Transpiration is simply defined as the

movement of water through a plant and

evaporation through its above-ground parts,
such as the stomata of leaves. It is a vital
WHAT IS TRANSPIRATION? process for plant cooling, nutrient transport,
and maintaining water balance. Transpiration
is influenced by various abiotic factors like
humidity, temperature, wind, and light
intensity.

Active transport in roots involves moving

molecules from regions of lower to higher
concentration, requiring ATP for carrier
proteins to transport ions across the
DESCRIBE ACTIVE TRANSPORT
endodermis layer of the root. This process
OFMOLECULES IN ROOTS is crucial for the uptake of essential
inorganic ions like nitrates and magnesium
necessary for plant growth and chlorophyll
production.

EXPLAIN THE ENTRY OF WATER INTO

PLANT ROOTS
Water enters plant roots through osmosis,
moving from the soil into root hairs due to
a water potential gradient. The root hairs
increase surface area, enhancing both
osmosis and the uptake of water. Water
then travels through the apoplast or
symplast pathways, ultimately reaching
the xylem vessels at the centre of the root.
This process is driven by the gradually
decreasing water potential gradient from
the soil to the atmosphere.
The apoplast pathway is a route through
which water moves within plant roots without
entering the cytoplasm of the root cells.
Instead, water flows through the freely
WHAT IS THE APOPLAST permeable cell walls from cell to cell.
PATHWAY? However, it cannot directly reach the xylem
vessels due to waterproof blockages called
Casparian strips in the endodermis.

DIAGRAM SHOWING SYMPLAST

AND APOPLAST PATHWAYS IN
PLANT ROOTS

The symplast pathway involves water entering

root cells by crossing the plasma membrane
and then moving from cell to cell through
gaps in the cell walls called plasmodesmata.
WHAT IS THE SYMPLAST Water continues to diffuse down the water
PATHWAY? potential gradient until it reaches the xylem
vessels at the centre of the root.
 Active transport of ions in the endodermis
reduces the water potential in the xylem,
HOW DOES ACTIVE steepening the water potential gradient. This
TRANSPORT INFLUENCE facilitates faster movement of water
WATER MOVEMENT IN PLANT molecules into the xylem from the
ROOTS? endodermis, contributing to a force known as
root pressure, which pushes water into and
along the xylem.

DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF

XYLEM VESSELS.

Xylem vessels are composed of lignin,

providing rigidity and structural
support. They may exhibit
arrangements like annular or
reticulated patterns. Pits in their walls HOW IS WATER TRANSPORTED
allow for water exchange with adjacent UPWARDS IN PLANTS?
cells. Xylem vessels are hollow,
continuous tubes devoid of living cell
material, ensuring uninterrupted flow
of water and minerals.
-Cohesion and adhesion: Water molecules stick
together (cohesion) and to xylem walls (adhesion),
allowing them to move upwards through capillary
action.
-Transpirational pull: Water vapor escapes through HOW DO ENVIRONMENTAL
stomata, creating negative pressure that pulls water
up the plant.
CONDITIONS INFLUENCE WATER
Narrow xylem vessels: These small-diameter tubes MOVEMENT IN PLANTS?
facilitate capillary action and transpirational pull.
-Root pressure: Active transport of ions into the
xylem lowers its water potential, aiding water uptake
and contributing to upward flow.
 Environmental factors like low humidity
and high wind speed increase the rate of
water loss from leaves, enhancing the
transpirational pull and facilitating faster
water movement through the plant.
Conversely, high humidity and still air can
slow down water loss and reduce the
transpirational pull.

Stomata are tiny pores located in the epidermis of

plant leaves, primarily on the lower surface. They
regulate the exchange of gases, including water vapor
(transpiration) and other gases, between the plant and
the atmosphere. Stomata are surrounded by guard
WHAT ARE STOMATA AND cells, which control their opening and closing. When
HOW DO THEY FUNCTION? guard cells are turgid, stomata open, allowing water
vapor to escape. When guard cells are flaccid, stomata
close, preventing water loss.

-Temperature: Higher temperatures increase kinetic

energy in water molecules, leading to faster transpiration
rates.
-Light intensity: Some plants close stomata at night,
WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE reducing water loss during darkness.
THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION -Humidity: High humidity decreases transpiration rates,
while low humidity increases transpiration.
IN PLANTS? -Air movements: Wind can enhance transpiration by
removing water vapor from around stomata, steepening
the water potential gradient.
-Plant anatomy: Factors such as leaf size, number of leaves,
presence of stomatal hairs, and thickness of the waxy
cuticle influence transpiration rates.
 The rate of transpiration can be measured using a
potometer setup. In this setup, an air bubble in a
capillary tube moves towards a cut shoot as water
HOW IS THE RATE OF is taken up by the plant. After a fixed period, the
TRANSPIRATION MEASURED? final position of the air bubble is marked, and the
distance moved indicates the rate of transpiration.
Factors such as temperature and air movement
affect the distance moved by the air bubble.

DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF THE

PHLOEM.

The phloem consists of sieve tube

elements, which lack a nucleus and
have few organelles. These sieve
elements are accompanied by WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF THE
companion cells, which support their PHLOEM?
function by providing energy. Sieve
plates, where two sieve tube elements
meet, facilitate the flow of assimilates.

The phloem transports organic

substances such as sucrose and
amino acids through a process
DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF SIEVE
called translocation. It moves these
TUBE ELEMENTS.
substances bidirectionally, from
sources (e.g., leaves) to sinks (e.g.,
roots), to supply nutrients to various
parts of the plant.
Sieve tube elements are elongated
cells with few organelles, lacking a
nucleus or ribosomes, and having
WHAT ARE SIEVE PLATES IN THE
very few mitochondria. They are
PHLOEM?
joined by companion cells, which
support their function by providing
ATP for loading and unloading of
assimilates

Sieve plates are perforated discs

found where two sieve tube
elements meet. They contain many
sieve pores that facilitate mass flow
through the phloem. The pores may
also reduce resistance by increasing
pressure through them.

COMPARISON OF XYLEM AND

PHLOEM
 WHAT ARE SOURCES AND SINKS IN
PLANT PHYSIOLOGY?

•Source: Photosynthetic organs,

such as mature leaves, that produce
sugars through photosynthesis.
EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF PHLOEM
LOADING AND UNLOADING
•Sink: Non-photosynthetic organs,
like roots, tubers, and developing
fruits, which consume sugars for
growth and metabolism.

•Phloem loading involves the active transport
of sucrose and ions from source tissues (e.g.,
leaves) into the phloem.
•H+ ions are actively pumped out of
companion cells using ATP, creating a
concentration gradient.
•Sucrose is transported into the sieve tube
elements along with H+ ions, facilitated by
transport proteins.
•Phloem unloading involves the release of
sucrose from the phloem into sink tissues (e.g.,
roots)
.•Sucrose is transported out of the phloem,
increasing the water potential in the surrounding
tissues
.
•Water flows into the sink tissues from the xylem,
allowing for the uptake of sucrose and other
nutrients.

WHAT IS THE MASS FLOW

HYPOTHESIS?
•The mass flow hypothesis suggests that
translocation in the phloem occurs due to
a pressure-driven flow of sap from source
to sink tissues. WHAT EVIDENCE SUPPORTS THE
•It proposes that the active loading of MASS FLOW HYPOTHESIS?
solutes into the phloem creates a high
concentration of solutes, leading to water
influx and increased pressure, which
pushes the sap along the phloem tubes.

•Concentration of H+ ions: During mass flow,

there's a high concentration of positively
charged H+ ions outside companion cells,
creating an electrical gradient. This is
evidenced by the positive charge outside and
negative charge inside companion cells. WHAT CHALLENGES EXIST FOR THE
MASS FLOW HYPOTHESIS?
•pH of phloem sap: Phloem sap is slightly
alkaline before the influx of acidic H+ ions
from companion cells, indicating the presence
of H+ ions involved in mass flow.

•Bidirectional flow: The hypothesis

struggles to explain bidirectional flow
of solutes, such as sucrose moving
both up and down the stem.
•Different flow rates: Amino acids and
sucrose flow at different rates in the
phloem, which contradicts the
uniformity expected with mass flow.

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF THE

VENA CAVA?
 WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF THE
Carries deoxygenated blood from
AORTA IN THE CIRCULATORY
the body cells into the heart.
SYSTEM?

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF THE

Carries oxygenated blood away
PULMONARY ARTERY IN THE
from the heart to the body cells.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM?

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF THE

Carries deoxygenated blood away
PULMONARY VEIN IN THE
from the heart and to the lungs.
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM?

Open and close to prevent backflow of

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
blood
THE VALVES IN THE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM?
WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
Separates the left and right halves
THE SEPTUM IN THE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM?

Muscle-dense region of heart responsible

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
for pumping blood to aorta.
THE LEFT VENTRICLE IN THE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM?

pump deoxygenated blood from the heart

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
to the lungs through the pulmonary artery
THE RIGHT VENTRICLE IN THE
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM?

receives deoxygenated blood from the

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF body via the superior and inferior vena
THE RIGHT ATRIUM IN THE cava and pump it into the right ventricle
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM? for onward circulation to the lungs.
 WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
THE LEFT ATRIUM IN THE and sends it to the left ventricle, which
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM? pumps it out to the body.

It is considered a double circulatory

system, meaning blood enters and exits
the heart twice per cycle:
WHAT IS NOTABLE ABOUT THE
-Pulmonary circulation: Blood travels
MAMMALIAN CIRCULATORY
between the heart and the lungs.
SYSTEM?
-Systemic circulation: Blood travels
between the heart and the body.

HOW DOES BLOOD FLOW

Blood always flows in a unidirectional
THROUGH THE CHAMBERS OF
manner through the chambers of the heart
THE HEART?

Valves prevent backflow of blood in the

heart. There are two types:
-Atrioventricular valves (tricuspid and
WHAT ARE THE ROLES OF
bicuspid/mitral): Located between the atria
VALVES IN THE HEART?
and ventricles.
-Semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic):
Located at the exits of the ventricles
leading to the arteries.
 Arteries are thick-walled blood vessels that carry blood
away from the heart to body cells. They have a thick tunica
media and tunica externa, allowing them to withstand high
pressures. Example: Aorta.
WHAT ARE ARTERIES AND Veins are thin-walled blood vessels that carry blood towards
VEINS? the heart from body cells. They have large lumens and can
collapse if blood flow stops. Examples: Superior and inferior
vena cava.
Capillaries are narrow blood vessels that surround tissues
and organs. They have a single layer of endothelial cells that
facilitate rapid diffusion of substances. Red blood cells flow
through them in single file.

TABLE COMPARING ARTERIES WHAT ARE CAPILLARIES?

AND VEINS

Capillaries are narrow blood vessels

that surround tissues and organs.
They have a single layer of
endothelial cells that facilitate rapid
diffusion of substances. Red blood
cells flow through them in single file.
 Erythrocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophil,
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT
monocytes and platelets
TYPES OF BLOOD CELLS IN THE
BODY?

Contains haemoglobin to transport

oxygen and carbon dioxide.

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF Biconcave shape for rapid gas diffusion,
ERYTHROCYTES? lack of major organelles for more room for
haemoglobin, small size to fit through
capillaries.

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF

LYMPHOCYTES?

Make antibodies (B-cells), send

signals (T-helper cells), or kill
infected cells (cytotoxic T-cells).

Receptors on surfaces to bind

antigens, large round nuclei to store
genetic data, mature in bone
marrow or thymus ( made in bone
marrow)
WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF Engulf pathogens and digest them, able to
present antigens to lymphocytes.
NEUTROPHILS?
Large, multi-lobed nuclei that can
evaginate pathogens and package them.

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF

MONOCYTES AND MACROPHAGES?

Monocytes are precursors to

macrophages, involved in
phagocytosis and antigen
presentation.
Large, irregular nucleus, slightly
granulated, macrophages act
similarly to neutrophils but are more
involved in phagocytosis.

Help form blood clots to stop bleeding in

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF
PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTE)?
response to injury.
Small fragments from bone marrow cells,
activate enzymes and clotting factors to
form insoluble fibrin and stop bleeding.
 Contraction of the atria or ventricles,
WHAT IS SYSTOLE?
causing blood flow out of the heart.

Relaxation of the atria and ventricles,

WHAT IS DIASTOLE?
allowing blood to flow into the heart to
refill the chambers.

The atria contract

WHAT HAPPENS DURING
The vein valves close, preventing backflow
ATRIAL SYSTOLE?
into the veins. This carries blood from the
atria to the ventricles

WHAT HAPPENS DURING

VENTRICULAR SYSTOLE?
The ventricles contract, pushing the
blood into the aorta and pulmonary
artery.
The AV valves close, preventing
backflow of blood into the atria.

Both atria and ventricles relax, allowing

DESCRIBE VENTRICULAR
blood to flow into the heart from the
DIASTOLE.
veins.
Semi-lunar valves shut to prevent the
blood from flowing out

WHERE DOES THE CARDIAC CYCLE

BEGIN, AND WHAT INITIATES IT?

The cardiac cycle begins at the sinoatrial

node (SAN), located in the right atrium,
which generates an electrical impulse
initiating atrial contraction.
The AVN receives the electrical impulse
from the SAN and relays it to the
ventricles, causing ventricular contraction
 1. The SAN is a myogenic muscle, which means it doesn’t
need an impulse to initiate. It sends out a wave of excitation
across the nerves in the atria.
2. This causes the atria to contract.
WHAT ARE THE SEQUENCE OF 3. The AVN picks up the signal and sends another wave of
EVENTS FOR ONE CARDIAC excitation to go to the ventricles. However, this wave
experiences a „refractory period or delay (about 0.3s) so
CYCLE? that the atria and ventricles don’t contract simultaneously.
4. Electrically excitable cells called Purkyne (or Purkinje)
fibres conduct the signal from the AVN. They move into
branches in the septum called Bundles of His.
5. The ventricles contract upon reception of signal .

INTERPRETING A GRAPHICAL
REPRESENTATION OF THE CARDIAC
CYCLE

Observe the periods of systole and diastole shown. You’ll see that
the pressure has a steep increase during ventricular systole, mostly
due to the density of the cardiac muscle in the left ventricle. Recall
that this pressure has to be high enough to pump blood through
to the aorta to the arteries and body cells. This is why aortic
pressure increases at this point as well. Also keep in mind that
these valves (semi-lunar and AV) are open and closed due to
changes in pressure. Note the pressure values 120/80 mm Hg. This
is the typical systolic and diastolic pressure respectively.
NOTE: If the entire cycle on the left had been completed in 0.85s,
how many heartbeats would there be per minute? Just divide 60s
by 0.85s and you’ll get approximately 70, which is the number of
beats per minute for the average adult heart.

Stroke volume refers to the volume of

WHAT IS STROKE VOLUME
blood ejected from the left ventricle with
(SV)?
each heartbeat. It is a crucial determinant
of cardiac output
WHAT IS THE CARDIAC CYCLE? The cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of
events that comprises one heartbeat

Increased physical activity leads to higher

WHAT INFLUENCE DO OXYGEN oxygen demands in cells, stimulating
increased blood flow and cardiac output.
(O2) AND CARBON DIOXIDE
Nitric oxide released due to oxygen
(CO2) CONCENTRATIONS HAVE
deficiency dilates arterioles, allowing
ON CARDIAC OUTPUT? increased blood flow.
High carbon dioxide concentrations can
also increase heart rate by stimulating
chemoreceptors in arteries.

During exercise, carotid (brain) artery walls

may swell, stimulating baroreceptors
HOW DO PARASYMPATHETIC
(„stretch‟ receptors) to send signals along
NERVES INFLUENCE CARDIAC
the vagus nerve to the brain. This lowers
OUTPUT? cardiac output to avoid overexertion.

WHAT ROLE DO SYMPATHETIC During exercise, sympathetic nerves

stimulate the sinoatrial (SAN) and
NERVES PLAY IN CARDIAC
atrioventricular (AVN) nodes, increasing
OUTPUT REGULATION?
heart rate and cardiac output to meet
increased oxygen demands.
 Adrenaline acts similarly to sympathetic
HOW DOES ADRENALINE
nerves, stimulating adrenoreceptors to
INFLUENCE CARDIAC OUTPUT?
increase heart rate and cardiac output
during times of stress or excitement.

During exercise, muscles need more

oxygen-rich blood to fuel activity. To meet
HOW DOES EXERCISE
this demand, the body releases nitric
INFLUENCE BLOOD PRESSURE?
oxide, a molecule that relaxes and widens
blood vessels, allowing more blood to flow
through them.

Cigarette smoke contains nicotine, a

chemical that constricts blood vessels and
WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF
increases the resistance to blood flow. This
CIGARETTE SMOKING ON
constriction raises blood pressure by
BLOOD PRESSURE? making it harder for the heart to pump
blood through narrowed arteries.

Adrenaline, also known as epinephrine, is a

stress hormone released by the adrenal
glands in response to perceived threats or
HOW DOES ADRENALINE
stressful situations. When adrenaline binds
INFLUENCE BLOOD PRESSURE?
to adrenergic receptors in blood vessels
and the heart, it causes vasoconstriction
and increases cardiac output.
 Atherosclerosis is a progressive condition
characterized by the build-up of fatty
HOW DOES ATHEROSCLEROSIS deposits, cholesterol, and other substances
in the walls of arteries. As plaques
AFFECT BLOOD PRESSURE?
accumulate, they narrow the arterial
passages, increasing resistance to blood
flow and raising blood pressure.

WHAT ARE SOME FACTORS

Exercise, cigarette smoking,
THAT INCREASE BLOOD
atherosclerosis, and adrenaline
PRESSURE?

Haemoglobin transports oxygen from the lungs

to body tissues and helps remove carbon dioxide.
It consists of four subunits, each containing an
WHAT DOES HAEMOGLOBIN iron molecule that binds to oxygen.
DO IN THE BODY? Oxygen binds to haemoglobin in the lungs,
forming oxyhaemoglobin, which is carried to
tissues.
Haemoglobin can also bind to carbon dioxide,
aiding its transport from tissues to the lungs for
exhalation.
Haemoglobin picks up oxygen in the
lungs, forming oxyhaemoglobin.
Oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2) is transported via
HOW DOES HAEMOGLOBIN
the bloodstream to tissues, where it
TRANSPORT OXYGEN?
releases oxygen for cellular respiration.
This oxygen release occurs due to changes
in oxygen concentration and tissue
metabolic activity.
 Haemoglobin binds to carbon dioxide,
forming carbaminohaemoglobin.
HOW DOES HAEMOGLOBIN
This process aids in transporting carbon
HELP REMOVE CARBON
dioxide from tissues to the lungs for
DIOXIDE? exhalation.
Carbaminohaemoglobin plays a role in
maintaining the body's acid-base balance.

Haemoglobin exhibits a higher affinity for

oxygen compared to carbon dioxide.
Oxygen binds to haemoglobin more
WHAT IS HAEMOGLOBIN'S
readily, facilitating efficient oxygen uptake
AFFINITY FOR OXYGEN AND
and release.
CARBON DIOXIDE? Carbon monoxide from sources like
cigarette smoke can competitively bind to
haemoglobin, reducing oxygen transport.

Haemoglobin molecules show positive

cooperativity, meaning that once one oxygen
molecule binds, it enhances the binding of
HOW DOES HAEMOGLOBIN subsequent molecules.
BIND OXYGEN MOLECULES? This cooperative binding allows for efficient
oxygen loading and unloading in response to
changing oxygen levels.
Positive cooperativity results from conformational
changes in haemoglobin's structure upon oxygen
binding.

Oxygen dissociation curves illustrate the relationship

between the partial pressure of oxygen and the
 percentage saturation of haemoglobin with oxygen.
In areas with high oxygen partial pressure (e.g.,
WHAT ARE OXYGEN alveoli), haemoglobin becomes more saturated with
DISSOCIATION CURVES? oxygen.
In tissues with low oxygen partial pressure (e.g.,
respiring muscle tissue), haemoglobin releases
oxygen, resulting in lower saturation.
These curves help understand how haemoglobin's
affinity for oxygen changes with varying oxygen
concentrations.
Haemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxygen at
higher partial pressures (e.g., in the alveoli),
leading to increased oxygen binding and
HOW DOES HAEMOGLOBIN'S saturation.
AFFINITY FOR OXYGEN At lower partial pressures (e.g., in tissues with
high metabolic activity), haemoglobin's affinity for
CHANGE WITH OXYGEN oxygen decreases, allowing for oxygen release to
CONCENTRATIONS? cells.
Oxygen dissociation curves depict this
relationship, showing the saturation of
haemoglobin at different oxygen levels
Oxygen dissociation curves help understand how
haemoglobin's binding affinity for oxygen
changes in response to varying oxygen
WHY ARE OXYGEN concentrations.
DISSOCIATION CURVES They provide insights into oxygen transport and
release in different physiological conditions, such
IMPORTANT? as during exercise or at high altitudes.
These curves are crucial for understanding the
efficiency of oxygen delivery to tissues and
organs in the body.

INTERPRETING AN OXYGEN
DISSOCIATION CURVE GRAPH
 On the graph you can see that curve makes a
sigmoidal shape, with the graph being steeper at
the beginning. This is because O2 saturation
increases due to conformational changes in the
haemoglobin protein. Oxygen saturation increases WHAT IS THE BOHR EFFECT?
as partial pressure increases. It is most saturated
in the lungs (close to 100%), so this ensures many
oxyhaemoglobin molecules are formed. At lower
partial pressures, it is more difficult for oxygen to
bind. So as oxygen is unloaded unto tissues for
respiration, the saturation decreases.

The Bohr effect shows that haemoglobin’s affinity for

oxygen is affected in certain conditions, meaning that it is
less likely to bind with it. The curve „shifts‟ to the right if
there is increased CO2 levels (from respiring tissues). This
shows a decrease in oxygen affinity. This makes sense, as in
this case, we’d want oxygen to dissociate from
haemoglobin to replenish these tissues. The curve shifts to
the left if CO2 levels are low (as in the lungs), allowing
more O2 to be taken up. pH is also a factor due to CO2
converting into carbonic acid and releasing H + ions.
Temperature affects haemoglobin as high temperatures
can affect its structure and bonds, hence reducing affinity

TRANSECTION OF A CAROTID
ARTERY

WHAT IS HOMEOSTASIS?

Homeostasis is the regulation of the

 body's internal environment to
maintain stability in response to
changes or stimuli.
WHAT IS NEGATIVE FEEDBACK?
It involves feedback mechanisms,
including negative and positive
feedback, to achieve equilibrium
and stabilize physiological
conditions.
Negative feedback is a regulatory mechanism
that reverses deviations from a set point to
restore equilibrium.
Example: When blood glucose levels rise after
a meal, the pancreas releases insulin, which
promotes glucose uptake by cells, thereby WHAT IS POSITIVE FEEDBACK?
lowering blood sugar levels.
Negative feedback mechanisms help maintain
stability and prevent drastic fluctuations in
physiological parameters.

Positive feedback, which reinforces the

change that has happened and allows
the process to continue (e.g., during WHAT FACTORS DOES
childbirth, uterus contractions occur HOMEOSTASIS REGULATE?
due to continued release of the
hormone, oxytocin. Action potentials in
nerves are propagated through
continuous reactions.)
Homeostasis regulates numerous factors
critical for proper bodily function,
including body temperature, blood
pressure, oxygen levels, glucose HOW DOES THE BODY ACHIEVE
concentration, and pH balance. HOMEOSTASIS?
These factors have optimal ranges, and
deviations from these ranges can lead to
physiological imbalances and health
issues.

Homeostasis is maintained through a series of

coordinated mechanisms involving sensors, integrators,
and effectors.
Sensors (detectors/ receptors) detect changes in internal
 and external environments and transmit information to
regulators such as the hypothalamus.Regulators
compare incoming signals to set points and initiate
appropriate responses via effectors, which can be
WHAT IS THE NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
muscles, glands, or organs. MECHANISM FOR BODY
Responses may include adjustments in heart rate,
hormone secretion, blood vessel dilation or constriction, TEMPERATURE?
sweating, and metabolic processes to restore
equilibrium.
Homeostatic mechanisms operate through negative
feedback loops, continuously monitoring and adjusting
physiological parameters to maintain stability.
The set point for body temperature is 37.5 ˚C.
Temperature is monitored by cells called receptors (or
detectors) typically on the skin. These transport electrical
signals to a regulator, which in this case, is the
hypothalamus. The regulator compares this detected
value to the set point and sends out a signal if they are
too far apart. If they are, a signal is sent to effectors,
which try to bring the value back to the set point. In this
case, if too high, sweat glands may be activated to cool
the body down. If too low, skeletal muscles will contract
continuously to produce heat (shivering). Changes in
blood vessel diameters may also occur (vasodilation or
vasoconstriction).

The point of the negative feedback system is to achieve

homeostatic equilibrium. It is important to keep in mind
that hormones act a lot more slowly than electrical impulses
from the nervous system. So, for factors such as blood
DESCRIBE THE CONCEPT OF glucose level, there is a delay between detection, regulation,
DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM IN and action from the effector. As a result, there is a never a
fixed return to set value. Instead, it hovers around a range
HOMEOSTASIS USING as many factors are being regulated simultaneously. This is
referred to as a dynamic mechanism. However, if a regulator
HORMONES or control centre is damaged, there won’t be a return to a
set point, possibly leading to disease of death.

-Endocrine glands secrete substances directly into the

bloodstream, lacking ducts for transportation. They
WHAT ARE THE TWO MAIN release hormones that regulate various physiological
TYPES OF GLANDS, AND WHAT processes. Examples include the adrenal glands,
pituitary gland, ovaries, and testes.
ARE THEIR CHARACTERISTICS?
-Exocrine glands secrete substances through ducts to
the body's exterior or into body cavities. They produce
sweat, saliva, tears, and other fluids.
Examples include salivary glands, sweat glands,
mammary glands, and lacrimal (tear) glands.
 Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble and can diffuse through
the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes. They include
WHAT ARE THE MAIN hormones such as oestrogen, progesterone, testosterone,
and cortisol.
CATEGORIES OF HORMONES, Nonsteroid hormones, also known as protein hormones,
AND HOW DO THEY DIFFER IN cannot diffuse through the phospholipid bilayer and are
lipid-insoluble. They consist of polypeptides or amino acids
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION? and include hormones such as growth hormone (GH),
antidiuretic hormone (ADH), adrenaline, oxytocin, insulin,
and glucagon.

Hormones are defined as secretions of ductless

glands that are directly released into the
bloodstream. They can act on cells in the vicinity
WHAT ARE HORMONES AND or on distant target cells that have receptors
WHAT ARE THE ROLES OF specific to the hormone. Hormones influence the
metabolic activities of cells and act as chemical
HORMONES IN THE BODY? messengers. This system is known as the
endocrine system and though it is slower-acting
than the nervous system, some hormones bring
about more long-term effects.

WHAT ARE FIRST AND SECOND

MESSENGERS, AND HOW DO THEY
FUNCTION IN HORMONAL
SIGNALLING?

Non-steroid hormones, like adrenaline and

glucagon, bind to receptor proteins on the plasma
membrane of target cells.
This binding triggers the activation of an enzyme,
which may hydrolyze a protein and change its
shape.
The activated enzyme converts adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) into cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP), which acts as a second
messenger.
cAMP relays instructions from the hormone (the
first messenger) to the target cell's interior,
initiating cellular responses such as glycogen
breakdown or gene expression.
EXAMPLES OF HORMONES &
GLANDS IN THE BODY

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF

ADH (ANTIDIURETIC ADRENALINE?
HORMONE) ?

Assists with water conservation and Increases heart rate and breathing during
reabsorption in kidneys. stress or excitement

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF

Regulates calcium and phosphate levels in
CALCITONIN?
blood, protects against bone loss.
WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
Raises blood glucose levels, aids in tissue
CORTISOL?
repair during stress.

Neurotransmitter that helps regulate

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
attention, memory, and problem-solving
DOPAMINE? abilities.

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF

Stimulates erythrocyte production,
ERYTHROPOIETIN?
especially in low-oxygen conditions.

Stimulates egg growth in ovaries,

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
regulates menstrual cycle
FSH (FOLLICLE STIMULATING
HORMONE) ?
WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
Stimulates stomach acid and mucosal
GASTRIN?
secretions.

Stimulates body tissue growth.

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
GH (GROWTH HORMONE) ?

Promotes glycogen breakdown into

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
glucose
GLUCAGON?

Stimulates release of FSH and LH

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
hormones
GNRH (GONADOTROPIN-
RELEASING HORMONE) ?
 WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
Promotes glucose conversion into
INSULIN?
glycogen.

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF LH

Triggers egg release from ovary.
(LUTENISING HORMONE) ?

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF

Regulates sleep-wake cycle.
MELATONIN ?

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF Endometrial and egg cell maturation.

OESTROGEN?
WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
promotes uterine contractions during
OXYTOCIN?
labour, facilitates human bonding.

maintenance of endometrium
WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
PROGESTERONE?

a hormone primarily associated with

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
lactation, the process of milk production in
PROLACTIN?
mammary glands

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF

promotes platelet formation for blood
THROMBOPOIETIN?
clotting.

WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF
THYROXINE(T4)?
vital hormone produced by the thyroid
gland; a butterfly-shaped organ located in
the neck. It plays a central role in
regulating metabolism, growth, and
development throughout the body.

Insulin and glucagon are two hormones

secreted by the pancreas by a group of
cells called the islets of Langerhans. These
WHAT ARE α-CELLS and β-
can be sub-divided into α-cells and β-cells.
CELLS?
β-cells secrete insulin in response rise in
blood glucose level. α cells secrete
glucagon when blood glucose drops. Both
cells act as receptors.

Insulin facilitates the transport of glucose

WHAT IS THE PRIMARY ROLE
OF INSULIN IN GLUCOSE
METABOLISM?
from the bloodstream into cells'
cytoplasm, where it is utilized as a raw
material for aerobic respiration and ATP
production.

Insulin signals the translocation of GLUT4

HOW DOES INSULIN
transport proteins to the cell membrane of
FACILITATE THE ENTRY OF
muscle cells, allowing glucose to enter via
GLUCOSE INTO MUSCLE CELLS? facilitated diffusion.
 In liver cells, insulin binds to its receptors
and activates enzymes like glucokinase
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF INSULIN
and glycogen synthase. Glucokinase
IN LIVER CELLS?
phosphorylates glucose, allowing its entry
into the cell, while glycogen synthase
converts glucose into glycogen for
storage.

Glucagon primarily increases blood

glucose levels by stimulating glycogen
WHAT IS THE PRIMARY
breakdown (glycogenolysis) in the liver
FUNCTION OF GLUCAGON IN
and promoting the conversion of non-
GLUCOSE METABOLISM? carbohydrate sources such as lipids and
amino acids into glucose
(gluconeogenesis).

Unlike insulin, which promotes glucose

uptake and storage, glucagon mobilizes
HOW DOES THE ACTION OF
glucose reserves by promoting glycogen
GLUCAGON DIFFER FROM
breakdown and gluconeogenesis.
INSULIN? Additionally, glucagon requires a first
messenger (glucagon) and a second
messenger (cAMP) to exert its effects.

1) Glucagon in the blood binds to a protein-

coupled receptor on the liver cell’s plasma
membrane.
WHAT ARE THE STEPS FOR THE 2) The protein is hydrolysed and breaks off a
ACTION OF GLUCAGON IN fragment, called a G-protein, that acts as a
molecular switch. This fragment completes a
LIVER CELLS? molecule of an enzyme called cyclase.
3) Cyclase converts ATP into cyclic AMP (cAMP).
4) cAMP then helps break glycosidic bonds in
glycogen to form glucose.
 WHAT ARE G-PROTEINS AND WHAT
ROLE DO THEY PLAY?

G-proteins are complexes that act as

signal transducers, transmitting
HOW CAN THE FUNCTION OF G-
signals from cell surface receptors to
PROTEINS BE CONCEPTUALIZED?
intracellular effectors. They act as
intermediaries, relaying instructions
from the receptor to enzymes or
other cellular factors.

Think of G-proteins as "relay

switches" or "signal transducers" WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF CYCLIC
that convey messages from the
ADENOSINE MONOPHOSPHATE
receptor (the "parent protein") to
(CAMP) IN CELLULAR SIGNALLING?
downstream effectors (the "child
proteins"), ultimately regulating
cellular responses to extracellular
signals.

cAMP serves as a second messenger

in cellular signalling pathways. It
relays instructions from the initial
WHAT IS THE NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
signalling molecule (the first
MECHANISM FOR BLOOD GLUCOSE
messenger) to downstream targets
within the cell, regulating various CONCENTRATION?
cellular responses and processes.
 WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN INSULIN AND
GLUCAGON?

Insulin
-Increases glucose uptake
-Inhibits glycogen breakdown
WHAT HAPPENS DURING THE
Glucagon
PROCESS OF RIPENING IN FRUITS?
-Promotes glycogen breakdown
-Inhibits glucose uptake
-Promotes glucose production from non
sugar molecules ( gluconeogenesis)

During ripening, fruits undergo

changes such as softening of
WHAT IS THE ROLE OF ETHYLENE IN
texture, increase in sweetness,
FRUIT RIPENING?
production of aromatic compounds,
and a change in colour, making
them more attractive and edible

Ethylene is a plant hormone

responsible for triggering the
ripening process in fruits. It
HOW DOES ETHYLENE INFLUENCE
promotes softening of the fruit,
THE RIPENING PROCESS IN FRUITS?
conversion of complex sugars into
simpler ones, and the production of
aromatic compounds, ultimately
leading to edibility and colour
change.
Ethylene, being a gas, can diffuse
 through the air and influence the
ripening of adjacent fruits. It WHICH TYPES OF FRUITS ARE
accelerates the ripening process by
KNOWN AS CLIMACTERIC FRUITS?
promoting the breakdown of cell
walls, conversion of sugars, and
production of aromatic compounds,
thus making fruits market-ready
faster.

Climacteric fruits are those that

produce significant amounts of
ethylene gas and undergo a rapid
increase in respiration during
ripening. Examples include
tomatoes, bananas, avocadoes,
mangoes, apples, and pears.

Ethylene accelerates fruit ripening by activating

enzymes that produce more ethylene.
This process results in rapid ripening, consuming
HOW DOES ETHYLENE AFFECT significant energy to hydrolyse cell walls and sugars.
Ethylene's gaseous nature allows quick diffusion
FRUIT RIPENING AND over a large area, affecting neighbouring fruits.
RESPIRATION? It has a low melting point, remaining a gas even at
low temperatures.
Increased ethylene production correlates with
higher rates of respiration, as observed through
carbon dioxide evolution.

GRAPH SHOWING THE

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CO2 /
ETHLYENE AND DAYS OF RIPENING

Rate of respiration increases as ethylene production is

increased. This can be proven by observing carbon dioxide
volumes released from the fruit. The graph shows that as
ethylene production increases (from Day 2 to 3), there is a
 steep increase in the evolution of carbon dioxide from fruit
tissues due to increased rate of respiration. Both ethylene
and CO2 concentrations reach a peak around Day 4. This is
when the fruit has completely ripened. After this point, CO 2
WHAT CAUSES RIPENING IN
levels drop due to a reduction in metabolic activity after the
ripening process has ceased. At the same time, ethylene
BANANAS?
concentration has plateaued, meaning that it is still being
released and can influence the ripening of other fruits
around it. However, the quality of a fruit declines after this
point, which will eventually result in cell death. Certain
factors also influence this process, including humidity,
temperature, and oxygen concentration

WHY IS EXCRETION NECESSARY?

Excretion is necessary to remove

WHAT IS UREA?
waste products from metabolic
reactions, preventing their
accumulation in tissues and
potential toxicity.

Urea is the main waste product

WHAT ARE THE WASTE PRODUCTS
formed during deamination, where
REMOVED DURING EXCRETION?
the amino (NH2) group is removed
from amino acids.
 HOW IS UREA EXCRETED FROM THE
Carbon dioxide, excess water, and
BODY?
urea are the waste products
removed during excretion.

Urea is primarily excreted through the

kidneys via urine.

As seen in the diagram, the amino group

is extracted to form the very toxic
ammonia. In the liver cells, in a process
called the ornithine cycle, ammonia, with DIAGRAM SHOWING HOW UREA IS
the help of ATP, combines with carbon FORMED
dioxide to eventually form urea. Urea has
a lower toxicity and though less soluble,
can be easily transported in the blood
plasma.

 Renal artery – Carries blood from the

aorta to the kidneys
 Renal vein – Carries blood from the kidney
back to the heart (vena cava)
 Cortex – Outer part of the kidney,
surrounded by a fatty tissue capsule.
THE MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE
Contains the glomerulus and convoluted KIDNEY
tubules of the nephron.
 Medulla – Inner part of the kidney,
containing collecting ducts and loops of
Henle.
 Ureter – Transports urine to the bladder.
 Renal pelvis – Acts as a funnel for
collecting urine flowing into the ureter.
 WHAT ARE NEPHRONS?

Nephrons are kidney sub-units

WHAT ARE THE NEPHRONS
consisting of capsules, tubules, and
RESPONSIBLE FOR?
ducts

 Ultrafiltration – A build-up of capillary pressure

forces small molecules in the capsules of the
nephron into the tubules. These small
molecules include water, glucose, sodium
chloride and urea. Together, they form a filtrate.
 Selective reabsorption – Certain nutrients (e.g.,
glucose) are removed from the filtrate and WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF THE
transported back into the bloodstream, leaving
only the components of urine in the filtrate COMPONENTS IN A RENAL

(e.g., urea and water) to be excreted.
Osmoregulation – With the help of the
NEPHRON?
hormone, ADH, permeability of collecting ducts
are affected dependent on body water levels
and temperature. Water can be conserved in
the blood this way
 Glomerulus – A cluster of blood vessels that filters blood to
the Bowman’s capsule.
 Bowman’s (or glomerular) capsule – A cup-like sac that
accepts the filtrate from glomerulus.
 Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) – Site of selective
reabsorption.
 Loop of Henle – Regulates the fluid and ion composition of
the filtrate.
 Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) – Connects the loop to the
collecting duct.
 Collecting duct – Responds to ADH by increasing wall
permeability, allowing water to be reabsorbed. Transports urine
to the renal pelvis and ureter.
 WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF THE
PERTUBULAR CAPILLARY?

These facilitate rapid transfer of

WHAT HAPPENS IN THE
materials away from the nephron
GLOMERULUS AND BOWMAN’S
filtrate (reabsorption) and into it
(secretion). CAPSULE?

Firstly, on the diagram there are two arterioles: the

afferent and efferent. The afferent vessel brings blood
into the glomerulus. The efferent vessel carries the blood
away. Usually, the efferent arteriole would be much
lower in concentrations of urea, glucose, water, and
amino acids, as these form the nephron filtrate due to
ULTRAFILTRATION. Since the efferent arteriole lumen is
smaller than the afferent’s, this builds up hydrostatic
pressure in the glomerulus. Smaller diameter increases
ultrafiltration. As a result of this pressure, water and
small solutes from the glomerulus are forced through
pores in the capillary endothelium, and through the
Bowman capsule’s basement membrane, which acts as a
filter.
PCT epithelial cells export certain ions and water back into the
capillaries through active transport and diffusion. This happens
through numerous villi and very thin membranes in the PCT
epithelial cells, so they are lined with numerous mitochondria. The
WHAT HAPPENS IN THE tricky part is the export of glucose. This involves the use of a
sodium-potassium pump (more on this later). This allows two K+
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED ions to enter the cell, while at the same time allowing three Na+
ions to transfer out. As this occurs, glucose can be carried with
TUBULE (PCT) ? these Na+ ions against the concentration gradient in a symport
process. Think of it as Na+ opening a door for glucose to go along
with it. More than half of the water exits the PCT during this
selective reabsorption. Surprisingly, dissolved urea can also diffuse
out of the PCT, as well. Any filtrate that hasn’t been reabsorbed
now flows to the Loop of Henle.
 WHAT HAPPENS IN THE LOOP OF
HENLE?

After the PCT, the objective now is continued water

reabsorption into the bloodstream. The Loop of Henle
has a descending and ascending limb. In the ascending
limb, sodium and chloride ions are actively transported
into the cells and capillaries (called vasa recta)
surrounding the descending limb. When these ions
arrive at the capillaries and cells, they reduce their water
potential. Due to the reduced water potential in the
surrounding cells, osmosis now occurs, allowing water to
flow from the descending limb to these cells and then
into the capillaries, thus conserving water needed for
metabolic reactions and cooling. At the base of the loop,
the solute concentration is very high inside and out of
the tube. This is also facilitated by the fact that the walls
of descending limb is permeable. The ascending limbs
walls are impermeable, so no water is lost here.

The collecting duct is located at the end of the nephron, just

before urine is sent to the renal pelvis and ureter. The contents of
the filtrate here are what constitute urine: primarily water, urea,
and any dissolved salts. Everything else should have been
WHAT HAPPENS IN THE reabsorbed. Anti-diuretic hormone (or ADH) is a hormone
secreted by the posterior pituitary gland. If the water potential of
COLLECTING DUCT? the blood is low (dehydration) or the environment is warm, ADH
secretion is stimulated. If it is high or the environment is cool, ADH
secretion is suppressed. The role of ADH is to aid in water
reabsorption into the bloodstream and osmoregulation. ADH
interacts with the plasma membranes of the collecting duct walls.
If ADH is present in high amounts, water-transporting proteins
called aquaporins move from the cytoplasm to line the ducts walls,
increasing permeability to water and facilitating transport of water
out of the duct. This water will possibly be used to form sweat. If
ADH is in low amounts, no aquaporins will be present on the walls,
so water is kept in the ducts and eventually excreted with the
urine. This urine will be in larger volumes and quite diluted (or
clear in colour).
 DESCRIBE WHAT HAPPENS TO ADH
IN HOT AND LOW TEMPERATURES
IN THE COLLECTING DUCT

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOP

FOR LOW WATER POTENTIAL
IN THE BODY

This condition is called diabetes insipidus.

WHAT CAN YOU SAY IF A Extremely small amounts of ADH is
produced, leading to prolonged periods of
PERSON IS PRODUCING
dehydration and impermeability of the
UNUSUALLY LARGE AMOUNTS
collecting duct walls. This could also result
OF DILUTED URINE? from a tumour in the hypothalamus or
posterior pituitary gland.
 Presence of proteins in urine may indicate
kidney failure or hypertension, as proteins
WHAT ARE THE IMPLICATIONS
are normally too large to pass through the
OF FINDING PROTEINS IN A
basement membrane of the Bowman's
URINE SAMPLE? capsule unless there is high pressure or
membrane damage.

The presence of glucose in urine suggests

diabetes mellitus, as high capillary blood
WHAT DOES THE PRESENCE OF
glucose concentration may limit the
GLUCOSE IN URINE SUGGEST?
diffusion of blood glucose from the
Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT) back
into the bloodstream.

TRANSECTION OF A KIDNDEY
MEDULLA

TRANSECTION OF A KIDNEY CORTEX

 A neurotransmitter used at neuro-
DEFINE ACETYLCHOLINE (ACH)
muscular junctions (motor neurones).
Synapses that contain them are referred to
as cholinergic.

An enzyme that rapidly breaks down

DEFINE
acetylcholine to stop transmission of an
ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE
impulse at a synapse.
(ACHE)

The main components of a motor neuron

WHAT ARE THE MAIN
include the dendron, dendrites, cell body,
COMPONENTS OF A MOTOR
axon, axon terminals, synapses, myelin
NEURON? sheath, Schwann cells, and Nodes of
Ranvier.

Starting from the top, you will see branch-like structures. The
largest branch is called a dendron, which separate into
dendrites. These allow connection to other neurones for
reception and propagation of impulses. A cell body (or soma)
is present at the end, containing organelles such as
mitochondria to provide ATP to transmit impulses. These
impulses travel along the long segments called axons until they
get to axon terminals. At the end of these terminals are
synapses, which are gaps that separate neurones but must still
allow transmission of impulses. Notable about the axon is the
myelin sheath. The myelin sheath allows rapid conduction of
impulses and also acts as an insulator. Each segment of myelin
is called a Schwann cell, and between each two Schwann cells
is a small segment of axon called a Node of Ranvier.
DIAGRAM SHOWING A MOTOR DIAGRAM SHOWING A SENSORY
NEURONE NEURONE

It is similar in structure to a motor neurone, but its cell

body is located along the middle of the axon instead of
at the end of it. These can be found on sense organs,
such as the skin and retina to detect stimuli and pass
them to the central nervous system (CNS) to be
interpreted. If the stimulus is extreme ,the impulse is
passed to the dorsal root ganglia in the spine and
directly to a motor neurone. This produces an
involuntary action that moves the body away from
danger. This action is called a reflex. Neurones are
bundled into dense tubular tissues called nerves. A large
stimulus may stimulate multiple nerves.

Resting potential is the difference in

charge between the interior and exterior
WHAT IS RESTING POTENTIAL?
of a cell, typically around -70 mV in
neurons.

Membrane potential occurs when there is

WHAT CAUSES MEMBRANE
a difference in charge between the exterior
POTENTIAL?
and interior of a cell. It creates an electrical
gradient that allows charges to flow.
 Sodium-potassium pumps help maintain
WHAT ROLE DO SODIUM- the resting potential by pumping 3 sodium
POTASSIUM PUMPS PLAY IN ions out of the cell for every 2 potassium
ESTABLISHING RESTING ions pumped in, creating a negative
POTENTIAL? interior and positive exterior.

Leak channels on the cell membrane,

which are more permeable to potassium
HOW DO LEAK CHANNELS
ions than sodium ions, allow potassium
CONTRIBUTE TO RESTING
ions to exit the cell, contributing to the
POTENTIAL? positive charge outside and negative
charge inside.

Resting potential is maintained by the

unequal distribution of ions across the
HOW IS RESTING POTENTIAL
membrane, with more sodium ions outside
MAINTAINED IN NEURONS?
and more potassium ions inside, along
with the activity of sodium-potassium
pumps and leak channels.

There are two main positive ions involved: Na+ and K+ . meaning
that, when at rest ,it has more Na+ ions on the outside than there
are K+ ions on the inside. This uneven distribution occurs due to
proteins called sodium-potassium pumps. This pump, once
EXPLAIN RESTING POTENTIAL interacted with ATP (active transport), can push Na+ ions out of
the cell in return for pulling K+ ions into the cell cytoplasm.
IN STEPS However, the trade is not equal. For every 3 Na+ pumped out, only
2 K+ are pumped in. Keep in mind that this is what happens in a
neurone at rest. What this uneven trade does is ensure that there
is a greater amount of positive charges outside than inside. The
inside becomes negative. What also helps the above are channels
on the membrane that are more permeable to K + over Na+ and
will quicker leak K + ions out of the cytoplasm. This difference in
charge generates a small voltage of approximately -70 mV (in
humans). This is the resting potential of the neurone. It remains at
that voltage, and at rest, until a stimulus (e.g., pain or heat) is
detected.
 WHAT IS AN ACTION POTENTIAL?

An action potential is an electrical

DESCRIBE THE PROCESS OF
impulse transmission event that
DEPOLARIZATION DURING AN
occurs when nerves are not at rest,
typically in response to a stimulus. ACTION POTENTIAL.

Depolarization occurs when a stimulus

triggers the opening of voltage-gated sodium
(Na+) channels in the neuron's membrane.
This allows Na+ ions to rush into the cell,
making the interior more positively charged. t.
The aim is to even out the +ve and –ve
charges in and out of the cell to give a
membrane potential of 0 Mv
When the membrane potential reaches its
peak (around +30 mV), voltage-gated Na+
channels close, preventing further influx of
Na+ ions. This marks the end of
depolarization.

Repolarization begins after the peak of the

action potential when voltage-gated
EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF
potassium (K+) channels open. This allows
REPOLARIZATION IN AN
K+ ions to leave the cell, restoring the
ACTION POTENTIAL. negative charge inside and positive charge
outside, returning the membrane potential
towards its resting level.
 Hyperpolarization refers to the membrane
WHAT OCCURS DURING potential becoming more negative than the
resting potential (e.g., around -80 mV) due to
HYPERPOLARIZATION, AND
excess K+ flowing out (efflux). The refractory
WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF period is a brief period after an action potential
THE REFRACTORY PERIOD? during which the neuron is less responsive to
further stimulation, as it needs time for the
sodium-potassium pumps to restore ion
concentrations and the resting membrane
potential.

EXPLAIN STEPS SUMMARIZING

ACTION POTENTIAL

1. The stimulus triggers voltage-gated Na+ channels

to open. Na+ diffuse into the axon.
2. More Na+ channels open, causing even more Na+
to diffuse in. (Depolarization)
3. The membrane potential reaches about +30 mV,
and voltage-gated Na+ channels close.
4. Voltage-gated K+ channels now open, causing K+
to diffuse out of the axon. (Repolarization)
5. K+ keeps diffusing out until the membrane
potential is slightly more negative (about -80 mV)
than resting potential (Hyperpolarization). K+
channels close.
6. Sodium-potassium pumps use ATP to return
membrane potential to -70 mV (rest). During this time
(refractory period), another action potential cannot
take place.

GRAPH SHOWING EVENTS OF

ACTION POTENTIAL
NOTE: Not all changes produce an action
potential! If the stimulus is very small (for
e.g., a sound below 20 Hz), it may not
activate enough Na+ channels to cause HOW DOES THE FREQUENCY OF
depolarization. Thus, no action potential ACTION POTENTIALS RELATE TO THE
develops. It is said that the threshold for
an action potential is between -50mV to -
STRENGTH OF A STIMULUS?
55 mV. Only around then will voltage-
gated Na+ channels be activated. This is
called the all-or-nothing law.
A small number of action potentials
typically indicate a weak stimulus,
while a large number of action
HOW DO ANAESTHETICS LIKE
potentials suggest a strong stimulus.
LIDOCAINE AFFECT ACTION
Strong stimuli can generate a high
frequency of action potentials, POTENTIALS?
meaning many occur per second.

Anaesthetics such as Lidocaine

interfere with sodium channels,
preventing depolarization and thus
WHAT IS SALTATORY CONDUCTION?
blocking the generation of action
potentials even in response to
strong stimuli.

Saltatory conduction is the rapid HOW DOES SALTATORY

transmission of action potentials
CONDUCTION DIFFER BETWEEN
along myelinated axons, where
MYELINATED AND UNMYELINATED
depolarization "leaps" across nodes
of Ranvier instead of propagating AXONS?
continuously along the axon.
 In myelinated axons, action
potentials are conducted at high
velocity by jumping between nodes
of Ranvier, whereas in unmyelinated
axons, the velocity is lower as the
action potential propagates
continuously along the axon.

Saltatory conduction allows for fast and

WHY IS SALTATORY
energy-efficient transmission of nerve
CONDUCTION SIGNIFICANT?
impulses along myelinated axons,
enhancing the speed of neural
communication.

A synapse is a site between two adjacent

neurons where communication occurs via
a small gap called a synaptic cleft. The
presynaptic neuron (connected to an axon)
WHAT IS A SYNAPSE?
and postsynaptic neuron (connected to a
dendrite) are involved. Neurotransmitters
are released into the synaptic cleft to
transmit signals.

Neurotransmission involves the release of

neurotransmitters, such as acetylcholine
(ACh) or GABA, from synaptic vesicles in
EXPLAIN HOW
the presynaptic neuron. These
NEUROTRANSMISSION
neurotransmitters diffuse across the
OCCURS AT A SYNAPSE. synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the
postsynaptic neuron, leading to changes in
its membrane potential.
 There are two main types of synapses:
chemical synapses, where
WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT
neurotransmitters are used to transmit
TYPES OF SYNAPSES?
signals, and electrical synapses, where ions
flow directly between cells through gap
junctions.

A neuromuscular junction is a specialized

type of synapse between a motor neuron
WHAT IS NEUROMUSCULAR
and a muscle fibre. When the motor
JUNCTION?
neuron releases acetylcholine, it triggers
muscle contraction.

Synapses are sites that lie between two adjacent

neurones, which don’t touch but have an extremely small
gap that is 20 – 50 nm wide. That gap is called a synaptic
cleft and the two neurones surrounding that cleft are
WHAT ARE THE STEPS FOR called the presynaptic neurone (connected to an axon)
NERVOUS TRANSMISSION OF and postsynaptic neurone (connected to a dendrite).
Although action potentials can undergo saltatory
SYNAPSES? conduction, they cannot leap across a synaptic cleft.
Instead, the action potential is propagated from the pre-
to the postsynaptic neurone with the help of a secreted
chemical called a neurotransmitter, typically held in
vesicles. One of the main neurotransmitters is called
acetylcholine (ACh), and synapses that secrete ACh are
called cholinergic synapses. A synapse located between a
motor neurone and muscle fibre is called a
neuromuscular junction. A signal from such a synapse
would cause muscle fibres to contract.

WHAT ARE THE KEY

FUNCTIONS OF SYNAPSES?

WHAT IS THE ROLE OF
ACETYLCHOLINE (ACH) IN
SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION?
Neural summation - Summation is defined as the
cumulative effect of several electrical impulses at a
synapse. Summation ensures that many different
sectors of the brain are firing to decide which moves
to make.
Learning process- The brain records data from
receiving multiple signals from the various sense
organs. Synapses allows these memories to coordinate
and form new ideas. The more learning that occurs,
the more these signals can interact.

Directed transmission- Synapses direct impulses to

travel to specific neurone pathways. This is important
when doing precise action

Acetylcholine acts as the WHAT HAPPENS IN THE

neurotransmitter that facilitates the
PRESYNAPTIC NEURON UPON THE
transmission of action potentials
ARRIVAL OF AN ACTION POTENTIAL?
across a synapse from a presynaptic
neuron to a postsynaptic neuron.

Upon the arrival of an action

potential, calcium, and sodium
WHERE ARE MOLECULES OF
channels in the presynaptic neuron's
ACETYLCHOLINE (ACH) STORED?
terminal bulb open, allowing the
influx of calcium and sodium ions
into the cytoplasm.

Molecules of acetylcholine are

EXPLAIN THE STEPS FOR AN ACTION
stored in vesicles within the
POTENTIAL ACROSS A SYNAPSE
presynaptic neuron's terminal bulb
or synaptic terminal.
 1. The action potential arrives from the axon.
2. Upon arrival of the action potential, channels open to
allow Na+ and Ca2+ ions to enter the bulb’s cytoplasm. The
calcium ions stimulate movement of the vesicles towards
the cleft and release their contents via exocytosis. Rapid
diffusion of ACh occurs across the cleft.
3. On the postsynaptic membrane, there are receptors that
are activated when an ACh molecule binds with it. These are
called ligand-gated channels and when bound to ACh, they
alter their shape to allow an influx of Na+ ions into the
postsynaptic cytoplasm. This, of course, depolarizes the
postsynaptic membrane and sets off another action
potential, thus continuing the propagation as if it had
crossed a bridge.
4. An enzyme called Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks
down ACh into acetate and choline. This is done to reset the
entire process and ensure that synapses don’t keep firing
constantly (this can possibly be seen with people who suffer
from Parkinson’s disease).
5. The choline is returned to the presynaptic bulb, where it
re-forms ACh after using ATP to combine with acetyl CoA.

WHAT EFFECT DOES NICOTINE Nicotine, like acetylcholine (ACh), binds to

postsynaptic membrane receptors. However,
HAVE ON SYNAPTIC
unlike ACh, nicotine cannot be broken down
TRANSMISSION? by acetylcholinesterase (AChE). This leads to
continuous stimulation of the postsynaptic
neuron, resulting in a high frequency of action
potentials.

Malathion is an insecticide that irreversibly

inhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the
WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF
enzyme responsible for breaking down
MALATHION ON SYNAPTIC
acetylcholine (ACh). As a result, ACh
TRANSMISSION? cannot be degraded, leading to a rapid
build-up of ACh in the synaptic cleft.

WHAT ARE THE

CONSEQUENCES OF Continuous action potentials due to
malathion exposure can lead to
CONTINUOUS ACTION
overstimulation of neurons, organ failure,
POTENTIALS CAUSED BY
and eventually death.
MALATHION EXPOSURE?
Carries oxygenated blood to the
heart back from the lungs.