exposed to infection, but plants cannot do so.
Fig. 1.15. Animals and plant immune system
Animals
Animals have a multifaceted and complex
immune system capable of protecting them
against invasive pathogens or disease-causing
organisms. Their immune system is composed
of complex interactions that allow the
organisms to distinguish their own cells from
foreign cells, as well as remember specific
features of foreign bodies. As the body
recognizes foreign bodies, specialized blood
cells called lymphocytes travel through the
circulatory system to destroy them.
An organism’s body has natural
mechanisms to help us maintain
optimum status. So an organism
naturally tends to avoid recurring
threats that come along its way. These
threats include pain and suffering.
Plants
Plants, on the other hand, do not have a
structural immune system. Plants cannot
defend themselves against pathogens such as
bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Plants also do not
have a circulatory system. This is why plants
have cells that are able to respond to
pathogens independently. Each plant cell
contains receptors that recognize pathogen
molecules. When an invader is identified by the
receptor, it triggers defense responses. Such
responses include cell wall production and
thickening, as well as production of
antimicrobial compounds such as phytoalexins
and enzymes, and even cell death. Often,
suicide in plant cells is the most common
response to pathogens. Because pathogens
feed on living tissues, the infected cells die. This
prevents the pathogen from accessing
nutrients and spreading through the rest of the
plant. This hypersensitive response is a
common short-term response in which the cells
surrounding the site of infection are either
killed or given the signal to undergo apoptosis,
or programmed cell death.

Sensory and Motor Mechanisms

The sensory and motor mechanisms of animals are directly controlled by their nervous systems.
Animals employ a wide variety of sensory receptors and their actions. Sensory information is
conveyed and perceived by the following: first, the presence of a physical stimulus that would allow
certain reactions; second, the transduction of the stimulus into electrochemical impulses in the
sensory receptors; third, the transmission of action potentials in sensory neurons; and last, the
interpretation of the stimulus perceived by the central nervous system.

On the other hand, plants have sensory and motor mechanisms that give them the ability to sense
and respond to their environments. Plants react to light, chemicals, gravity, water, and even touch.
The ability of plants to respond to a certain stimulus is known as tropism.

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Fig. 1.16. Different types of tropisms exhibited by plants
Tropism Definition Illustration

Movement of the plant in response

Phototropism to light, usually in the direction
toward the light.

Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%
2Fwww.nagwa.com%2Fen%2Fexplainers%2F43410947

Movement of the plant in response

to gravitational force.
 Negative geotropism -
when the plant part moves
Geotropism away from Earth
 Positive geotropism - when
the plant part moves
toward Earth Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%
2Fwww.sciencephoto.com%2Fmedia%2F716510%2Fvie

Movement of the plant in response

Hydrotropism
to water.

Source:
https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%
2Fwww.mdpi.com%2F2073-

Movement of the plant in response

Thigmotropism
to mechanical stimulation.
Source:
https://boxerscabin.wordpress.com/2013/04/05/term-
paper-understanding-thigmotropism/

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 WHAT I HAVE LEARNED
SO FAR?

WRITTEN TASK
A. Instruction: Complete the following table that shows the differences between plants and
animals in terms of reproduction and development.

Feature Plants Animals

Method of fertilization

Cell characteristics

Life cycle

Formation of gametes

Cell growth

B. Instruction: Listed are the following characteristics or functions exhibited by organisms: For
each organism in the first column of the following table, check the columns that correspond
to that organism’s characteristics.

A Autotrophic I Can adapt and acquire immunity to pathogens

B Performs photosynthesis J Heterotrophs
C Usually motile K Has a structure called a brain
D Reproduces sexually and asexually L Can perform mitosis
E Shows alternation of generations M Eukaryotic
F Performs cellular respiration N Prokaryotic
G Has mitochondria O Has genetic materials or DNA
H Cell division requiring cell plate formation

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 Organism A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O
Santan
Lion
Mushroom
Human
E.coli
Hookworm
Cow
Monkey
Dolphin
Vulture

You are the head of an agency that supports mental health. You are aware of the increasing
number of Filipinos who have mental health problems. You know that there are people who
are not even aware of the existence of mental health concerns such as depression and suicidal
thoughts and tendencies. These problems are often ignored or set aside by many people. So
you want to create an awareness of the importance of mental health by educating school
administers or principals of private and public schools near your community. Create a position
letter indicating the need for public orientation on the fundamentals of mental health.

You will be graded according to the following:

 Sense of urgency – 10 pts

 Evidence to support claim – 10 pts
 Organization – 10 pts
 Grammar – 10 pts
 Solutions or tips – 10 pts
 Total – 50 pts

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 SUMMARY

 Organisms have complex structures and functions important for their survival.
 These structures work together for the organism to thrive.
 We should learn the different parts and functions of our body, because having this
knowledge will help us appreciate their importance so we can take care of them
properly.
 Sexual reproduction produces genetically variable offspring, increasing
reproductive success in changing environment.
 In asexual reproduction identical clones develop from the roots, stems or leaves
of a parent plant. Asexual reproduction is advantageous in a stable environment
where plants are well-adapted to their surroundings.
 Plant life cycle include an alternation of generations. The diploid sporophyte
undergoes meiosis and produces haploid spores, which give rise to the haploid
gametophyte generation. The gametophytes, in turn, produce gametes.
 Fertilization yields the diploid zygote, which develops into a new sporophyte.
 Most plants undergo alternation of generations, where they have sexual and
asexual life cycles, whereas the animal life cycle has only one continuous
multicellular stage (after fertilization).
 Energy is necessary because it allows organisms to move, respire, and digest, to
name a few body processes.
 Gases are important because they are required for different metabolic reactions
to proceed.
 Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are two biological processes involved in
gas exchange in plants.
 Higher forms of animals have complex forms of nervous control.
 Plants may not have such organ systems, but they do have parts that may be
likened to certain nervous control mechanisms in animals.
 Animals have the ability to become immune when they are exposed to infection,
but plants cannot do so.
 Animals employ a wide variety of sensory receptors and their actions.
 Plants have sensory and motor mechanisms that give them the ability to sense and
respond to their environments.

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 KEY TERMS
 PLANTS
 ANIMALS
 ORGAN
 ORGAN SYSTEM
 REPRODUCTION
 DEVELOPMENT
 NUTRITION
 GAS EXCHANGE
 TRANSPORT/CIRCULATION
 REGULATION OF BODY FLUIDS
 CHEMICAL AND NERVOUS CONTROL
 IMMUNE SYSTEM
 SENSORY AND MOTOR MECHANISMS
REFERENCES
Printed Materials:
Hoefnagels, M. (2016) Biology: The Essentials, Second Edition [General Biology: Books I and
II]. Abiva Publishing House, Inc. (Copyright 2016 by McGraw-Hill Education)
Mirabete, G.S. (2020) General Biology 2: Second Edition. Makati City, Philippines, Diwa
Learning Systems, Inc.

E-readings:
 https://bio.libretexts.org/Under_Construction/An_Interactive_Introduction_to_Or
ganismal_and_Molecular_Biology_(Bierema)/02%3A_Organismal_Biology/2.09%3
A_Reproduction

CONTRIBUTOR(S)
SETH BRYAN M. CABRIJAS
VERNIESE L. CHEN
JAMIE S. DELOS SANTOS
PAUL D. GONZALES
MELANIE I. PASCUAL

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