SUBJECT : RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Que. 1 What do you mean by Research? Explain objectives of Research.

Ans. :
 Meaning and Definition of Research:
Research refers to a search for knowledge. One can also define research as a scientific and
systematic research for pertinent information :
Research is a careful investigate noor inquiry especially through search for new facts in any
branch of knowledge.
According to Redman and Mory, “Research is a systematized effort to gain new
knowledge”.
According to Francis Rumel, “Research is a careful inquiry or examination to discover new
information oor relationships and to expand and to verify existing knowledge”.

 Objectives of Research:
The objectives of research application are as follows:
(1) Research extends Knowledge: Research extends knowledge of human beings, social
life and environment. Scientists and researchers build up the wealth of knowledge through their
research findings. They search answers for various types of questions: What, Where, When, How
and Why of various phenomena, and en.lighten us. The bodies of knowledge have been developed
by research in general and pure or fundamental research in particular. ·
(2) Research Unravels the Mysteries of Nature: It brings to light hidden information . that
might never be discovered fully ·.during the ordinary course of life.
(3) Research Establishes Generalizations and General Laws: Research establishes
generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory building in various fields of knowledge.
The knowledge of isolated events is connected together to draw generalizations and general laws.
Law of gravitation, Law of demand, and principles of organization such as unity of command and
scalar principle, the theory of constuner behavior and motivation theories arc some examples for
such generalizations, laws and theories.
(4) Research verifies and Tests: Research verifies and tests existing facts and cheory and
these help improving knowledge and ability to handle situations and events. Empirical research
goes far beyond the passive role ofverifying and testing theory. Research plays an active role, it
perfoms at least four major functions-initiates, formulates, deflects, and clarifies theory.
(5) General Laws Developed through Research: General laws developed through
research may enable us to make reliable predictions of events yet to happen.
(6) Applied Research Aims at Finding Solutions : Applied research aims at finding
solution sto problems-socio-eocnomic problems (e.g., social unrest, unemployment, poverty) health
problems, human relations problems in organization and so on.
Thanks to the fruits of resrach, having better quality of life, longer life span and better
control over events.
(7) It aims to develop Tools, Concepts Research also aims at developing new tools,
concepts, and theories for a bett'er study of unknown phenomena.
(8) Research Aids in Planning: Research aids planning and thus contributes to national
development. Research-social science research in particular - aids planning in the following ways:
(i) Research brings out factual data on prevailing sittiations and problems for drawing up
plans and schemes on a realistic basis. Research uncovers needed factor on which sound
decisions can be made before committing resources. Studies open up the possibility of testing
the validity of planning assumptions or premises. .
 (2)
ii) Research studies enable the planners to evaluate alternative strategies and choose
the most appropriate strategies for development of the various sectors like agriculture, industry,
education, health, social welfare etc.
iii) This dissemination ot research finding creates a general awareness.of the country's
current situations and problems among the public, which inspire them to participate in
formulation and implementation of development schemes .
(9) Rational Decision Making: Analytical studies of internal an.d external environment of
business and non-business organizations provtde factoral data for rational decision making
formulation of strategies and policies. Studies of their operational problems ccntribute to an
improvement in their performance.

Que. 2 What is Business Research? Explain nature and scope of Business

Research.
Ans.
 Definition:
According to McDaniel and Gates, "Business research is the planning, collection and
analysis of data relevant to business decision-making and the communication of the results of this
analysis to managernent.
According to Zikmund, ''Business research is a management tool that C0!!1panies use to
reduce uncertainty. It is a manager's source of information about organizational and environmental
conditions, and covers topics rangingfrom long-range planning to the most ephemeral tactical
decisions".

 Nature of Business Research:

(1) Clearly Define Objectives: A ·good business research should clearly define the
objective. It should know in advance what information want to procure.
(2) Choose the Right Methodology: It is the method use for obtaining business research
data. Business research methodologies include ph one, mail and Internet surveys as we!I as
personal interviews. Mall intercept studies are another type of met!1odology, vi-here researchers
talk to consumers in stores.
(3) Prornoting Business: The objectives of any good business research should be how to
better promote busir.ess in an economically sound manner and to increase the businesses net
profit, exposure, and ensure its continuity.

(4) Covers Region in which Business Opertes: It covers all the regions in which the
business operates, locally and internationally. Setting-up a hotel means knowing local . conditions,
such as attractions and competing establishments, but also problem<; such as crime-or obtaining
supplies.
(5) Judging Problems: Another characteristic of good business research is judging local
problems of the environment in which our establishment is going to operate.
(6) Flexibility: One more characteristic of good business research objectives is flexibility.
The research may be programmed for one area and then something shows-up. If that "something"
is pertinent, it should be investigated and included in the research. Research is discovering new
things and factors, it should not be easily sidetracked but it also should not be inflexible.
(7) Help determine. How to Produce the product: Good business research should include
the use of the Internet. If the business is manufacturing a specific product, look at the market s ize
and options on how to produce the product. This is part of knowing who the competitor is, but
slightly different as it helps to best determine how to produce the product.

 Scope of Business Research:

Business research has a wide scope and draws upon the research findings of related
disciplines such as So'ciology, PsyGhology, Anthropology, Political Science, Biology, Mathematical
and other sciences, Business research may focus on theoty or specific operational problems.
 (3)
(1) Marketing Research: Marketing research is undertaken to assets marketing function.
Marketing research stimulates the flow of marketing data from the consumer and hi· environment to
marketing information system of the enterprise. Market research involves the process of
i) Systematic collection
ii) Compilation
iii) Analysis
iv) Interpretation of relevant data for marketing decisions.

This information goes to the executive in the form of data. On the basis this data the
executive develop plans and programmers. Advertising research, packaging rdsearch, pcrforrnancc
evaluation research, sales analysis, distribution channel, etc., may also be considered in managerial
research. Research toclls are applied ffectively for studies involving.
i) Demand forecasting.
ii) Consumer buying behavior
iii) Measuring advertising elfcctiveness
iv) Media selection for advertising
v) Test marketing
vi) Product positioning
vii) Product potential

(2) Organisation Research: The organization research is an inter-disciplinary field. Since

the men who do research in organizations, come from a variety of backgrounds they tend to bring
with them different tools, different concepts and different methodological approaches. There is a
growing recognition that knowledge of research methods may be useful for students preparing for
careers as practicing managers. In recent years empirically based knowledge about organization
has grown at a phenomenal rate. The orranization research enables the managers to get exposed
to a number of tl· ~ories and research findings having relevance to organizations.

Although the roles of managers and the research scientists are often viewed as very
different, many of the day-to-day problems of managers are similarly to those faced by researchers.
If the managers are conversant with the research methods, they can improve their problem-solving
efficiency. For example, a manager is confronted with the problem of high absenteeism in one
department. Once the problem is identified and the need to take corrective action has been
recognized, the manager must collect reliable anJ authentic information about the problem. The
manager may often have hunches about the problem, which are similar to the hypothesis of the
researcher. If the manager has sound knowledge of research methods. he can scientifically
approach the problem. Otherwise, he may try as a fledgling to act on the hunches resulting in an
inefficient and costly process of trial and error used while studying a problem. Need hardly to be
said that kn owledge of research process is highly indispensable to managers.

(3) Industrial Research: An industrial research laboratory is presumably a pragmatic

organization. Its ob.icctives are directly connected with the future welfare of a particular company.
The specific objectives of industrial research are the following:
(i) To improve the quality of products;
(ii) To develop new materials, processes or devices for capturing new markets;
(iii) To develop new uses for existing materials, processes or devices;
(iv) To assist in standardisation ; and
(v) To improve customer and public relations

(4) Production Research: A good production organization is never static. It keeps on

changing. If the production unit is successful, the changes tum about to be improvements. But the
chan ges always bring difficulties, if not troubles. Thus the research laboratory plays a logical and
continuing role of production research in the production picture.
Production research activities normally fall into three classifications:
i) Investigation of new production methods.
ii) Investigation of methods of standardization and control.
 (4)
Que. 3 Explain Business Research Process.
Ans.
 Introduction:
Research process consists of a number of closely related activities. But such activities
cverlap continuously and do not follow a strictly prescribed sequence. Various steps involved in a
research process are not mutually exclusive; nor are they separate and distinct. They do not
necessarily follow each other in any specific order and the researcher has to be constantly
anticipating at each step in the research process the requirements of the subsequent steps.
However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process which is shown in the figure 1.1:
(1) Defining research problem
(2) Extensive literature survey
(3) Formulation of hypotheses
(4) Preparing the research design
(5) Determining sample design
(6) Collecting the dnta
(7) Execution of the project
(8) Analysis of data
(9) Testing of hypothcsis
(10) Generalizations and interpretation and
(11) Preparation of the report or presentation of t heresults, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.

(1) Defining Research Problem: The first step in research is defining a research problem. It
is most important stage in applied research, as poorly defined problems will not yield useful results.
It is rightly said that, "A problem well defined is half-solved”. Poorly defined problems cause
confusion and do not allow th eresearhcer to develop a good research design.
After a problem has been chosen, the next task is to formulate it precisely. This too needs a
good deal of care on t epar to fmarketing researchers.
Essentially twu steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz., understanding
the problem and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.

(2) Extensive Literature Survey: Once the problem is formulated, the next step is to write
down a brief summary. For this the researcher should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published
or unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference
proceedings," government reports, books etc., must be taped depending on the nature of the
problem.
 (5)
(3) Formulation of Hypotheses: Now tlle researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out nnd test its
logical or empirical consequences. As such the manner in which reseuch hypothesis arc developed
is particularly important s ince they pro\'ide the focal point for research. Hypothesis should be very
specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the
hypothesis is to guide the researcher by clelimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right
track.

(4) Preparing the Research Design: Research design is the conceptual struciure within
which research shoulp beconducted. A.research design specifies the methods and procedures for
conducting a particular study. The researcher should specify. tne arproach he intends to use with
respect to the proposed study. The function of research design is to provide for the collection of
relevartt evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Research designs can be
grouped into three categories - exploratory research, descriptive . research and causal
research.
(i) Exploratory Research: An exploratory Tesearch focuses on the discovery of ideas
and is generally based on secondary data. It is preliminary investigation, which does not have a
rigid design. .
(ii) Descriptive Research: A descriptive study is undertaken when the researcher
wants to know the characteristics of certain groups such as age, sex, educational level, income,
occupation, etc., In contract to exploratory studies, descriptive studies are well structured.
(iii) Causal Research: A causal research is undertaken when the researcher is
interested in knowing the cause and effect relationship between two or more variables. Such
studies are based on reasoning along well-tested lines.
(5) Determining Sample Design: All the items under considerat ion in any field of inquiry
constitute a 'universe' or 'popubtion'. A complete enumeration of all the, items in the 'population' is
known as a census inquiry. In such an 'inquiry when all the items are covered no element of chance
is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in pwctice this may not be true. This type of inquiry
involves a great deal of time, money not energy, not only this, census inquiry is not possible in
practice under many circumstances.
The researcher must decide t!"le way of selecting a "sample" or the sample design. A
sample design is a definite plan detcnnined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a
sample from a given population. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability
samples. With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in the
sample. but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability.

(6) Collecting the Data: The next step is to determine the sources of data to be used. The
researcher has to decide whether he has to collect primary data or depend exclusively on
secondary data. Sometimes, the research study is based on both secondary and primary data.
The primaty data are those, which are collected a fresh and for the first time, and thus
happen to be original in character.
The second:try data, on the other hand, are those which have already been colllected by
someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
Any statistica data can be classified under two categories depending up on the sources
utilized. These categories are,
i) Primary sources of data
ii) Secondary sources of data

(7) Execution of the Project: The researcher should see that the project is executed in a
systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnairres, data can be readily machine-processed. ln such a situation, questions as well as
the possible answers maty be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviews,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The training may
be given with the help of instruction mutuals, which explain clearly the job of the interviewers at
each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the interviewers are doing their
assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
A careful vvatch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as much
realistic as possible. This means that steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under
 (6)
statistical control so that the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of
accuracy.

(8) Analysis of Data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inrerences. Researchar should classify the raw data into
some purposeful and usable categories.
(i) Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories of data
are transfonned into symbols that may be tabulated and counted.
(ii) Editing is Jhe procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding
the stage is ready for tabulation.
(iii) Tabulation is a part of the Teclmical procedure where in the classified data arc rut in
the fonn of tables.

Analysis work after tabulation is generally based on the computation of various percentages,
coefficients. etc., by applying various well-defined statistical formulae.
ln order to derive meaningful results from the statistical tables, the researcher may use one
or more of the following four steps:
(i) The first step is to calculate relevant measures of central tendency as also of dispersion
highlighting the major aspects of the data.
(ii) The second step is to cross tabulate the data to ascertain some useful relationships.
(iii) The third step is to calculate the correlation coefficient and undertake a regression
analysis between variables.
(iv) The fourth step is to undertake a multivariable analysis. Such an analysis uses a variety
of techniques to determine important relationships amongst several variables.

(9) Testing of Hypothesis: After analyzing the dta the researcher has to test the
hypothesis, various tests, such as Chi-Square test, t-test, F-test, have been develoed by
statisticians for the purpose. The hypotheisis may be tested through the use of one or more of such
tests, depending upon the nature and object of research lnquiry Hypothesis rostlng will result in
either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with,
generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypothesis to be tested by
subsequent researches in times to come.

(10) Generalizntion and Interpretatlon: If a hypothosls Is tested and upheld several times,
It may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory. If th
eresearhcer had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to expain his finding on the basis of
some theory. lt is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off
new questions, which in turn may lead to further researches.

(11) Preparation of the Repoct or the Thesis: Although report wrltlng needs some skill,
which con be developed with practice, te researcher should follow the main princip\es of writing a
report. Some of these principles are:
(i) There should be objectivity, coherence, clarity In the preesentatlon of ideas
(ii) Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as „it seems,‟ there may be‟, and th like.
(iii) Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only it the present the
informaation more clearly and forcibly.
(iv) Calculated 'conftdence limits' must be mentioned and the various constraints
experienccd in conducting research operations may as well be stated.
(v) The layout of the report should be as follows:
a) The preliminary pages.
b) The main text and
c) The end matter.
In Its preliminary pages, the report should carry title and date followed by acknowledgements
and foreward. Then there should be a table of contents followed by alist of talbe and list of graphs
and charts, if any, given in the report.
The main text of the report should have the following parts:
 (7)
(i) lntroduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research anc an
cxpl:lnat ion of' the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research.
(ii) Summary of Findings : A statement of findings, and recommendation in non-technical
language should be there after introduction. If the findings arc extensive, they should be
summarized.
(iii) Main Report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
sections.
(iv) Conclusion: At the end of the main text, result of the research should be put clearly and
prec isely.
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e, list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end.
Index should also be given specially in a published research report.

Que. 4 What is Research Design?

Ans.
 Meaning & Definition:
According to Kerlinger, "Research design is the plan, structure, & strategy of investigaticn
conceived so as to obtain answers to research questionsand to control variance.
According to Green and Tull, "A research design is the specification of methods and
procedures for acquiring the information needed. It is the over-all operational pattern or framework
of the project that stipulates what information is to be collected from which sources by wliat
procedures".

 Features of Research Design

Features of a good research design are shown in figure below:

Features of Research Design

Objectivity Reliability

Validity Generalization

Adequate Information Other Features

(1) Objectivity: The objectivity of the procedure (either collection of data or scoring of the
responses or both) may be judged by the degree of agreement between the final scores assigned to
different individuals by more than one independent observer. The more subjective the observation,
recording and evaluation of che responses, the less the different observers agree. It is therefore,
any research design should permit the use of measuring instruments which are fairly objective and
in which every observer or judge seeing a performance arrives precisely. This ensures the
objectivity of the collected data which will be used for analysis and findings.
(2) Reliability: It is not easily tested either by the multiple-form or by the split-half technique.
The test re-test approach is the most effective measure of reliability as it refers to 'consistency'
throughout a series to measurements. Suppose, if a respondent gives a response to a question, he
is expected to give the same response to that question whenever he is asked in other form. But if
the respondent keeps on changing his responses to the same type of questiort then the interviewer
will be facing a difficulty in considering which one of their responses is genuine. The researcher
should frame this question in such a way that the respondent cannot but give only one genuine
response. Though there are some methods in determining the reliability of the responses given out
by a respondent.
(3) Validity: As in the case of reliability, there are a good number of procedures for
establishing the validity of test, such as validating the present data against a concurrent criterion or
a future criterion or a theory, etc. However, any measuring instrument is said to be valid when it
measures what it proposes to measure.
(4) Generalization: The next important aspect of a good research design is to ensure that
the measuring instruments used in a research investigation yield objective, reliable and valid data
 (8)
and has to answer the 'generalization' of the findings. It will thus help an investigator in his attempt
to generalize the findings, provided he has taken due care in definmg the population, selecting the
sample and using the appropriate statistical analysis while planning his research design.
(5) Adequate Information: The most important requirement of good research design is that
it should provide adequate information so that the research problem can be analyzed on a wide
perspective. An ideal design should take into account important factors like:
i) ldentifying the exact research problem to be studied,
ii) The objective of the research,
iii) The process of obtaining information,
iv) The availability of adequate and skilled manpower, and
v) The availability of adequate financial resources for carrying-out research.

(6) Other Features: Some other important characteristics of a good research design are
flexibility, adaptability, efficiency, being econbmic and so on. A good research design should
minimize bias and maximize accuracy of the data obta:ned and should have as few <:rrors as
possible.

 Purpose of Research Design:

(1) Accurate Results: All the research activities have the purpose of answering research
questions. f:lowever, the manner of seeking answers to the research questions differ from situation
to situation according to the nature of the problems. In any project the research problems are further
stated in forms of specific hypothesis so that they can be tested against empirical evidences
achieved. The hypothesis states the relationship between variables and may vary from being most
genernl to most specific ones.
There are various ways of testing the hypothesis depending upon their structure. This has
resulted to the development of different designs of research.
(2) Control of Variance: Second basic purpose of research design is the control of
variance. Research designs help in manipulation of experimental variables, i.e., in seeking and
establishing the relationship between the assumed cause or the experimental variable and the
effect, i.e., the dependent variable. To establish such a relatiJnship it is essential that the effect of
other variables, besides the experimental one, should be controlled. Such variables are known as
extraneous variables. By stating that the purpose of any researd; design is to control variance it is
meant specifically for that research design.
(3) Replicate the Study: To make study, in so far as possible, replicable, i.e. worth
repeating. This can be done by avoiding situations and procedures which are clearly unique.
(4) Provides Blueprint: A researcher faces many problems like what sample is to be taken,
what is to be asked, what method of data collection is to be used and so forth. Research plan
minimizes all these problems of the researchers because all decisions are taken beforehand.
(5) Facilitates Systematic Investigation: This refers to determining whether only one (or
selected) cau:;e out of many causes is to be examined, only one (or a few selected) hypothesis is to
be tested; only attitudes of students of one educational institution are to be studied and so on. Since
the objectives are clear and the structure is also provided, systematic investigation is possible.
(6) Visualizes and Forecasts Potential Problems: The researcher studies available (other)
literat.ure and learns about new/alternative approaches, For example, he gets an estimate of
personnel required as investigator(s), cost, possible measurements of problems and so forth .

 Elements of a Research Design

An overall research design can be split into following parts (elements):
(1) Sample Design: It covers the method of selection, the sample structure and plans for
analyzing and interpreting the results. Sample designs can vary from simple to complex and depend
on the type of information required and the way the sample is selected.
(2) Observational Design: It deals with the conditions within which that phenomena are
being observed and recorded. There are many types of studies which could be defined as
observational research including case studies, ethnographic studies, ethological studies, etc.
 (9)
(3) Statistical Design: This concern with the question ofhow many items are to be observed
and the information and data are to gathered and to be analyzed.
(4) Operational Design: This deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified
in the sampling, statistical, and observational designs can be carried-out. Joint doctrine defines
operational design as "the key considerations used as a framework in the course of planning for a
campaign or major operation".

 Components of Research Design:

(1) Title of the Study: Should be brief, precise, and project the scope in generalized terms.
(2) Statement of the Problem: Should be unambiguous, precise, and the usage should be
clear, simple and concise.

(3) Review of Previous Studies: Should be a brief survey of a relevant literature in the
subject concerned and presented subject wise and reviewed critically and pinpoint the stage from
where further research is called for.
(4) Definition of Concept or Theoretical Principles involved if any: Should be defined in
general terms and be linked with the study.
(5) Coverage and Scope of the Study: Should consider, geographical, temporal and
functional dimensions.
(6) Objectives of the Study: Should explain the main purp0se precisely and may be in the
form of questions or an explanation to a particular issue.
(7) Formulation of Hypothesis: Should be empirical, conceptually clear, specific, close to
things observable and related to the body of theory.
(8) Methods of Investigation: It depends upon the nature of study but researcher should
define survey methodology, and statistical techniques adopted.
(9) Sampling Design: Definition of the universe or population, size of the sample, and
representativeness of the sample should be defined.
(10) Constructing of Schedule or Questionnaire: Questions should be in an order on a
form. Open ended questions are designed to permit a free response. The questions to be asked
should have a direct bearing on the problem, avoiding the personal questions and multiple
meanings. ·
(11) Data Collection: Depends up the subject matter, the unit of enquiry and the scope of
the study.
(12) Analysis of Data: To fulfill the objective or hypothesis the researcher should analyze
the data subject to the appropriate statistical analysis besides tabulation. Tabulation of results in a
f!1eaningful way is by itself a technique and an art. The data given in the tables must be in a
selfexplanatory form.
(13) Interpretation of Results: Researcher should draw inferences based on usual test for
significance and relate with previous findings, to a wider field of generalizations, to scientific
objectivity, and to uncover any additional factors which would not be visualized by the investigator
earlier.
(14) Reporting the Findings: Should be clear, specific, simple, and directly relating to the
objective of the study. Researcher must report what has been discovered or innovated to fulfill the
need for which the study was taken up and to ensure proper directions to other researchers in
carrying out similar researches.

 Requirements for a Good Research Design

(1) Well Defined Problems: Nature and scope of the problem to be studied must be stated
clearly, or say must be well defined and formulated.
(2) Clarity in Formulation: If any hypothesis is to be tested it must be clearly formulated.
(3) Testable: The research design must adequately answer the research questions and test
the hypothesis.
 (10)
(4) Identifying Variables: Relevant variables must be clearly identified and operationalized.
Adequate methods of collecting the information and methods of logically deriving the conclusion
must be developed. Only then control of variance is possible.
(5) Serve the Validity Needs: The research design must be structured in a manner that it
fulfils the need of internal and external validity.

Que. 5 Explain Research Process Design.

Ans.
Understanding of the components of a design elicits various steps, which are shown figure:

Selection and Definition of a Problem

Sources of Data

Nature of Study

Object of Study

Object of Study

Social-Cultural Context

Temporal Context

Dimension
Figure : Steps in Research

(1) Selection and Definition of a problem Problem: The problem selected for study should
be defined clearly in operational terrns so that the researcher knows positively what facts he is
looking for and what is relevant to the study. Since human behavior, as an interaction pattern, is the
result of various forces it is best to delimit the scope of one's study which reaps ample benefits
during the actual course of data collection. Now besides the operational definition of the problem,
the problem selected should be practicable in costs of time and money. If the criteria of validity and
reliability of results are to be fulfilled, such problems considered as unmanageable by the
researcher should not be selected for the design.
(2) Sources of Data: Once the problem is selected it is the duty of the researcher to state
clearly the various sources of information such as library, personal documents, field work, a
particular residential gr{)up, etc.
(3) Nature of Study: The research design should be expressed in relation to the nature of
study to be undertaken. The choice of the statistical, experimental or comparative type of study
should be made at this stage so that the following steps in planning may have relevance to the
proposed problem.
(4) Object of Study: Whether the design aims at a theoretical understanding or
presupposes a "welfare" notion must be explicit at this point. Stating the object of the study aids not
only in clarity of the design but also in a sincere response from the respondents.
(5) Social-Cultural Context: As one would rightly remember, a research design is always
set to a context which has a social and cultural bearing on the individuals. For example, in a study of
the fertility rate in a people of "backward" class, the context of the so called "backward class of
people and the ·conceptual reference must be made clear. Unless the meaning of the term is clearly
defined, there tends to be a large variation in the study cboencnauostaet itohnes .t erm backward
could have religious, economic, and political
(6) Temporal Context: The geographical limits of the design should also be referred to at
this stage that the research related to the hypothesis is applicable to particular social groups only.
(7) Dimension: It is physically impossible to analyze the data collected from a large
universe. Hence the selection of an adequate and representative sample is the by word in any
 (11)
research. Depending upon the dimension of the proposed study, such a sample of the large
population can be selected to facilitate a practical design.

Que. 8 Explain in detail the concepts of Research Problem.

Ans. :
 Defining the Research Problem
The initial step in the research process is the identification and definition of the problem or
opportunity.
It is important to define the problem in· a precise manner. A well-defined problem gives the
researcher a proper direction for carrying-out investigation. It also helps in utilizing the resources
provided for the research effectively. A researcher can focus his efforts on collecting relevant
information, if the problem is defined properly. Some research problems such as conducting a
survey on the newspaper reading habits of a given set of the population can be clearly defined. But
if a company wants to define a research problem such as declining sales, it needs to explore the
research problem further through exploratory research.
Research problem definition involves stating the general problem and identifying the specific
components of the marketing research problem. Only when the marketing research problem has
been clearly defined can research be designed and conducted properly. Of all the tasks in a
marketing research project, none is more vital to the ultimate fulfillment of a client's needs than a
proper definition of the research problem. All the effort, time, and money spent from this point on will
be wasted if the problem is misunderstood or ill defined.
This point is worth remembering, because inadequate problem definition is a leading cause
of failure of marketing research projects. Further, better communication and more involvement in
problem definition are the most frequently mcdione~ Wilys of improving the usefulness of research.
These results lead to the conclusion that the importance of clearly identifying and defining the
marketing research problem cannot be overstated.

 Need of Defining a Problem

The definition of a problem serves the following purposes:
(1) The definition of a problem sets the direction of the study.
(2) The definition reveals the methodology or procedure of the study.
(3) The definition helps the researcher to control subjectivity or biases of the researcher.
(4) The ·definition of the problem suggests and specifies the variables to be taken-up into the
investigation through a problem involved into so many variables.
(5) The definition makes the research work practicable.

 Components of a Research Problem

(1) There must be an individual or a group, which has some difficulty or the problem.
(2) There must be some objective{s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot have a
problem.
(3) There must be alternative means {or the course of action) for obtaining the objective(s) one
wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means available to a researcher for
if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
(4) There must remain some doubt in the mind of as researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning the relative
efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(5) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
Thus, a research problem is one, which requires a researcher to find out the best solution for
the given problem, i.e., to find out by which course of action the objective can be attained opti!llally
in the context of a given environment.

 Techniques in Defining a Problem

Defining a problem involves the tasks of laying down boundaries within which a researcher
sh&ll study the problem with a pre-determined objective in view.
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is crucial part of a research study and must
in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this is frequently overlooked which
causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research problem should be defined in a systematic
 (12)
manner, giving due weightage to all relating points. The technique for the purpose involves the
undertaking of the following steps generally 0ne after the other:
(1) Statement of the Problem in a General Way: The research problem must address
either a specific practical operational issue or some scientific discovery. It can also be pertaining to
satisfaction or broadening of a particular intellectual curiosity. Whatever the area of research, the
problem definition should generally be at a logical level.
First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in view either some
practical concern or some scientific or intellectual interest. For th,is purpose, the researcher must
immerse himself thoroughly in the subject matter concernmg which he which the pose" a problem.
In case of social research, it is considered advisable to do some field observation and as such the
researcher may undert!!ke some sort of preliminary survey or what is often called pilot survey. Then
the researcher can himself state the problem or he can seek the guidance of the guide or the
subject expert in accomplishing this task. Often, the guide puts forth the problem m general terms
and it is then up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in operational terms. In
case there is some directive from an organizational authority, the problem then can be stated
accordingly. The problem stated in a broad general way may contain various ambiguities which
must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the same time the feasibility
of a particular solution has to be considered and the same should be kept in view while stating the
problem.

(2) Understanding the Nature of the Problem: The next step in defining the problem is to
understand its origin and nature clearly. Tile researcher must understand the origin and nature of
the problem in clear terms through discussions and study of the environment within which problem
is to be solved. The best way of under standing the problem is todiscuss it with those who first
raised it in order to find out how the probiem originally came about and with what objectives in view.
If the researcher has stated the problem himself: he should consider once again all those points that
induced him to make a general statement concerning lhe problem. For a better understanding of the
nature of the problem involved, he can enter into discussion with those who have a good knowledge
of the problem concerned or similar other problems. The researcher should also keep in view the
environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.

(3) Surveying the Available Literature: It is important to review and serve all the possible
literature that is available on the research area prior to defining the research problem. It a:;sists a
researcher to look into newer dimensions in that particular area and leads to enhancement of
knowledge. All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be surveyed
and examined before a definition of the research problem is given. This means that the researcher
must be well conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other
relevant literature. He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on
related problems. This is done to find out what data and other materials, if any, are available for
operational purposes. "Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as
well as the technique that might be used." This would also help a researcher to know if there are
certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to the problem under study
are incons-istent with each other, or whether the findings of the different studies do not follow a
pattern consistent with the theoretical expectations and so on. All this will enable a researcher to
take new strides in the field for furtherance of knowledge. i.e., he can move up starting from the
existing premise. Studies on related problems are usefal for indicating the type of difficulties that
may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings. At times
such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the present problem.

(4) Developing the Ideas through Discussions: Persons who have knowledge or have
rich experience in the area of research have proved to be good sounding . board for a researcher.
Their ad"ice and comment on research proposal help a researcher to have better clarity and focus
on his research topic.
Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various new ideas can
be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher must discuss his problem with his
colleagues and others who have enough experience in the same area or in working on similar
problems. This is quite often known as an experience survey. People with rich experience are in a
position to enlighten the researcher on different aspects of his proposed study and their advice and
comments are usually invaluable to the researcher. They help him sharpen his focus of attention on
 (13)
specific aspects within the field. Discussions with such persons should not only be confined to the
formulation of the specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general approach
to the given problem, techniques that might be used, possible solutions, etc.

(5) Rephrasing the Research Problem: Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the
research problem into a working proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly
understood, the environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been defined,
discussions over the problem have taken place and the available literature has been surveyed and
examined, rephrasing the problem into analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task. Through
re-phrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may
become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses. In addition to
what has been stated above, the following points must also be observed while defining a research
problem:
i) Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used also the statement of
the problem, should be clearly defined.
ii) Basic assumption one postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be
clearly stated.
iii) A straightforward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the
selection of the problem) should be provided.

iv) The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem
v) The scdpe of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must
be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

(6) Redefining the Research Problem: Many a times, a problem redefinition happens once
the steps listed in a, b, c & d above are undertaken. Researcher often redefines the problem in a
manner which is more viable. and logical for the conduct of the research. This· effort also helps in
defining hypothesis more sharply.

 Precautions to be taken in Defining Problem

The following precautious should be taken into consideration for identifying problem:
(1) The words used for defining a problem should have a single meaning.
(2) The statement of the problem must be brief but comprehensive.
(3) The assumptions are to be recognized for the study.
(4) The problem should have practical importance in the field of education.
(5) The definition or the statement of the problem should have certain rationale.

 Advantages of Problem Definition

It is experienced that sometimes a vaguely defined problem introduces many difficulties in
proper decision-making as well as to conduct true and relevant research. A proper definition not
only arrives at an operational statement but it also uncovers ti1e basic problem that underlines the
symptoms which are to be solved. The following arc the main advantages of problem definition:
(1) It orients, i.e., brings into clear understanding of the relations and determines the position of
decision-maker and the researcher within the framework of classified marketing.
(2) It tries to relate the problem with other marketing problems by finding hidden difficulties and new
opportunities.
(3) Suggests the source of data and facilitates their interpretation.
(4) Determines the action needing priority and the one which needs more detailed investigation.
(5) Enables the decision model to be well conceived.
(6) Identifies the data relevant to the problem.
(7) Pinpoints the gaps in the knowledge that may call for formal research.

 Types of Business Problems Encountered by Researchers

Business executives in each of the functional areas of management, viz., marketing,
production, finance and personnel are confronted with several interacting decision-making problems
in their day-to-day operation. Many of these problems demand a systematic research which will aid
the executives to take optimal and effective decisions.
 (14)
(1) Marketing: DifferPnt research topics studied under marketing management are:
(i) Product identification,
(ii) Demand estimation,
(iii) Demand-supply :malysis,
(iv) Product development,
(v) Market segmentation,
(vi) Media mix,
(vii) Sales promotion programme,
(viii) Product launching,
(ix) Design of distribution channel,
(x) Procing,
(xi) Marketing strategy formulation,
(xii) Product differentiation and product positioning,
(xiii) Packaging,
(xiv) Design of advertisements,
(xv) Planning sales force,
(xvi) Buying behavior.

(2) Prodution: Different research topics studied under production anagement are:
(i) Forecasting,
(ii) Capacity planning,
(iii) Plant location,
(iv) Plant layout,
(v) Line balancing,
(vi) Line of balance,
(vii) Inventory control,
(viii) Aggregate planning,
(ix) Master production scheduling,
(x) Materials requirements planning,
(xi) Single-machine scheduling,
(xii) Flow-shop scheduling,
(xiii) Job-shop scheduling,
(xiv) Project management,
(xv) Maintenance management,
(xvi) Quality ~ontrol,
(xvii) Work design,
(xviii) Modem production system design, like JIT, computer integrated manufacturing, flexible
manufacturing, agile manufacturing, logistics management, total quality· management,
etc.

(3) Finance: Different research topics studied under financial management are:
(i) Models for break-even analysis of multi-product,
(ii) Economic evaluation of alternatives,
(iii) Study of financial parameters of organizaticas,
(iv) Capital budgeting,
(v) Ratio analysis,
(vi) Portfolio management,
(vii) Primary market study,
(viii) Secondary market study,
(ix) Balance of payment,
(x) Inflation,
(xi) Deflation,
(xii) Economic growth models.

(4) Personnel: Different research topics studied under personnel managerare:

(i) Manpower planning,
(ii) Performance appraisal systems,
(iii) Conflict management,
(iv) Study of organizational climate,
 (15)
(v) Design of incentive plans,
(vi) Leadership styles,
(vii) Training methods,
(viii) Change management,
(ix) Negotiation and wage settlement,
(x) Labor welfare study.

Que. 9 What is Hypothesis? Explain importance and types of Hypothesis.

Ans. :
The term Hypothesis derives from the Greek, hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or "to
suppose." A tentative conjecture explaining an observation phenomenon, or scientific problem that
can be -tested by further observation, investigation, and/or experimentation. It refers the process of
selecting and using a sample statistics to draw an inference about a population pararmeter based
on a subset of it- the sample draw from the population.
A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a population parameter. This assumption
may or may not be true.
A hypothesis is a statement about the population parameter. Hypothisis
Testing/Significance Testing is a procedure that helps us to decide whether hypothesized population
parameter value is to be accepted or rejected by making use of the information obtained from the
sample.
According to Prof. Morris Hamburg, "A hypothesis in statistics is simply a quantitative
Statement about a population."
According to Palmer 0 Johnson, "A hypothesis as islands in the uncharted seas of thought
to be used as bases for consolidation and recuperation as we advance into the unknown."
The research process begins and ends with the hypothesis. It is core to the entire procedure
and therefore, is of the utmost importance. A hypothesis can be formluatd in several ways yet it
always performs the basic function of predicting the final outcome of the investigation. The
hypothesis usually occurs after inductive reasoning in which the researcher performs a series of
observations in order to form a theory. This hypothesis is then part of the first stage of the research
process.
Now the researcher should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypothesis.
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences. As such the manner in which research hypothesis are developed is
particularly important since they provide the focal point for research. Hypothesis should be very
specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested. The role of the
hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right
track.
Hypothesis can be developed by using the following approach:
(1) Discussion with colleagues and experts about the prrvblem, its origin and The objectives in
seeking a solution,
(2) Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for Possible trends,
peculiarities and other clues,
(3) Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems, and
(4) Exploratory personal investigation, which involves original field interviews on a limited scale with
interested parties and individuals with a view to secure insight into the practical aspects of the
problem.

Working hypothesis are more useful when stated in precise and clearly defined terms.
A basic fact about testing hypothesis is that a hypothesis may be rejected but That the
hypothesis never can be unconditionally accepted until all possible evidence is evaluated. In the
case of sampled data, the information set cannot be complete. So, if a test using such data does not
reject a hypothesis, the conclusion is not necessarily that the hypothesis should be accepted.
The nuII hypothesis in an experiment is the hypothesis that the independent Variable has
no effect on the dependent variable. The null hypothesis is expressed as H0. This hypothesis is
assumed to be true unless proven otherwise. The alternative to the null hypothesis is the hypothesis
that the independent variable does have an effect on the dependent variable. This hypothesis is
known as the alternative, research or experimental hypothesis and is expressed as H1. This
 (16)
alternative hypothesis states that the relationship ohserved between the variables cannot be
explained by chance alone .

 Characteristics ofHypothesis
(1) Clarity: Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and
precise, the inferenc.!s drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
(2) Testable: Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In case of un-testable
hypotheses, many a time the research programmes close down. Some prior study may be done by
researcher in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis '"is testable if other deductions
can be made from it which, in tum can be confirmed or disproved by observation.”
(3) Relationship: Hypothesis state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a
relationalltypothesis.
(4) Specific: Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must
remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such
hypotheses.
(5) Simple: Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the
same is easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of
hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
(6) Consistent: Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts, i.e., it must be
consistent with a substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges
accept as being the most likely.
(7) Testable: Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One
should not use even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for
one cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.
(8) Explainable: Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
explanation. This means that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted
generalizations, one should be able to deduce the original problem conditior. Thus hypothesis must
actually explain what it claims to explain it should have empirical reference.

 Importance of Hypothesis
(1) Hypothesis supports the research to find and answer to a problem. It is express in declarative
form. The most important thing is it will provide a guideline to the problem.
(2) A hypothesis states what researchers are looking for. When facts are assembled, ordered, and
seen in a relationship they constitute a theory. The theory is not speculation but is built upon
fact. Now the various facts in a theory may be logically analyzed and relationships other than
those stated in the theory can be deduced. At this point there is no knowledge as to whether
such deductions are correct. The formulation of the deduction however constitutes a
hypothesis; if verified it becomes part of a future theoretical construction.
(3) A hypothesis looks forward. rt is a proposition which can be put test to determine its validity. lt
may seem contrary to or in accord with common sense. It may prove to be correct or incorrect.
In any event however, it leads to an empirical test.
(4) Hypothesis to state a specific relationship between phenomena in such a way that this
relationship can be empirically tested. The basic method of this demonstration is to design the
research so that logic will require the acceptance or rejection of the hypothesis on the basis of
resulting data.
(5) It provides a direction to the research and prevents waste of time and effort
(6) It sets to the researcher's point of view.
(7) It helps the researcher to look into a particular aspect of the problem thereby offering certain
issues and facts.
(8) It provides the methods to be used in solving the problem.
(9) It acts as a framework for analysis and interpretation of the data to draw conclusions.
(10) It suggests the areas of importance which need more attention or more collection of facts by
the researcher.
(11) A hypotheisis ensures the entire research process remains scientific and reliable and following
the principles of deduction.
 (17)
Thus, a hypothesis is a very important tool in a research study; hence all researches need to
have a hypothesis irre pective of the kind or nature of the study. However, it should not be thought
that a research cannot be conducted at all without creation of hypothesis. There are m:my
descriptive as well as historical researches that have been. conducted without hypothesis. But
certainly a research can be more productive and accurate in terms of results if a researcher forms
hypothesis before proceeding with his research work.

 Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis

The two hypotheses in a statistical test are normally referred to as:
(1) Null Hypothesis: A statistical hypothesis which is stated for the purpose of possible
acceptance is called null hypothesis. It is usually denoted by the symbol H0 for example, the null
hypothesis may be expressed symbolically as:
H0 :  = 162 cms.
According to Prof R.A. Fisher: "Null hypothesis is the hypothesis-which is tested for
possible rejection under the assumption that it is true."
The following may be borne i!l mind in setting the null hypothesis:
(1) If we want to test the significance of the difference between a statistic and the parameter or
between two sample statistics then we set up a null hypothesis that's difference is not (
gnificant. Thts means that the difference is just due to fluctuations of sampling:
H0 :  = X
(2) If we want to test any statement about the population we set up the null hypothesis that it is
true. For example, it we want to fmd it the population mean has speci'ied value 0, then we
setup the null hypothesis.
H0 :  = 0 :

(2) Alternative Hypothesis: Any hypothesis which is complementary to the null hypothesis
is called an alternative hypothesis and is usually denoted by H1 or H •. For example, if we want to
test the null hypothesis that the average height of the soldiers is 162 ems., i.e.,
H1 :  = 162 cms. = 0 (say)
Then the alternative hypothesis could be:
(i) H1 :   0 (i.e.,  > 0 or  < 0)
(ii) H1 :  > 0
(iii) H1 :  < 0

Que. 10 What is testing of hypothesis? Explain process of it.

Ans. :
 Meaning and Definition of Hypothesis:
The term Hypothesis derives from the Greek, hypotithenai meaning "to put under" or ''to
suppose.'' A tentative conjecture explaining an observation. phenomenon, or scientific problem that
can be tested by further observation, investigation, and/or experimentation. It refers the process of
selecting and using a sample statistics to draw an inference about a population parameter based on
a subset of it- the sample draw from the population.
A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a population parameter. This assumption
may or may not be true.
A hypothesis is a statement about the population ·parameter. Hypothesis
Testing/Significance iesting is a procedure that helps us to decide whether the hypothesized
population parameter value is to be accepted or rejected by making use of the information obtained
from the sample.
According to Prof, Morris Hamburg, "A hypothesis in statistics is simply a quantitati\-c
Statement about a population."
According to Palmer 0 Johnson, "A hypothesis as islands in the uncharted seat of thought
to be used as tases for consolidation and recuperation as we advance into the unknown."

 Procedure for Testing of Hypothesis

The procedure for testing of hypothesis is shown in figure below:
 (18)
Set up a hypothesis

Set up suitable significance level

Test statitistics

Doing computation

Making Decision

Step 1: Set up a Statistical Hypothesis: The first thing in hypothesis testing is to set up a
hypothesis about a population parameter. Then we collect sample data produce sample statistics,
and use this information to decide how likely it is that our hypothesized population parameter is
correct. Set up a hypothests
Step 2: Set up a Suitable Significance Level: Having set up the hypothesis, the next step
is to test the validity of H0 against that of H. at a iin level or significance. The hypotheses are tested
on a pre-determined level of significance and as such the same should be specified. Generally, in
practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the:: level of
significance are:
(i) The magnitude of the difference between sample means;
(ii) The size of the samples;
(iii) The variability of measurements within samples; and
(iv) Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional.
A ditectional hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say,
means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of the purpose and nature
of enquiry.
Step 3: Test Statistic: The next step is to compute an appropriate test statistic which is
based on an appropriate probability distribution. It is used to test whether the null hypothesis set-up
should be accepted or rejected. Some probability distributions that are commonly used in testing
procedures are t, F and 2. Test criteria must employ an appropriate probability distribution. For
example, if only smali sample information is available, the use of the normal distribution would be
inappropriate.
Step 4: Ooing Computations: Having taken the first three steps, we have completely
designed a statistical test. We now proceed to the fourth step - performance of variou;,
computations - from a random sample of size n, necessary for the test. These calculations include
the testing statistic and the standard error of the testing statistic.
Step 5: Making Decision: Lastly, a decision should be arrived as to whether the null
hypothesis is to be accepted or rejected. ln this regard the value of the test statistic computed to test
the hypothesis plays a very important role. Ifthe computed value of the test statistic is less t.'lan the
critical value, the computed value of the test statistic falls in the acceptance region and the null
hypothesis is accepted. If the computed value of the test stati~ic is greater tha..t1 the critical value,
the computed value of the test statistic falls in the rejection region and null hypothesis is rejected.
Usually 5% level of significance = 0.05 is used in testing a hypothesis and taking a decision unless
otherv•ise any other level of sign!ficance is specifically stated.

 Types of Errors in Testing of Hypothesis

Two types of enors are generally committed in hypothesis testing. They are Type I Error and
Type II Error.
(1) Type I Error: It is committed when we reject a conect or true hypothesis. Type I Error (of
rejecting a null hypothesis when it is true) is denoted by .
Thus,
 = Probabiiity of Type I Error
 (19)
= Probability of rejecting Ho when H0 is true
(2) Type II Error: It is committed when we accept a wrong or incorrect hypothesis. Type li
Error (of accepting a null hypothesis when it is not true) is denoted by .
Thus,
 = Probability ofType II Error
= Probability of accepting He when H0 is not true.
If the difference between two means is zero and if our test indicated rejection of the null
hypothesis we commit Type I Error. If on the other hand the difference between two means is not
zero but our test suggests acceptance of null hypothesis we commit Type 11 error.
The following table gives an idea about the Type I and Type II Errors.
Accept H0 Reject H0
H0 is true No Error Type I Error
H0 is false Type II Error No Error
Though efforts are made to reduce both Type I and Type II Errors it is not possible to reduce
both at the same time. If we reduce the probability of Type I error from .05 to .01 we simultaneously
increase the probability of Type II error. The value of a can be reduced only by increasing the value
of .
A business executive will have to compare the payoff of a with the payoff of  and find out if
it is worth while to have a larger probability of Type I Error than the probability of Type II error. It
would depend on the relative losses incurred by committing Type I and Type II Errors respectively.
However in general it is more risky to accept a false hypothesis (or commit Type II Error) than to
reject a true hypothesis (or commit a Type I error). The probability of committing a Type I error
(rejecting a true hypothesis) is kept at 5 per cent level or the probability of rejecting a correct
hypothesis is generally fixed at 0.05. In other words the critical region is 5 per cent and acceptance
region is 95 per cent.
Hence,
(1) Type I error and type II error are related. A decrease in the probability of one results in an
increase in the probability of the other.
(2) Size of rejection region, and therefore the probability of committing a type I error, can always
be reduced by adjusting the values of .
(3) Increase in the sample size n will reduce  and  simultaneously.
(4) If null hypothesis is false,  is a maximum when the true value of a parameter is close to the
hypothesized value. The greater the distance between the true value and the hypothesized
value, the smaller the  will be.

Que. 11 What is Secondary data? Explain advantages and limitations of it.

Ans. :
 Introduction:
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research
design/plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the
study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary and secondary.
The primary data are those, which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus
happen to be original in character.
The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by
someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical process.
For the purpose of collecting data, a number of research instruments are used such as
questionnaire, schedules etc. For adequacy and validity in research it is required that these
instruments are designed properly. A high quality research instrument, should be not only well
suited to the research requirement, but also designed to be as user friendly as possible. Instrument
design also requires the expertiSe to design custom questions to meet specific and unique
requirements.

 SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION :

Any statistical data can be classified under two categories depending upon the Sources
utilized. These categories are,
(1) Secondary Data
(2) Primary Data
 (20)

(1) Secondary Data:

 Introduction
Secondary data are those data which have been already collected and analyzed By some
earlier agency for its own use; and later the same data are used by a different agency.
According to W.A.Neiswanger, "A primary source is a publication in which the data are
published by the same authority which gathered and analyzed them. A secondary source is a
publication, reporting the data which have been gathered by other authorities and for which others
are reponsible".

 Characteristics for Selecting Secondary Data

Secondary data means data that are aiready available i.e., they refer to the data, which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else. Secondary data may either be published
data or unpublished data.
By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they posess
following characteristics:
(1) Reliability of Data: The reliability can be tested by finding out such things about the said
data:
(1) Who collected the data?
(2) What were the sources of data
(3) Were the data collected by using proper methods?
(4) At what time were they collected?
(5) Was there any bias of the compiler?
(6) What level of accuracy was desired? Was it ac:hieved?

(2) Suiitability of Data: The data that are suitable for one enquiry may not nessarily be
found Sl,litable in another enquiry. Hence, if the available data are found to be unsuitable, they
should not be used by the researcher. In this context, the researcher must very carefully scrutinize
the definition of various terms and units of collection used at the time of collecting the data from the
primary source originally. Similarly, the object, scope and nature of the original enquiry must also be
studies. If the researcher finds differences in these, the data will remain unsuitable for the present
enquiry and should not be used.

(3) Adequacy of Data: If the level of accuracy achieved in data is found inadequate for the
purpose of the present enquiry, they will be considered as inadequate and should not be used by
the researcher. The data will also be considered inadequate, if they are related to an ~rea, which
may be either narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.
From all this we can say that it is very risky to use the already available data. The already
available data should be used by the researcher only when he finds them reliable, suitable and
adequate.

 Evaluating Secondary Data

On many occasions, researchers must choose from among two or more sources, of data.
The choice should be guided by the determination of which data score highest on the following
considerations.
(1) Pertinence: To be usable, the data must use the same units of measurement specified
in the project, must be applicable to the period of time in question, and must be derived from the
universe of interest. Classes of data must be constructed in the same way as in the project.
(2) Who Collected and Published the Data - and Why: In evaluatilng secondary data, the
researcher must examine the organization that collected the data and the purposes for which they
were published. An organization that makes the collection and publication of data it:; chief functions
is apt to furnish accurate data. Obviously, the success of such a firm depends on the long-run
satisfaction of its clients that the information supplied is accurate.
(3) Data Collection Methods: If a source fails to give a detailed description of its methods
of data collection, researchers should be hesitant about using the information provided. All too often,
shyness about revealing the procedures used to collect data suggests the employment of
inadequate methods. Most primary sources, however, describe their methods, even if only briefly.
 (21)
(4) General Evidences of Careful Work: An indispensable point of evaluation is the
general evidence that the data have been collected and processed carefully. Is the information
presented in a well-organized manner? Are the tahles constructed properly, and are they consistent
within and among themselves? Are the conclusions supported by the data?
(5) Conflicting Data: If several sources of data relating to a researcher's problem are
available, the data can be submitted to a quality-control analysis of the sort applied in production.
After dividing the data into "good" and "poor" on the basis of criteria like those mentioned above,
correlations on points of interest can be run between the two groups, and statistical tests can be
made. In projects that rely heavily on secondary data, this technique is particularly valuable.

 Significance of Secondary Data

(1) Economy: Such data are cheaper. The amount of money spent in acquiring secondary
data is generally a great deal less than that needed to obtain primary data. The various secondary
data from libraries can be obtained at no cost.
(2) Quickness: Most of these data are ' instant' since they already exist and merely need to
be discovered. Thus the time in collecting secondary data is largely search time and usually
requires few hours or days.
(3) Quality: An individual investigator cannot match the quality or size of the firms that
obtained much of the existing secondary data. The information is gathered by trained personnel
specialized in data collection. Also many organizations may not release their data to individual
researcher but may give it to firms.
(4) No Need of Measuring Instruments: When information is to be gathered from
secondary sources, there is no problem to design information gathering instruments as information
is already collected by some one else. The ·only problem here is to locate the appropriate source
and method of recording desired information.
(5) Availability: These are sometimes available even in those cases where primary
investigations are not pcssible.
(6) Bases for Comparison: They are useful in the case of exploratory researches as they
provide increased understanding of the problem.
(7) Useful in Exploratory Research: They act as a basis for comparison after primary data
are collected.
(8) Generates Feasible Alternatives: Secondary data are very useful in generating viable
alternatives to solve problems. The multiplicity of data sources, research appro.flches and
managerial styles usually lead to a number of possibilities which should be examined by the
researcher.

 Limitations of Secondary Data:

It is however difficulty to find secondary data that exactly fits into the needs of some specific
research investigation. The problems experienced in respect of secondary sources can be in terms
of:
(1) Relevance: The data may not fit into the needs of investigation. There may be difference
in the units of measurement; there may be surrogated data; discrepancy of classes and data may
pertain to some other period of time.
(2) Accuracy: It is observed that it is rather difficult to measure the degree of
approximations used in the collection of information as well as the competence of the investigator in
motivating the persons to supply the desired infom1ation.
(3) Existence of Obsolete Information: Information may be outdated or obsolete.
(4) Non-disclosure of Research Findings: All the findings of a research study may not be
made public.
(5) Seldom Catering to the Need: The available data may not suit the current purpose of
research, due to incompleteness, generalities and so on.
(6) Other Limitations:
i) There may be difficulties in the identification ofthe source.
ii) Errors may be there in recording or transferring information from secondary sources.
 (22)
iii) The facilities or capabilities of the agency that originally collected the data might be
questionable.

Que. 12 Explain various sources of Secondary data.

Ans. :
 Sources of Secondary Data:
In most of the studies the investigator finds it impracticable to collect first-hand information
on all related issues and as such he makes use of the data collected by others. There is a vast
amount of published information from which statistical studies may be made and fresh statistir.s are
constantly in a state of production. The sources of secondary data can broadly be classified under
two heads:
(1) Internal Secondary Data: "Data that originate within the firm for which the research is
being conducted are internal data. If they were collected for some other purposes, they are internal
secondary data". They may be adapted for the marketing research purposes. They may be formal
data and informal data. Formal data are available on a regularly scheduled basis, such as monthly,
quarterly or annually in a form that allows comparisons through time. Informal data report basic
marketing knowledge and are available on a non-recurring basis. Sales analysis and invoicing are
considered important sources of internal secondary data.
(i) Sales Analysis: Sales analysis is an important tool of marketing research. It is the first
step in the marketing research program and acts as a basis for the development of further
marketing research. It reveals the current operating problems in the marketing area where the
scope for marketing research can be adequately explored in smaller organizations, sales analysis·
is an important source of marketing information. It provides a major share ot the factors for
marketing research.
(ii) Invoice Analysis: Company invoices have been provided a very useful source of
information. A copy of an invoice is preserved and information from it may be punched, tabulated,
processed and summarized to provide suitable information to the researcher. The invoice data
may be classified according to customer, nature of produc,, region and area. The invoice record
may be of immense use provided it has been used with precaution and scientifically.
(iii) Accounting Records: The basis for accounting records concerned with sales is the
sales invoice. The usual sales invoice has a sizable amount of information on it, which generally
includes name of customer, location of customer, items ordered, quantities ordered, quantities
shipped, dollar extensions, back orders, discounts allowed, and date. In addition, the invoice often
contains information on sales territory, sales representative, and warehouse of shipment. This
information, when supplemented by data on costs and industry and product classification, as well
as from sales calls, provides the basis for a comprehensive analysis of sales-by·product,
customer, industry, geographic area, sales territory, and sales representative, as well as the
profitability of each sales category. Unfortunately, most firms' accounting systems are designed
primarily for tax reasons rather than for decision support.

(2) External Secondary Data: The second forms of secondary data are external sources
which are generally published and are available in different forms and form different· sources.
Although external secondary data may be obtained from different sources, some of the sources are
given here.
(i) Libraries: Researchers first attend libraries to find out relevant data pertaining to
research. They provide many sources where suitaole data may be obtained. Public libraries and
college and University libraries contain a large amount of business information, which provides
sources o other data. Management books, theses, management journals and other publications
can be consulted in these libraries. Management institutes, research institutes, banks, insurance
companies, public utility companies and manufacturing units have maintained adequate libraries.
(ii) Literature: A great amount of secondary data is available from literature, particularly
literature on marketing subjects. With the development of marketing researches in different
countries, new and interesting facts are coming into the picture, which are available in various
publications. Consultations of this literature may provide proper guidance pertaining to publication,
which can be used from time to time.
(iii) Periodicals: Business periodicals published fortnightly, monthly, quarterly, semi
annually and annually are often consulted by the marketing executives and researchers to plan
 (23)
and design their marketing research. Also to use the available data for research purposes and to
verify the conclusions derived frorn the marketing research, especially of field research. Periodical
economic abstracts on economics, finance, trade, transport, industry, labor and management are
being prepared by the Government as well as by the non-government agencies. Journals of the
Marketing Association, management Association, Research Agencies, Advertising Agencies and
other related periodicals are becoming very common in India and abroad.
(iv) Census and Registration Data: Census and registration data have become very
comprehensive sources of marketing research. Previously, these concentrated only one
population census, but it now extends to many areas.

(a) Census of Population: A census of the population is conducted at the beginning of

every decade in India, viz., the census of 1901. 1911 , and so on. The census of the population
reveals many interesting characteristics of the population. Population by state, city metropolitan
area and rural areas are revealed by the census. Characteristics of the population such as age,
sex, race, mother tongue, citizenship, education, families and their composition, employment
status, place of work, main occupation and subsidiary occupations are revealed both area-wise
and region-wise.
(b) Census of Agriculture: The census of agriculture is of recent origin. It has been
commonly undertaken in western countries. The census includes information and data
pertaining to the number of farms, size, acreage value, farm expenditure, crops and value
added, facilities and equipment, cattle and their uses. The National Sample Survey is an
important agricultural data collection agency. The Ministry of Agriculture conducts some sample
surveys to find out the problems and potentials of agriculture in some selected areas of the
country.
(c) Census of Cattle: In India, sample surveys have been conducted to find out the
number of animals such as goats, sheep, and milk animals. They have revealed the
possibilities of market expansions of industrial products related to cattle, for example, milk-
meat, leather and so on. Sample surveys are the basis for enumerating the number of animals
in the country and also in different parts of the country.
(d) Census of Trade: The census of retail trade, wholesale trade and selected service
industries has yielded statistics pertaining to total sales, number of employees and number of
establishment for each type of business. The census may be conducted state-wise and
areawise. The import lind export registered with the Ministry of Commerce has become a very
good source of data for foreign trade.
(e) Census of Transport: The census of transport is conducted periodically. This has
been undertaken by the Ministry of Transport to find out the existing transport facilities and also
possibilities for the future expansion of the business.
(f) Census of Industry: The census of industry, mining and manufacturing is c-
onducted from time to time. The sample surveys of industry, mining and manufacturing have
become very good source for deciding the level of industries, mining and manufacturing in
India. Sometimes, these surveys have been used to evaluate the total volume and value of
commodities transferred and mined in India. The census of industry is also conducted to find
out the number and size of establishment, ownership, manhours, and sales by customer and
class. Also inventories, selected costs, book value of fixed assets, capital expenditure and
investment, energy used, value added by manufacture, and quantity and value of materials
consumed.
(g) Census of Banking and Finance: The Reserve Bank of India has prepared
detailed statistics on various performances of banking and the positions of financial institutions.
The financial and banking positions decide the potentials of market expansion.
(h) Registration Data: Registration data are the outcome of legal requirements of the
submission of final accounts and reports to the Registrar of Companies and to the ministry
concerned for securing licenses and other requirements. These data are compiled and
tabulated by the ministry and are publicity available. Data pertaining to trade, industry and
business are available from the Ministry of Commerce. Similarly the Ministry of Transport and
Communication provides data pertaining to transport and communication. The Ministry of
Railways publishes monthly journals and reports, which are based on the data available within
the railways and adjoining environments. Similarly, almost all the ministries or the Government
 (24)
of India as well as the Reserve Bank of India have been publishing comprehensive and suitable
data and information pertaining to different fields of the economy.
(v) Trade Associations: Trade associations may be an excellent source of data pertaining
to an industry. The trade association of one industry may exchange data with the trade
association of another industry, and within one industry a firm may exchange data with another
firm with the help of trade association of the industry.
(vi) Government Departments: Different government departments have different data,
which are not available in libraries. But these are very useful for understanding various aspects of
the economy. The researchers can utilize them for the purposes of their researchers.
Information and data pertaining to agriculture, industry, trade, transport, banking and
finance can be obtained from the respective ministries of the Government oflndia.
(vii) Private Sources: Private sources include varied sources available in the form of
books, monographs, bulletins, journals, commercial reports and so on. They are priced and
publicly circulated. Some of the sources include extensive original research, and some summarize
the research findings of other person. Many of them are statements of facts and opinions. The All
India Management Association, the Indian Marketing Association, Commerce Ltd., Capital, the
Economic Times and Financial Express etc. are important private institutions which supply
suitable information and data to the public in the form of journals, books and newspapers.
(viii) Commercial Data: There are several institutions and companies, which purchase
and sell marketing information and data. Some of the companies are solely engaged in marketing
research. They collect information and data directly from field surveys. Some such companies
collect and process the secondary data and supply them to their subscribers.
(ix) Financial Data: The financial data of reputed concems are available in several
magazines, newspapers, joumals and in summary of statistics. The Directorate of Income Tax
publishes information pertaining to taxes and income ranges. Such information and data are
useful to forecast the market potential of a pmicular product. Private institutions such as the
Economic Times of India, Commerce Private Ltd. etc. are publishing assets and investment-wise
data of several large companies. The market researchers are indirectly benefited by such data
and mformation.
(x) International Organizations: International Organizations such as the International
Monetary Fund, the World Bank, the United Nations Organization, the Asian Bank, the African
Bank, Foreign embassies etc. publish several useful statistics, which can be used by researchers.
The statistics may relate to the population problem, trade, institutions, culture, agriculture, regional
festivals, superstitions education, consumption, transportation, forestry, manufacturing and so on.
There are· several other publications such as the World Almanac, Thomas Register etc., which
publish much useful information for marketing researchers.
(xi) References and Bibliography: In every publication, the researcher can find
references and a bibliography which can be very good sources of information of marketing
research. The researcher can consult them for further information and data.
(xii) Volumes of Statistics: There are several private and public .organizations, which
prepare a sumiT'ary of statistics. In India, the Indian Statistical Institute publishes the Statistical
Abstract. Commerce Pvt. Ltd., the. Times of India Ltd. and the Financial Express compile
Directories of different subjects. The Government of india publishes the Economic Survey of India
wherein statistics relating to every field of e:onomic activities are compiled in a suitable form.
(xiii) Advertising Agencies: Advertising agencies have proved to be very useful sources
of marketir.Jg research. Recently, a large number of agencies have come into the findings ofthe
advertising researches for their clients. Advertising agencies sometimes, publish reviews,
resurnes and tests of marketing researches. The consumers' behavior, consumption pattern and
demographic features are generally revealed by these agencies.
(xiv) Other Sources: There are several other sources of marketing researches.
Individuals conduct their own researches, which may be purchased by other institutions.
Marketing Associations, Management Associations and individual business houses have been
conducting marketing researches for other researches. There are a large number of research
organizations in foreign countries, which are selling their research findings to organizations
requiring to know the outcome of their researches.
 (25)
Que. 13 What is Primary Data? State Primary Data collection methods.
Ans. :
 Introduction:
Primary data is the one, which is collected by the investigator himself for the purpose of a
specific inquiry or study. Such data is original in character and is generated by survey conducted by
individuals or research institution or any organization.
The objectives of primary data are formulated on the basis of research objectives. Objectives
set the guidelines and directions of research planning. Formulating the objectives offers the best
feasible means of solution. The research study ·should yield measurements related to the research
objectives as the measurements will provide directions for a decision. The findings of the research
should be capable of being utilized for the better performance of the organization. The cost-benefits
anaiysis should be made for detennining the objectives of the primary data collection.

 Classification of Primary Data

(1) Data Classified by their Nature: The nature of data may be classified according to
various categories: Facts, knowledge, opinions, intentions, motivation and behavior.
i) Facts: Facts refer to actuality but they not necessarily are material. The measurable
facts can be measured precisely and definitely. The descriptive facts ·relating to people may be
demographic and sociological. These characteristics represent the attributes of people, e.g., age,
sex, income and level of education. The sociological data are related to how people are organized
in and related to society.
(ii) Knowledge: Knowledge refers to what people know. Potential buyers‟ knowledge and
awareness of products or brands are important data of marketing research~ The respondents,
awareness and knowledge are evaluated to get sufficient data for marketing research.
(iii) Opinions: Opinions are people's perceptions. What people think or what is in their
minds are called opinions. Their perceptions may or may not be true. Thus, they may be well
defined as attitudes. These are products of mental sets and may be referred to as images
(iv) Intentions: Intentions are acts that are in the minds of people. These are expectations
of behavior, or intentions to indulge in particular marketing behavior.
(v) Motivation: Motivation is how to steer and direct people's actions. It is known as the
inner state of mind that energizes activities and moves or directs the behavior of people.

(2) Data Classified According to Function: Data are also classified according to their
functions. While planning data, the researchers anticipate the future analysis and synthesis
according to their function. They try to avoid redundant data and collect necessary data. Data
according to function may be causal, payoff, descriptive and classification.
(i) Causal Data: Causal data reveal the cause and effect relationship. One hypothesis is
measure in terms of effects. Data required to measure the hypothesis are termed causal data.
Such types of causa! data are required in the marketing mix. They are used for experimental
purpose in all the fields of marketing variables.
(ii) Payoff Data: The payoffs are resultant data. They are the outcome of certain causal
data, i.e., results of certain phenomenon. The causal variables are measured in terms of payoff or
effects. This means that payoff data are required to measure the causal variables.
(iii) Descriptive Data: There is need of such types of data, which may describe the
situation, statement and facts. Even in the case of experimental data, one variable requires to be
controlled for which descriptive data are used. In such cases, a description of the samples is
needed when drawing conclusions.
(iv) Classification Data: In sophistication experimental design the compound data have
been classified to arrive at simple analysis and conclusions. The classification data, i.e., the data
classified. in relevant categories are conceivable and may be easily described. The classification
data in complex and multiple groups, i.e., more than one causal variable or rotation of treatments
in sub-groups have functional utility. The sample survey also provides classification data, e.g ..
according to age, sex, income, location etc.
 (26)
 Significance of Primary Data
(1) Reliability: The information collected for primary data is more reliable than'those
collected from the secondary data because these informations are collected directly from the
respondents. So these carries higher rate of reliability.
(2) Availability of a Wide Range of Techniques: There are a lot of techniques that can be
employed, means that all information necessary can be obtained through using the appropriate
techniques, enabling all areas of the research topic to be- answered and investigated thoroughly
and effectively.
(3) Addresses Specific Research Issues: Carrying-out their own research allows the
marketing organization to address issues specific to their own situation. Primary research is
designed to collect the information the marketer wants to know, and report it in ways that benefit the
marketer.
(4) Greater Control: Not only does primary research enaLle the marketer to focus on
specific issues, it also enables the marketer to have a higher level of control over how the
information is collected. In this way the marketer can decide on such issues as size of project (e.g.,
how many responses), location of research (e.g., geographic area), and timeframe for completing
the project.
(5) Efficient Spending for Information: Unlike secondary research, where the 'marketer
may spend for information that is not needed, primary data collections' focus on issues specific to
the researcher improves the chances that research funds will be spent efficiently.
(6) Proprietary Information: Information collected by the marketer using primary research
is their own and is generally not shared with others. Thus, information can be kept hidden from
ccmpetitors, and potentially offer an "information advantage" to the comp.:ny that undertook the
primary research.

 Limitations of Primary Data:

(1) Cost: Compared to secondary research, primary data may be very expensive since there
is a great deal of marketer involvement, and the expense in preparing and carrying-out research can
be high.
(2) Time Consuming: To be done correctly primary data collection requires the
development and execution of a research plan. Going from the start-point of deciding to undertake a
research project to the end-point of having results is often much longer than the time it takes to
acquire secondary data.
(3) Not Always Feasible: Some research projects, while potentially offering information that
could prove quite valuable, are not within the reach of a marketer. Many are just too large to be
.;arried-out by all but the largest companies, and some are not feasible at all. For example, it would
not be practical for McDonald's to attempt to interview every customer who visits their stores on a
certain day since doing so would require hiring a huge number of researchers, an unrealistic
expense. Fortunately, there are ways for McDonald's to use other methods (e.g., sampling) to meet
their needs without the need to talk with all customers.
(4) Large Volume of Data: Since the data collected by primary methods remains in a very
large amount so it becomes very complicated to handle and maintain all the data. Large volumes of
data also create difficulty in the data processing.
(5) Reluctancy of Respondents: In many cases, the respondents remain reluctant to give
the answers of the researchers' questions. Sometimes the. give such answers which create
biasness in the research.

 Primaty Data Collection Methods

Primary data are collected during the course of doing experiments in an experimental
research but in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample
surveys or census surveys, we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct
communication with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews. Thus, in
other words, means that there are several methods of collecting primary data, particularly in surveys
and descriptive researches. Important ones are:
 (27)
1) Survey Method
i) Interview method
ii) Questionnaire method
iii) Schedules
2) Observation method
3) Experimentation
4) Other methods
i) Warranty card,
ii) Distributor audits,
iii) Pantry audits,
iv) Panels/ Consumer Panels,
v) Mechanical devices, and
vi) Content analysis.

Que. 14 What is Questionnaire method of data collection? Explain with process.

Ans. :
 Introduction:
The questionnaire is a data collection instrument. It is a list of questions to be asked from the
respondents. It also contains a suitable space where the answers can be recorded.
The term questionnaire usually refers to a self-administered process where by the
respondent himself reads the question and records his answers without the assistance of an
interviewer. This is a narrow definition of a questionnaire. A questionnaire is a method of obtaining
specific information about a defined problem so that the data, after analysis and interpretation,
results in a better appreciation of the problem. A questionnaire form, which has to be completed by
an interviewer, is often referred as scheduie.
The success of collecting data either through the questionnaire method or through the
schedule method depends largely on the proper design of the questionnaire. This is a specialized
job and requires high degree of skill, experience, through knowledge of the research topic, ability to
frame questions and a great deal of patience. There are no hard and fast rules in designing the
questionnaire.

 Types of Questionnaire
It is possible to classify questionnaires studies on a variety of bases. Three such ·bases,
which are of importance, are:
1) The degree to which the questionnaire is formalized or structured;
2) The disguise or lack of disguise of the objectives of the questionnaire;
3) The communication method used.
Questionnaires can be constructed so that the objective is clear to the respondent (none
disguised); or they can be constructed so as to disguise the objective. Using these two bases of
classifications, four types of studies can be distinguished as below:
Types of Questionnaire Studies
Structured Non-structured
Non-disguised Most questionnaires. Some focus groups and depth
Example: Does your family own a interviews.
piano? Example: Ask respondent(s) to
discuss what they think when
canned soup is mentioned.
Disguised Some attitude measurements. Some projective techniques
Example: Which of the following eat a Example: Nescafe.
lot, and which a little, oatmeal :
farmers, Movie actors, etc.

(1) Structured, Non-Disguised Questionnaire: Most questionnaire st made in marketing

research are of the first type-they are structured and are not disguised. If the sales manager for a
musical instrument company wants to find out how many and what type of people play various types
of instruments, a formal list of questions may be set up that asks directly about the ownership and
playing of various instruments. Each of a selected group of persons is then asked this set of
questions in the given sequence.
 (28)
Structured, non-disguised studies can be handled by telephone, mail, or personal interview.
They are subject to the three limitations of the cuestionnaire -method-respondents may be unable to
furnish the .nforn1ation desired, they may be unwilling to furnish it, or the questioning rocess may
tend to stimulate incorrect or misleading answers.
(2) Non-structured, Non-disguised Questionnaire: More than anything else, '"'larketers
want to know why people buy or do not buy their products. !)irect questions dealing with motives
rarely elicit useful answers. As inted out above, most people do not have a clear idea why they
make specific marketing decisions. Direct questions do not measure the relative importance of the
various types of reasons, ana many individuals will not report motives that might be considered
base or socially unacceptable.
To overcowe these difficulties, researchers have developed depth interviews and focus-
group interviews. Instead of approaching respondents with a fixed list of questions, the interviewer
attempts to get respondents to talk freely about the subject of interest.
(3) Non-structured, Disguised Questionnaire: Many people are either unwilling or unable
to give accurate reports as to their own attitudes and motivations. Thus, even focus groups (non-
structured, non-disguised questioning) probably give biased results. To overcome this difficulty,
clinical psychologists have developed disguised methods of gathering such data. Disguised
methods are designed so that the respondents do not know what the objective of the study is. Such
disguised methods may also be non-structured. Projective techniques are an example ofthis type.
The theory of projective techniques is that all individuals, in describing a situation, interpret
that situation to a degree. The description they give is a mixture of their own attitudes, beliefs, and
motivations. Various projective techniques are used, but the most common are word association,
sentence completion, and storytelling. .,
(4) Structured, Disguised Questionnaire: Questioiling- of the structured, disguised type
has the advantages of disguise that were pointed out above Primarily that respondents do not know
what is being measured and, hence, are not biased in their answers. The advantages of structure lie
in the teduction of interviewer and interpreter bias, in quicker and less costly interviewing, and in
easier tabulation of results. Some structured, disguised tests of attitudes are based on the theory
that individuals' knowledge, perception, and memory are conditioned by their attitudes.

 Questionnaire Designing
Questionnaire construction is still much more of an art than a science. Most of what is known
about making questionnaires is the result of general experience. Neither a basic theory nor even a
fully systematized approarch to the problem has been developed.
Questionnaire construction is discussed in nine steps. These steps may vary in importance
in individual projects, but each step must receive attention in each case. The steps of designing
questionnaire are shown in below figure:
Determine What Information is Wanted

Determine the Type of Questionnaire to Use

Determine the Content of Individual Questions

Determine the Type of Question to Use

Deciding on Wordmg of Questions

Decide on Question Sequence

Decide on Length of Questionnaire

Decide on Layout and Reproduction

Check Questions
Pretest

Revision and Final Draft

Figure : Questionnaire Designing
 (29)
(1) Determine What Information is Wanted: Questionnaires are prepared to meet
research objectives and to motivate the respondents to cooperate with the survey. Therefore a
specific statement of the information required for research purposes is prepared and put in
operation to motivate the respondents. The specific characteristics of the information are decided
upon for the proposed analysis and objectives.
(2) Determine the Type of Questionnaire to Use: After deciding the information required
for the research, the next step is to I decide the method of using the questionnaire or administering
the questionnaire. The questionnaire can be used by personal interview, mail, telephone or all of
them. The choice among these alternatives is largely determined by the type of information to be
obtained and by the type of respondents from whom it is to be obtained. It is necessary to decide on
the type of questionnaire at this point :;ince the questions asked, the way in which they are asked,
and the sequence in which they are asked will all be influenced by this decision. The influence of the
type of questionnaire on these factors will be brought out in the discussion.
(3) Determine the Content of Individual Questions: Once the needed information is
specified the method of communication is decided, researchers are ready to begin formulating the
questionnaire. A first problem is to decide what to include in individual questions.
(4) Determine the Type of Question to Use: Once the content of individual questions is
decided, researchers are ready to begin forming the actual qustions. Before they can .vork on the
wording of each question, they must decide on the type of question to use. Part of this decision is
whether to use disguised or non disguised, structured or unstructured questioning. The main types
of questions from least structured to most structured are :
(i) Open-Ended Questions: A type of questhn that requires participants to respond in
his/her own words within t being restricted to pre- defined response choices is known as an open-
ended question. They are also called infinite response or un-saturaed type questions.
Open-ended questions are useful when the respondent is able to provide a narrative
answer, when the researcher is uncertain what answers are needed or wants to conduct
exploratory research. Such questions can be sub-divided into three sub-types:
(a) Free Response: Free-response questions typically fluctuate in the degree of
freedom they 3ive to the interviewee.
(b) Probing: Probing open-ended questions are those where the actual open-ended
questions are reached a little later in the process. Projective: A vague question or stimulus used
by the researcher to project a person's attitudes from the responses is known as a projective
open-ended question.
(ii) Close-Ended Questions: Questions, which restrict the interviewee's answers to pre-
defined response options, are called close-ended questions. Close-ended questions give
respondents a finite set of specified responses to choose from. Such questions are deemed
appropriate when the respondent has a specific answer to give (e.g., gender), when the
researcher has a pre-defined set of answers in mind, when detailed narrative information is not
needed 0r when there is a limit.. number of ways to answer a question. These questions are
common in survey researches. Four major structures exist for close-ended questions. They are:
(a) Binary: These are also known as dichotomous questions as they permit only two
possible answers. The respondent has to choose one of the two permissible answers.
(b) Ranking Questions: These questions require the participant to rank the response
options listed on a continuum basis in order of preference. Ranking questions are used to get
information that reveals participants' attitudes and opinions. These questions list several
alternatives that might influence an individual's decision-making. The participant assigns a rank
to each option listed as per the scale mentioned. Consider the following example:
(c) Multiple-Choice Questions: These questions cover all signifant degrees of
response. The respondent has to select an option that best describes their feelings.
(d) Checklist Questions: These are questions where the particant has the freedom to
choose one or more of the response options available. This is different from multiple choice
questions in that it gives freedom to the respondents to choose one or more of the options
available.

(5) Deciding on Wording of Questions: In the preceding discussion of question content

and types of questions, much has been said on question wording. A number of other important
ideas however should be considered. Unfortunately, these ideas are more rules of thumb that have
been developed form experience than they are underlying concept.
 (30)
i) Define the issue
ii) Should question be subjective or objective
iii) Positive or negative statement
iv) Use simple words
v) . Avoid ambiguous questions
vi) A void leading quest.vns

(6) Decide on Question Seql!ence: Once the wording of the individual questions has been
determined, it is necessary to set tbem up in some order. The sequence can influence the results
obtained. A questionnaire has three major sections:
i) Basic information
ii) Classification information
iii) Identification information

(7) Decide on Length of Questionnaire: How long the questionnaire/ sch.edule would be
depends upon:
i) What the researcher wants to know and how many items are necessary so that the data
will be credible;
ii) On the tyre of study (since self-administered) questionnaires may be shorter than face-to-
face interviews;
(iii) On the time v.ilich the researcher has available for the study;
(iv) On the time the respondents can and will take; and
(v) On researcher's resources. .

For obtaining necessary and adequate data and credible answers, it is necessary that the
length of the queJtionnaire should be given importance, i.e., it should be reasonably long. It is
equally important that time for filling up questionnaires or responding to interview schedule is
generally limited to 30-40 minutes in comparison to face-to-face interview which can continue for 60
minutes. Another consideration is the respondents. How long can they are available? Will they take
interest in answering questions seriously? Young people may be available for less time than the
middle-aged and the old people

(8) Decide on Layout and Reproduction: The physical layout and reproduction of the
questionnaire influence the success of the interview. While planning the layout and reproduction,
three important points are considered. They are:
(i) Accepting of the Questionnaire: The physical appearance of the questionnaire
influences the interests and attitude of the respondents. If the questionnaire is prepared on rough
paper, typed unimpressively and designed poorly it may not attract the respondents to read and
answer the questions. On the other ht.nd, a questioil.taire typed or printed on good quality paper
may attract the respuiiuents to read it The respondents may be requested not to disclose their
identities. The researchers, sometimes, to avoid any bias, may avoid the use of their company's
name.
(ii) Ease to Control: The questionnaire should be numbered serially to make it possible to
control the questionnaire in the operation. It will make it easy to edit and tabulate the answers. All
questions must be accounted and evaluated properly. Numbered questions are easy to follow and
simple to operate throughout the survey time, and analyze thereafter.
(iii) Ease of Handling: The reproduction of a questionnaire may influence the fieldwork
and analysis. It is essential that a large number of questions must not be put in a short space. If
the questionnaire is crowded, it makes a bad appearance. This may cause errors in collection of
data and tabulation as it is hard to read the answers. Too large a questionnaire cannot be
handled properly. Questions should be laid out and reproduced in an easy way for the field worker
to follow the sequence.

(9) Check Questions: Once the first draft of the questionnaire has beencompleted, and
before it is actually pre-tested, it is a gooJ idea to get one (or more) expert's opinion of the
questionnaire. A person who is expert in research methodology can help to catch methodoiogical
weaknesses in the instrument, such as faulty scales, inadequate instructions, etc. A person who is
familiar with the topic of the questionnaire can he:p in assessing the face validity of the questions.
Do they make sense; are they easy to understand, do they ask what they are supposed to asking?
 (31)
(10) Pretest: Before the questionnaire is ready for the field, it needs to be preder tested field
conditions. No researcher can prepare a questionnaire so good that improvements cannot be
discovered in field test. Researchers have reported pre-testing, changing, and pre-testing again for
as many as 25 times before they were satisfied with some questionnaires. One pretest is as much,
however, as most questionnaires get.
One important objective of pre-testing questionnaires is to get at the thinking behind the
answers so that the auditor can accurately assess whether the questionnaire is being filled-out
properly, whether the questions are actually understood by respondents, and whether the questions
ask what the auditor thinks they are asking. Pre-testing also helps to assess whether respondents
are able and willing to provide the needed information.
In pre-testing, the respondents should actually fill-out the questionnaire, giving their views
along the way or afterward. Pretests are best done by personal interview, even if the survey is to be
handled by mail or telephone. Interviewers can note respondent reactions and attitudes which
cannot otherwise be obtained. After any pertinent changes in the questionnaire have been made,
another pretest can be run by mail or telephone if those methods are to be used in the survey. This
latter pretest should uncover any weakness peculiar to the method of communication. Pre-testing
allows the responsible auditor to test solutions to problems with the questionnaire. For example, if
considering different wording for a question, one wording can be used with half the pre-test sample
and a second wording with the remaining sample to see which works best.

(11) Revision and Final Draft: After each significant revision of the questionnaire, another
pretest should be run. When the last pretests suggests no new revisions, the researcher is ready to
print the actual questionnaires be used in the survey.

Que. 15 What are the merits and demerits of questionnaire method?

Ans. :
 Precautions in Designing Questionnaire
Since the value of the results obtained from the investigation depends on the adequacy and
appropriate drafting of the questionnaire, the following points should be borne in mind:
(1) Questionnaire should be Brief: A large Rumbl'!r of questions will scare away
respondents. All efforts should be made to reduce the number of questions to a minimum. Irrelevant
questions should be eliminated question included in the questionnaire must be relevant to the
problem under investigation.
(2) Simple, Clear and Unambiguous Questions: The questions should be clear,
unambiguous and precise. They should be unmistakable in meaning to people of varying standards
of intelligence. They should be capable of being answered m only a limited number of ways.
Complicated and long-worded questions irritate the informants and result in careless replies. No
technical or pompous words should be used. The language should be very simple so that
informants can easily understand.
(3) Nature of Questions: There are four types of questions, viz.,
i) Simple Alternative Questions: Such questions can be answered in 'yes' or 'no' or
'right' or 'wrong'. The questions which can be answered clearly in 'yes' or 'no' are the best. For
example, a question, "whether you have a car" can only be answered in 'yes' or 'no'.
ii) Multiple Choice Questions: Such questions may be answered in a number of ways.
The answers should be printed in the questionnaire itself, and the informant should be requested
to mark against any one of them.
iii) Specific Information Questions: Such questions soliCit specific information like, -
What is your age?
iv) Open Questions: Open question is one which leaves the door open to any answer.
Such questions are to be answered by the informants in their own words. Such questions solicit
informants' views on a particular problem. Questions should be such that do. not require long
answers. They are not expected to write an essay for you.
 (32)
(4) Use of Proper Words in the Questions: Questions should be framed with right words.
The right word in the right place will ensure the validity of answers. Words used should be such that
their meanings are clear to all informants.
(5) Questions should be Such as tbc Answers of which are Known to Informants: The
general body of informants should be in a position to answer the questions.
(6) Questions Capable of Objective Answers: Questions should be capable of objective
answers. Avoid questions of opinion.
(7) Should not Affect Pride or sentiment: Questions affecting pride and sentiments of the
people should not be asked. Due regard should be paid to their religious and political belief.
Questions asking about private affairs should not be asked. Unduly inquisitive or offending
questions should be avoided. If difficult and unfamiliar question or questions which in any way incite
distrust or suspicion are asked, answers are likely to be either incomplete, brief, non-committal,
general or purposely evasive.
(8) Some Kind of Questions should be Avoided: Some type of questions should be
avoided because their correct answers will never be got. Debatable questions should also be not
asked.
(9) Sequence of the Questions: The arrangement or sequence of the questions is also
important. The questionnaire should be designed so that the questions fall into a logical sequence.
This will enable the respondent to understand its pt•rrose, and as a result the quality of his answers
may be improved. Order of the questions should be such as to facilitate the answering of each
question in tum. Questions should involve a logical flow of thought in the mind of informant.
(10) Instructions for Filling in the Questionnaire: Precise and definite instructions of filling
in the questionnaire should be given. It is better to include the instruction in the body of the
questionnaire than to give them as footnotes or put them altogether on the other side of the page.
Instructions should not be too lengthy.
(11) Setting of the Questionnaire: Some care should be taken in the actual setting out of
the questionnaire. It 5hould be made to look. as attractive as possible. Plenty of space should bt-
given for answers. A well-set questionnaire will be likely to impress the recipient and generally
increase the rate of response.
(12) To Test the Accuracy: The questionnaire should include certain corroborative
questions, to act as a check on false or inaccurate answers.

 Significance of Questionnaire Method

(1) Economical: Questionnaires are less expensive than other methods. Even the staff
required is not much as either the researcher hin1self may mail or one or two investigators may be
appointed for hand-distributing the questionnaire Giving salary and T AIDA to the investigators and
the research officers increases the cost of the survey. In questionnaire (besides the cost of printing)
the researcher has only to spend money on postage for sending the questionnaires and stamped
envelopes for getting back the filled-in questionnaires or on follow-up letters. The mailed
questionnaires thus cost less.
(2) Time Saving: Since the respondents may be geographically dispersed and sample size
may be very large, the time required for getting back the questionnaires may be little greater but
usually less than that for face-to-face interviews. Thus, since all questionnaires are sent
simultaneously and most of the replies are received in 10-15 days, schedules take months to
complete. In simple terms, questionnaires produce quick results.
(3) Accessibility to Diverse Respondents: When the respondents ate separated
geographically, they can be reached by correspondence which sales travel cost.
(4) Free from Bias: Since the interviewer is not physically present at interviewee's place, he
cannot influence his answers, either by prompting by giving his own opinion or by misreading the
question.
(5) Greater Anonymity: The absence of the interviewer assures anonymity which enables
respondent to express nee opinions and answers even to socially undesirable questions. The
absence of the interviewer assures privacy to the respondents because of which they willingly give
details of all events and incidents they would have not revealed otherwise.
 (33)
(6) Respondent's Convenience: The respondent can fill-in the questionnaire leisurely at hi:
convenience. He is not forced to complete all questions at "ne time. Since he fills up the
questionnaire in spare time, he can answer easy questions first and take time for difficult questions.
(7) Standardized Wordings: Each respondent is exposed to same words and therefore
there is little difference in understanding questions. The comparison of answers is thus facilitated.
(8) No Variation: Questionnaires are a stable, conststent and uniform measure, without
variation.

 Limitations of Questionnaire Method

(1) Unwillingness of Respondent to Provide Information: Most interviews are obtained at
the sufferance of the respondent. The respondent answers the telephone to be greeted by an
interviewer with a list of questions. The mterviewer is unknown to the respondent, and the suhject of
the proposed interview may be of little or no interest. The interviewer counts on the natural
politeness and good nature of most people to gain their cooperation. But in some cases "potential
respondents will refuse to take the time tn be interviewed or will refuse to answer some specific
questions.
(2) Inability of Respondent to Provide Information: Despite a willingness to cooperate,
many persons are unable to give accurate information on questions which the marketing interviewer
would like to ask. Most products are bought without any conscious array of reasons for and against.
Questions on such motivations are, therefore, apt not to obtain complete information. In other cases,
respondents cannot furnish information because they are unable to remember the facts desired or
because they have neve· known the facts.
(3) Influence of Questioning Process: A third major limitation of the questionnaire method
is the effect of the questioning process on the results obtained. The situation in which a person is
q•testioned about routine actions is an artificial one at best. As a result, respondents may furnish
reports quite different from the facts.
i) Questionnaire can be administered to respondents who have considerable amount of
education.
ii) Success and effectiveness mainly depends on the co-operation of the respondent.
iii) In many situations researcher is not in a position to observe the gestures/expressions of
the respondent.
iv) Unintelligent answers or misinterpretation of any question by the respondent cannot be
corrected.
v) Non-response rate is very high.

Que. 16 What is Sampling? Explain in detail.

Ans. :
 Introduction
A Sample is a portion of the population which is examined with a view to estimating the
characteristics of the population, i.e.,
(1) To assess the quality of a bag of rice, we examine only a portion of it. The portion
selected from the bag is called a sample, while the whole quantity of rice in the bag is the
population,
(2) To estimate the proportion of defective articles in a large consignment, only a portion
(i.e., a few of them) is selected and examined. The selected portion is a sample.
Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the
basis of which a judgment or inference about the aggregate or totality is made.
In other words, it is the process of obtaining information about an entire population by
examining only a part of it. In most of the research work and surveys, the usual approach happens
to be to make generalizations or to draw inferences based on samples about the parameters of
population from which the samples are taken. Population (or Universe) is the aggregate or totality of
statistical data forming a subject of investigation.

For example,
1) Population of books in the Natior:al Library,
2) Population of the heights of lndiar.~,
 (34)
3) Population of Nationalized Banks in India etc.

 Sampling Concepts
The basic concepts underlying sampling are as follows:
(1) Population or Universe: The entire aggregation of items from which samples can be
drawn is known as a population. In sampling, the population may refer to the urits, from which the
sample is drawn. Population or populations of interest are interchangeable terms. The term "unit" is
used, as in- a business research process; samples are not necessarily people all the time. A
population of interest may be the universe of nations or cities. This is one of the first things the
analyst needs to define properly while conducting a business research.
(2) Census: A complete study of all the elements present in the population is known as a
census. It is a time consuming and costly process and is, therefore, seldom a popular method with
researchers. The general notion that a census generates more accurate data than sampling is not
always true. Limitations include failure in gathering a complete and accurate list of all the members
of the population and refusal of the elements to provide information.
(3) Sample and Sampling: A sample is a part of the total population. It can be an individual
element or a group of dements selected from the population. Although it is a subset, it is
representative of the population and suitable for research in. terms of cost, convenience, and time.
The sample group can be selected based on a probability or a nonprobability approach. A
sample usually consists of various units of the population. The size of the sample is represented by
'V'.
(4) Precision: Precision is a measure of how close an estimate is expected to be, to the true
value of a parameter. Precision is a measure of similarity. Precision is usually expressed in terms of
imprecision and related to the standard error of the estimate. Less precision is reflected by a larger
standard error.
(5) Bias: Bias is a term that refers to how far the average statistic lies from the parameter it
is estimating, that is, the error, which arises when estimating a quantity. Errors from chance will
cancel each other out in the long run, those from bias will not.

 Need for Sampling

(1) Economical: The ideal solution to know the true cr actual values of the different
parameters of the population would be to take into account the entire population. However, that is
not feasible due to cost, time, labor and other constraints, hence sampling is more economical.
(2) Save Time: As the magnitude of operations involved in a sample survey is small, both
the execution of the field work and the analysis of results can be carried-out much faster and hence
is very less time consuming. On the other hand, if we have to gather information about the whole
population, in certain cases, we may not be able to have the information collected timely and the
entire study may become redundant. ·
(3) Small Staff: Relatively very small staff is required for gathering infvrmation, analyzing the
same and preparation of the report.
(4) Detailed Information: A researcher can collect more detailed information in much less
time than otherwise be possible in a census survey. Moreover, one can afford to have a few
specialists for collection of specialized type of informatiou which otherwise is not possible for a
census study because of cost and non-availability of specialists.
(5) Small Scale of Operation: As the scale of operations involved in a sample survey is
small, the quality of the interviewing, supervision and other related activities can be better than the
quality in a census survey.
(6) Provide Adequate Information: In many cases, sampling provides adequate
information needed for the purpose and sufficiently reliable. Also, the sampling techniques make it
possible to quantify the magnitude of possible error.

 Prerequisites of Sampling
The essentials that a sample must posses are:
 (35)
(1) Representation: A sample must represent the proper universe otherwise it must
interpret a wring result. For the purpose a sample method is used.
(2) Adequacy: The size of the sample used must be adequate.
(3) Independence: Every item of the sample must be independent so that each get same
chance of being of selected.
(4) Homogeneity: The sample must give the more or less the same unit if the samples are
taken from the same universe.

 Principles of Sampling:
The process of sampling is based on the following important principles of
(1) Law of Statistical Regularity: This law states that a moderately large number of items
selected at random from a given population exhibit nearly the same composition and characteristics
of the population.
(2) Law of Inertia of Large Numbers: This law states that, other things remaining the
same, the larger the size of the sample, the more accurate is Rtheeg ruelsauriltty o. btained. This is
nothing but a corollary to the Law of Statistical Regularity.
(3) Principle of Persistence: If some items of the universe possess some soecific
characteristics, these characteristics would be found in the sample also and even if the sample size
is increased or the population is increased, these characteristics would be reflected in the same
manner as in the previous case.
(4) Principle of Optimization: According to this principle, effort should be made to get best
possible or optimum results b'oth in terms of cost as well as efficiency. Larger the size of the sample
more would be the cost of conducting the survey, but better would be the efficiency also. The size is
maintained in such a way that the results are optimized in terms of cost and efficiency.
(5) Principle of Validity: A sample design is called valid only when the inferences drawn
from it are valid for the universe from which the sample has been taken. At a later stage we will
arrive at a conclusioa that in general, samples which are drawn at random would be found to be
more valid than those drawn otherwise.

 Advantages of Sampling
The important advantages of sampling over complete enumeration are briefly stated Lelow:
(1) Need for Sampling: Sometimes there is a need for sampling. Suppose researcher want
to· inspect the .eggs, the bullets, the missiles, and the tires of some firm. The study may be such
that the objects are destroyed during the process of inspection. Obviously, researcher cannot afford
to destroy all the eggs and the bullets, etc. researcher have to take care that the wastage should be
minimum. This is possible only in sample study. Thus sampling is essential when the units under
study are destroyed.
(2) Saves Time and Cost: As the size of the sample is small as compared to the population,
the time and cost involved on sample study are much less than the complete counts. For complete
count huge funds are required . There is always the problem of finances. A small sample can be
studied in a limited time and total cost of sample study is very smalL For complete count, researcher
need a big team of supervisors and enumeration who are to be trained and they are to be paid
properly for the work they do. Thus the sample study requires less time and less cost
(3) Reliability: If researcher cllect the information about all the units of population, the
collected inforn:ation may be true. But researcher is never sure about it Researcher does not know
whether the information is true or is completely false: Thus researcher cannot say anything with
confidence about the quality of informatron. Researcher says that the reliability is not possible. This
is a very important advantage of sampling. The inference about the population parameters is
possible only when the sample data is collected from the selected sample.
(4) Provides Information: Sampling provides information that is almost as accurate as that
obtained from a complete census; rather a properly designed and carefully executed sample survey
will provide more accurateresults.
Moreover, owing to the reduced volume of work, persons of higher caliber and properly
trained can be employed to analyze the data.
 (36)
(5) Obtaining Data when Measurement Process Physically Damages: Sampling is
essential to obtaining the data when the me"Surement process physically damages or destroys the
sampling unit under investigation. For example, in order to measure the average lifetime of light
bulbs, the measurement process dest.roys the sampling units, i.e., the bulbs, as they are used until
they bum-out A manufacturer will therefore use only a sample of light bulbs for this purpose and will
not bum-out all the bulbs produced. Similarly, the whole pot of soup cannot be tasted to determine if
it has an acceptable flavor.
(6) Obtaining Information when Population Appears Infinite: Sampling may be the only
means available for obtaining the needed information when the population appears to be infinite or
is inaccessible such as the population of mountainous or thickly forested areas. In such cases,
taking complete census to collect data would neither be physically possible nor practically feasible.
(7) Smaller "Non-Response": Sampling has much smaller "non-response'", following-up of
which is much easier. The term non-response means the no availability of information from some
sampling units included in the sample for any reason such as failure to locate or measure some of
the units, refusals, not-at-home, etc.
(8) Census Information: Sampling is extensively used to obtain some of thecensus
information.
(9) More Efiective: Sampling is more effective because every individual in the population
has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
(10) More Accurate: Fewer errors are made because small data are involved in collection,
tabulation, presentation, analysis, and interpretation.
(11) Gives More Comprehensive Information: A small sample results in a more thorough
investigation of the study, thus, giving more comprehensive information because all the members of
the population have been given an equal chance of being included in the sample.

 Disadvantages of Sampling
If sampling design has its strengths, it also has its weaknesses. The following are
disadvantages of sampling designs:
(1) More Care in Preparing: Sample data involve more care in preparing detailed sub-
classification because of the small number of cases as subjects.
(2) Misleading Result: If the sampling plan is not correctly designed and followed, the
results may be misleading.
(3) Requires Expert: Sampling requires an expert to conduct the survey in an area; if this is
lacking, the result is erroneous.
(4) Accuracy and Reliability: Less accurate and reliable because the sample may not be a
true representative of the population. This disadvantage can be minimized by selecting a sample
such that it is a true representative of the population; but it cannot be eliminated. However, if the
population size is quite large and the collection of data needs more than normal knowledge and
skills; these disadvantages could be eliminated.
(5) Size of the Sample: The major problem in sampling is to determine the size of the
sample. T!-te size of the sample need for a valid survey depends on many variables including the
risk, researcher are willing to accept and the characteristics of the population itself. Here, it is
sufficient to say that if sampling becoMes too complicated or the required sample size becomes too
large, the easiest solution may be to survey the entire population.
(6) Determining The Representativeness Of The Sample: Determining the
representativeness of the sample is the surveyor's greatest problem when sampling. By definition,
"sample" means a representative part of an entire group. To avoid the charge of using "biased
data", it is necessary to obtain a sample that meets the requirement of representativeness and this
is not an easy task. Without a representative sample, a survey will, at best, produce results that are
misleading and potentially dangerous.

(7) Involves Risk: It is important to realize that using a sample from a population to infer
something about the entire population involves a risk. The risk results from dealing with partial
 (37)
information. If risk is not acceptable in seeking the solution to a problem or the answer to a question,
then a complete survey or census, rather than a sample survey, must be conducted.

Que. 17 Discuss various methods / techniques of Sampling.

Ans. :
 Introduction:
It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict
rules to follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defmed in
keeping with the objectives of the study Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small,
and the researcher can include the entire population in the study. This type of research is called a
census study because data is gathered on every member of the population. Usually, the population
is too large for the chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the
characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
There are two major types of sampling methods:
(A) Probability Sampling: In probability sampling, the elements in the population have
some known chance or probability ofbeing selected as sample subjects.
(B) Non-probability Sampling: In non-probability sampling, the elements do not have a
known or predetermined chance ofbeing selected as sameple subjects.

(A) Probability Sampling:

A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in the Population has a chance
(greater than zero) ofbeing selected in the sample and this probability can be accurately
determined. The combination of these traits makes it possible to produce unbiased estimates of
population totals, by weighting sampled units according to their probability of selection. Probability
sampling is also known as' Random sampling' or 'chance sampling

 Types of Probability Sampling:

The various probability sampling methods are as follows :

Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling Stratified Random Sampling

Systematic Sampling Simple Cluster Sampling

Multi-stage Sampling Area Sampling

Sequential Sampling

(1) Simple Random Sampling:

This is the simplest and most popular technique of sampling. In it each unit of the population
has equal chance ofbeing included in the sample. This method implies that ifN is the size of the
population and n units are to be drawn in the sample, then the sample should be taken in such a
way that each of the NCn sample has an equal chance ofbeing selected.
Simple random sampling gives :
(1) Each element in the population an equal chance of being included in the sample and all
choices are independent of each other.
(2) Each possible sample combination an equal chance of being chosen.

The method of simple random sampling eliminates the chance of bias or personal prejudices
in the selection of units:
For example of a sample random sample would be a group of 25 employeeschosen out of a
hat from a company of 250 employees. In this case, the population is all 250 employees and the
sample is random because each employee has an equal chance .of being chosen.
 (38)

 Methods of Simple Random Sampling:

Some of the common methods of drawing simple random samples are :
(i) Lottery Method: The following are the steps in this method. Let N be the size of
population and a sample of size n is to be drawn.
a) Number the units of the population from 1 to N.
b) Take N identical pieces of papers, cards, capsules or balls and number these from 1 to
N.
c) Mix these thoroughly in a bag, bowl or some other container and pick out n items either
one by one or in one stroke blind folded.
d) The number of units in the population bearing the numbers on the items drawn in step
will constitute the desired random sample.

Though the method is simple and easy to apply, but un case the size of the population is
infinite, the method becomes unmanageable.
i) By Using Random Numbers: A number of people viz. L.H.C. Tippet, Fisher and Yates,
Kendall and Smith, Oliver and Boyd and Rand Corporation constructed setof random numbers.
These numbers can be used to select random samples from a given population. A table of true
random numbers is one in which any digit from 0 to 9 has an equal chance of appearing in any
position of the table. Random numbers are most useful when population is of infinite size. The digits
in random number tables are selected at random and are arranged independently of digits
occu.Pying other places in a number. The random number table prepared by. L.H.C. Tippet contains
a set of 10400 four numbers.

(2) Stratified Sampling:

Stratified sample is one ill which random selection is done not from the universe as a whole
but from different parts or strata (sub-populations) of a universe.
This sampling procedure may be summarized as follows :
i) The universe to be sampled is divided (or stratified) into groups (called "strata") that are
mutually exclusive and include all items in the universe:
ii) A simple random sample is then chosen independently from each group or stratum.
The process of stratified random sampling differs from simple random sampling in that, with
the later, sampl~ items are chosen at random from the entire universe. In stratified sampling, the
sample is designed so that a separate random sample is chosen from each stratum. In simple
random sampling the distribution of the sample among strata is left entirely to chance.
Formally, divide the population non-overlapping groups (i.e.strata)
N1, N2, …….. …….. Ni
Such that N1, + N2, + …….. …….. Ni = N
Then do random sample of f = n / N in each strata where f is the sampling fraction.
To select Stratified Random Sample one has to consider :
i) Base of Stratification: Strata are created on the basis of a variable known to be
correlated with the variable of interest and for which information on each universe element is known.
Strata should be constructed in a way which will minimize differences among sampling units within
strata, and maximize difference among strata.
The purpose of stratification is to increase the efficiency of sampling by dividing a
heterogeneous universe in such a way that:
a) There is as great a homogeneity as possible within each stratum, and
b) A marked difference is possible between the strata.
i) Number of Strata: The practical considerations limit the number of strata that is feasible,
costs of adding more strata may soon outrun. benefits. As a generalization more than six strata may
be undesirable.

ii) Sample Size within Strata: We-can use either a proportional or a disproportional
allocation. In proportional allocation, one samples each stratum in proportion to its relative weight. In
disproportional allocation this is not the case. It may be pointed out that proportional alllocation
approach is sample and if all one knows about each stratum is the number of items in that stratum;
it is generally also the preferred procedure. In disproportional sampling, the different strata are
 (39)
sampled at different rates. As a general rule when variability among observations within a stratum is
high, one samples that stratum at a higher rate than for strata with less internal variation.
For example, suppose a researcher wishes to study retail sales of product such as 'wheat'
in a universe of 100,000 grocery stores. The researcher might first subdivide this universe into three
strata, based on store size, as illustrated below :
Store size Stratum Number of Stores Percentage of stores
Large stores 20,000 20
Medium stores 30,000 30
Small stores 50,000 50
Total 1,00,000 100

(3) Systematic Sampling:

In this from of sampling one unit is selected at random from the universe and the other units
are at a specified interval from the selected unit. This is why it also know as Interval Sampling.
This method can be used when the population is finite and the units of the Universe can be
arranged on the basis of any system like alphabetical arrangement, numerical aiTangement or
geographical arrangement etc.
For example, if we want a sample of 35 households from a total population of260 houses in
a particular locality, then we could sample every seventh house starting from a random number from
1 to 7. Let us say that the random number is 7, then houses numbered 7, 14, 21, 28, and so on,
would be sampled until the 35 houses are selected.

(4) Cluster Sampling:

In this method, the universe is divided into some recognizable subgroups which are called
clusters. After this a simple random sample of these clusters is drawn and then units belonging to
the selected clusters constitute the sample.
For example, if we have to conduct an opinion poll in the city of Delhi, then the city may be
divided into, say, 50 blocks and out of these 50 blocks 5 .blocks can be picked up by random
sampling and the inhabitants in these five blocks can be interviewed to give their opinion on a
particular issue.

(5) Multi-stage Sampling:

This is a modified from of cluster sampling. While in cluster sampling all the t.mits in a
selected cluster constitute the sample, in multistage sampling the sample units are selected in two
or three or four stages. In this system the universe is first divided into first-stage sample units, from
which the sample is selected. The selected first-stage samples are then sub-divided into second
stage units from sampling is done in the same manner if necessary.
Thus, for an urban survey, a sample of towns may be taken first and then for each of the
selected town a sub-sample ofhouseholds may be taken, and then, if need be, from each of the
selected household a third-stage-sample of individuals may be obtained

(6) Area Sampling:

Area sampling is a -from of multi-stage sampling in which maps rather than lists or registers
are used as the sampling frame. It is more frequently used in those countries which do not have a
satisfactory sampling frame such as a population lists.
If clusters happen to be some geographic subdivisions, in that case cluster sampling is
better known as area sampling. In other words, cluster designs, where the primary sampling unit
represents a cluster of units based on geographic area, are distinguished as area sampling. The
plus and minus points of cluster sampling are also applicable to area sampling. The overall area for
sampling is divided into several smaller areas within which a random sample is selected,

For example, the city map is used for area sampling. Various blocks provide the frame and
each of them are numbered and used for the sampling. For sampling blocks stratification is
employed, which is based on geographical considerations. Thus blocks are needed to be identified
and than a stratified sample of dwellings can be selected. Finally blocks are subdivided into
segments of a more or less equal size and a sample of these segments may be taken in the
sample.
 (40)

(7) Sequential Sampling:

Sequential sampling is a sampling technique wherein the researcher picks a single or a
group ofsubjects in a given time interval, conducts his study, analyzes then picks another group of
subjects if needed and so on.
This sainpling technique gives the researcher limitless chances of fine tuning his research
methods and gaining a vital insight into the study that the researcher is currently pursuing.

(B) NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

Non-probability sampling is that sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population has been included in the sample. Non-
probability sampling is also known.by different names such as deliberate sampling, pirrposive
sampling and judgment sampling.
In this type of sampling, items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his
choice concerning the items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability sampling the
organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particulars units of the universe for constituting a
sample on the basis that the small mass that they select out of a huge one will be typical or
representative of the whole.

 Characteristics of Non-Probability Sampling

1) There is no ides of population.
2) There is no probability of selecting any individual.
3) It has free distribution.
4) The observations are not used for generalization purpose.
5) Non-parametric or non-inferential statistics are used.
6) There is no risk for drawing conclusions.

 Types ofNon-probability Sampling

The various non-probability sampling methods are :

Non-Probability Sampling

Convenience Sampling Judgement Sampling

Quota Sampling Panel Sampling

Sequential Sampling

(1) Convenience Sampling: In convenience sampling selection, the researcher chooses the
sampling units on the basis of convenience or accessibility. It is called accidental samples because
the sample-units enter by accident. This is also known as a sample of the man in the street, i.e.
selection of units where they are. Sample units are selected because they are accessible .
For example, in testing a potential new product, the sample work is done by adding the new
product to the appropriate shops in the locality. Purchasing and selling ofthe new product is
observed there.
(2) Judgment Sampling: A method of non-probability sampling that is sometimes
advocated is the selection of universe items by means of expert judgment. Using this approach,
specialists in the subject matter of the survey choose what they believe to be the best sample for
that particular study.
For example, a group of sales managers might select a sample of grocery stores in a city
that they regarded as "representative." This approach has been found empirically to produce
unsatisfactory results, And, of course, there is no objective way of evaluating the precision of
sample results. Despite these limitations, this method may be useful when the total size is extremely
small.
 (41)
(3) Quota Sampling: One of the most commonly used non-probability sample designs is
quota sqmpling, which enjoys its most widespread use in consumer surveys. This sampling method
also uses the principle of stratification. As in stratified random sampling, the researcher begins by
constructing strata. Bases for stratification in consumer surveys are commonly demographic, e.g.,
age, sex, income and so on. Often compound stratification is used-for example, age groups within
sex. Next, sample size (called quotas) are established for each stratum. As with stratified random
sampling, the sampling within strata may be proportional or disproportional. Field-workers are then
instructed to conduct interviews with the designated quotas, with the identification of individual
respondents being left to the field-workers. '
(4) Panel Sampling: Here the initial samples are drawn on random basis and information
from these is collected on regular basis. It is a semi-permanent sample wilere members may be
included repetitively for successive studies. Here there is a facility to select and quickly contact such
well balance samples and to have relatively high response rate even by mail.
(5) Snowball Sampling: It is a special non-probability method used when the desired
sample characteristic is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitiye to locate respondents in
these situations. Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional
subjects. While this technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of
introducing bias because the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a
good cross section from the population.

Que. 18 Explain Sample Design Procedure.

Ans. :
 Steps/Procedure in Sample Design
The following are the steps in drawing a sample from a given population:

Define the Universe

Sample Frame

Specifying Sampling Units

Selection of Sample Design

Determination of Sample Size

Select the Sample

Figure : Steps in Sample Design
(1) Define the Universe: Universe can be confined to a particular type of product, some
geographical limits or some other constraints.
The first problem in any sampling procedure is to define the universe. The target population
or universe is the collection of elements or objects that possess the information sought by the
researcher and about which inferences are to be made. The target population must be defined
precisely. Imprecise definitin of the target population will result in research that is ineffective at best
and misleading at worst. Defining the target population involves translating the problem definition
into a precise statement of who should and should not be included in the sample.
The target population should be defined in terms of elements, sampling units, extent and
time. An element is the object about which or from which the information is desired. In survey
research, the element is usually the respondent.
For example, consider a marketing research project assessing consumer response to a new
brand of men's cologne. Who should be included in the target population? All men? Men who have
used a cologne during the last month? Men 17 or older? Should females be included, because
some women buy colognes for their husbands? These and similar questions must be resolved
before the target population can be appropriately defined.
 (42)

(2) Sample Frame: The frame is constructed either by the researcher for the purpose of his
study or may consist of some existing list of the population. After the population to be studied has
been specified, the next step is to develop a frame of this population. A list containing all sampling
units of a population is known as sampling frame. The frame is constructed either by the researcher
for the purpose of his study or may consist of some existing list of the population. A frame does not
always have to be a list of names; it can also involve a definite location, a boundary, an address, or
a set of rules by which a sampling unit can be delineated.
A frame in some sense is a set of bo ndaries circumscribing the universe. It may be in the
form of lists, indices, maps, directories, population records, electoral rolls, city tax rolls, students
enrolled in a university etc. In marketing studies the frame is essential. A list of every element of the
population appearing once and only once would constitute a sample frame. A good sampling frame
should be acr.urate, free from duplication and conveniently available. A sample frame is essential
for marketing research and better performance of sampling procedure.
A sampling frame is a representation of the elements of the target population. 1t consists of
a list or set of directions for identifying the target population. For example, the telephone book, an
association directory listing the tirms in an industry, a mailing list purchased from a commercial
organization, a city directory, or a map.

(3) Specifying the Sampling Units: The decision on sampling unit often depends on the
sampling frame. The sampling unit is the basic unit containing the elements of the population to be
sampled, e.g. city blocks, households, a business organization etc. The decision on sampling unit
often depends on the sampling frame. The selection of the sampling unit partially depends on the
overall design of the project also. The units which serve as the basis of initial sampling are known
as primary sampling units. It can be composed of one or more units of the population depending on
the objectives of the inquiry."
For example, suppose that Revlon wanted to assess consumer response to a new line of
lipsticks and wanted to sample females over 18 years of age. It may be possible to sample females
over 18 directly; in which case a sampling unit would be the same as an element. Alternatively, the
sampling unit might be households. In the latter case, households would be sampled and all
females over 18 in each selected household would be interviewed. Here, the sampling unit and the
population element are / different. Extent refers to the geographical boundaries and the time factor
is the time period under consideration.

(4) Selection of Sample Design: It is the procedure of selecting units in the sampJe. There
are two basic metj10ds of sampling namely, probability and non-probability methods which can be
further divided into some specific methods of selection. It is the procedure of selecting units in the
sample. There are two basic methods of sampling namely, probability and nonprobability methods
which can be further divided into some specific methods of selection. A probability sample is one,
where the selected units have some specific chance of being included in the sample. In a non-
probability sample some arbitrary method of selection not depending on chance is adopted. This
method mainly depends on the purpose of the inquiry, as well as on the attitude or convenience of
the investigators.
The selection of the sample design really involves two decisions:
(i) To use probabilitv of selection, and
(ii) Specific sample-deSign to use in collecting the data.
The researcher's choice will be affected by the following considerations:
i) If sampling error is to be evaluated, then probability sampling must be used.
ii) To ensure randomness in the selection of units, probability sample should be used.
iii) In the absence of proper sample frame, non-probability sampling should be used.
iv) If time and money considerations are vital, then non-probability sampling should be used.
Once the decision about probability and non-probability method of selection has been
made, one should select the sample design that will best accomplish the objectives of the
investigation. Regardless of the design finally chosen, the researcher may have to defend this
design, when the study results are ultimately presented.

(5) Determinatino of Sample Size: The size of the sample has direct relationship with
degree of accuracy desired in the investigatin. The size of the sample has direct relationship with
degree of accuracy desired in the investigatin. It also depends upon the nature of th epopulatino as
 (43)
well as the method of selectin. In marketing research investigations the ideal sample size depends
upon the type of the series and the size of th epupulation. It is a common practice that larger ithe
size of t hepupulatino, more units should be drawn in the sample and more t hdegeee of
heterogeneity, larger should be sample size for it to be representative

(6) Select the Sample: Select the sample means execute actual sapling process. It is the
actual selection of the sample elements. This requires a substantial amoun e and fieid work
articularly when personal interviews are involved.
Execution of the sampling process requires a d'!tailed specification of how the sampling
design decisions with respect to the population, sampling frame, sampling unit, sampling technique~
and sample size are to be implemented. If households are the sampl'ing unit, an operational
definition of a household is needed. Procedures should be specified for vacant housing units and for
callbacks in case no one is at home. Detailed information must be provided for all sampling design
decisions.

 Criteria of Selecting a Sampling Procedure

(1) Objectives of the Research: One must consider what is the purpose and type of the
research. Whether it is a qualitative research or quantitative research.
(2) Target Population: How much advanced knowledge about the target population is at
hand? Is the sampling frame available? If not, how easy or difficult is to generate it?
(3) Time Frame: It the reference period for the project to be completed.
(4) Availability of Resources: To what extent, the resources are available in terms of
money and man power for the project.
(5) Degree of Accuracy: How precisely the results are required. What degree of accuracy
one wants to attain in making prediction or in inductive research. As a general norm, greater the
accuracy required, larger the sample is to be taken.
(6) Scope of the Research: One has to keep in mind whether the research is conducted to
apply its findings at international, national or regional level.
(7) Statistical Analysis Requirements: Each method of estimation and testing of
hypotheses or any other analysis have their own data requirement and conditions for their
applicability. Only probability sampling techniques allow the researcher to apply estimation and
testing methods. Anyhow non-probability methods of sampling are useful for qualitative and
.marketing research:. But conclusions can be generalized for a larger population. Deliberate
sampling is often used to develop hypotheses. So a researcher should choose a sampling design
intelligently.

 Characteristics of a Good Sample Design

(1) Goal Orientation: This suggests that a sample design "should be oriented to the
research objectives, tailored to the survey design, and fitted to the survey conditions". If this is done,
it should influence the choice of the population, the measurement as also the procedure of choosing
sample.
(2) Measurability: A sample design should enable the computation of valid estimates of its
sampling, variability. Normally, this variability is expressed in the form of standard errors in surveys.
However, this is possible only in the case of probability sampling. In non-probability samples, such
as a quota sample, it is not possible to know the degree of precision of the survey results.

(3) Practicality: This implies that the sample design can be followed properly in the survey.
It is necessary that complete, correct, practical and clear instructions should be given to the
interviewer so that no mistakes are made in the selection of sampling units and the final selection in
the field is not different from the original sample design. Practicality also refers to simplicity of the
design, i.e. it should be capable of being understood and followed in actual operation of the field
work.
(4) Economy: Finally, economy implies that the objectives of the survey should be achieved
with minimum cost and effort. Survey objectives are generally spelt out in terms of precision, i.e. the
inverse of the variance of survey estimates. For a given degree of precision, the sample design
 (44)
should give the minimum cost. Alternatively, for a given per unit cost, the sample design should
achieve maximum precision (minimum variance).
(5) Independence: Each element of universe is independent. Each element has equal
chance of selection.
(6) Homogeneity: There should not be any change in that universe where survey is
conducted i.e. quality and nature of units should remain same.
(7) Adequacy: Sample should be adequate. Too much low unit will not be desirable nor will
too many high sampling units need more time and money for analysis.

Que. 19 What is Measurement of data? Explain commonly used measurement scale

in business research.
Ans. :
 Introduction:
Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations that are collected
as part of a research effort. Technically speaking, measurement is a process of mapping aspects of
a domain onto other aspects of a range according to some rule of correspondence. In measuring,
we device some form of scale in the range (in terms of set theory, range may refer to some set) and
then transform or map the properties of objects from the domain (in terms of set theory, domain may
refer to some other set) onto this scale. For example, in case we are to find the male to female
attendance ratio while conducting a study of persons who attend some show, then we may tabulate
those who come to the show according to sex.
According to G.C. Helmstadter, "Measurement is a process of obtaining a numerical
description of the extent to which a person or object possesses some characteristics".
According to Johan Galtung, "Measurement is the mapping of the values on a set of
numbers".
According to Blalock, "Measurement is the systematic assignment of numbers to a set of
observations to reflect the status of each member of the set in terms of the various properties".
According to Kerlinger, "Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events
according to rules".

Scaling may be considered as an extension of measurement. Scaling involves creating a

cqntinuum upon which measured objects are located. Scaling describes the procedures of assigning
numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other concepts. This can be done in two ways:
(1) Making a judgment about some characteristic of an individual and then placing him
directly on a scale that has been defined in terms of that characteristic; and
2) Constructing questionnaires in such a way that the score of individual's responses
assigns him a place on a scale.
Scaling is the branch of measurement that involves the construction of an instrument that
associates qualitative constructs with quantitative metric units. Scaling evolved out of efforts in
psychology and education to measure “immeasurable" constructs like authoritarianism and self-
esteem. In many ways, scaling remains one of the most arcane and misunderstood aspects of
social research measurement. And, it attempts to do one of the most difficult of research tasks -
measure abstract concepts.
It may be stated here that a scale is a continuum, consisting of the highest point (in terms of
some characteristic e.g., preference, favorableness, etc.) and the lowest point along with several
intermediate points between these two extreme points. These scale-point positions are so related to
each other that when the first point happens to be the highest point, the second point indicates a
higher degree in terms of a given characteristic as compared to the third point and the third point
indicates a higher degree as compared to the fourth and so on. The term 'scaling' is applied to the
procedures for attempting to determine quantitative measures of subjective abstract concepts.
Scaling has been defined as a "procedure for the assignment of numbers (or other symbols) to a
property of objects in order to impart some of the characteristics of numbers to the properties in
question.
 (45)
 Functions of Measurement
(1) Facilitates Description of Social and Psychological Phenomen: Measurement
facilitates empirical description of social and psychological phenomena. For example, in a study of a
tribal community, the researcher has to classify and categorize the cultural patterns and behavior he
observes. Measuring devices assist him in the classification process.
(2) Provides Data for Statistical Operation: Measurements render data amenable to
statist cal manipulation and treatment. The application of statistical techniques for comparing
groups, studying relationships between variables, etc. is possible, only when the data collected
through various methods are amenable to quantification. Measurement devices make it possible to
quantify variables.
(3) Facilitates Testing of Theories: Measurement facilitates testing of theories and
hypothesis. Theories are formulated to explain and predict social phenomena (For example, ethnic
conflict, communal disharmony, labor unrest, delinquency, etc.) and psychological phenomena (For
example, low morale, job satisfaction, attitude, etc.) Researchers derive hypothesis from these
theories and subject them to empirical test. Once the variables in hypothesis are quantified through
measuring devices, the hypothesis can be tested easily.
(4) Enables Researchers in Differentiation: Measurement enables researchers to
differentiate between objects or people in terms of specific properties they possess. For example,
Do girls perform better then boys in college examinations? Does productivity vary among work
groups? To deat with such questions, it is necessary to measures the concerned variables.
Measurement of variables helps in classifying individuals or objects and thus to differentiate
between them. In this way, measurement performs a classificatory function.
The above four functions are not necessarily mutually exclusive, but are inter-related, and
complementary to one another.

 Commonly Used Scales in Business Research

Scaling is "progressively arranging series of items according to value or magnitude into
which an item can be placed according to its quantification". Scaling thus constitutes a series of
categories through marks. Its purpose is to represent quantitatively item's (person's) place in the
spectrum.
The most common scales used in business research are shown in figure 3.1:

Ratio
Interval
Ordinal
Normal

Figure : Scales Used in Business Research

(1) Nominal Scale: Nominal scale represents the most elementary level of measurement. A
nominal scale assigns a value to an object for identification or classification purposes. The value
can be, but does not have to be, a number because no quantities are being represented. In this
sense, a nominal scale is truly a qualitative scale. Nominal scales are extremely useful even though
they can be considered elementary. Marketing researchers use nominal scales quite often.
Nominal scaling is arbitrary in the sense that each label can be assigned to any of the
categories without intro-ducing error. The researcher can assign the letter C to any of the three
options without damaging scale validity.
For example, the population of a town may be classified according to sex into "males" and
"females" or according t:J relie;ion into "Hindus”, "Muslims", "Sikhs" 'ind "Christians".
In marketing research nominal scales are needed to measure brands, store types, sales
territories, geographical locations, heavy versus light users, workingversus non-working women and
brand awareness versus non-awareness.
For example, consider following table which shows nominal scale:
 (46)

Reasons for Purhcase by Sex

Reasons for Purchase Male Female Total
No Percent No Percent No Percent
Weight 10 20 28 56 38 38
Speed 31 62 10 20 41 41
Miscellaneous 9 18 12 24 21 21
Total 50 100 50 100 100 100
As it could be seen, males are concerned with speed and females are concerned with
weight.
Nominal scales can be developed from a response to a question. Does your car have
Chakara Tyres? The responses may be Yes, No and Don't know. For nominally scaled data,
statistical analysis such as mode, percentages, the binomial test and chi-square test can be used. A
mean or median cannot be calculated.
2) Ordinal Scale: Ordinal scales have nominal properties, but they also allow things to be
arranged based on how much of some concept they possess. In other words, an ordinal scale is a
ranking scale. The ordinal scale indicates the relative position of two or more objects or some
characteristics. The consumers are asked to rank preferences for several brands, flavours or
package designs. The measures of such preference are ordinal in nature.
Research participants often are asked to rank order things based on preference. So
preference is the concept and the ordinal scale lists the options from most to least preferred or vice
versa. In this sense, ordinal scales are somewhat arbitrary, but not nearly as arbitrary as a nominal
scale. Five objects can be ranked from 1-5 (least preferred to most preferred) or 1-5 (most preferred
to least preferred) with no loss of meaning.
For example, one may rank two or more households according to their annu1l income.
Suppose we have five households with annual incomes as shown below:
Households A B C D E
Income (Rs) 6,000 10,000 4,800 12,000 11,000
The household with highest income is given No.I and the next to it No.2 and so on; then the
following order will emerge:
Households Order of Households on the Basis of Annual Income
A IV
B III
C V
D I
E II
The marketing data involves ordinal nx:tsurement. Most data collected by the process of
interrogation have c:d!nal properties. For example, the measurement of attitude, opinion preference
and perception invotves 'greater than' or 'less than' judgments.
Example 1: Rank the following attributes (1– 5), on their importance in a microwave oven.
i) Company Name
ii) Functions
iii) Price
iv) Comfort
v) Design
The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the responjents and the least important is ranked
5. instead of numbers, letters or symbois too can be used to rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale
makes no attempt to measure the degree of favourability of different ran kings.
Example 2: If there are 4 different types of fertilizers and if they are ordered on the basis of
quality as Grade A, Grade B, Grade C, Grade D is again an Ordinal Scale.

(3) Interval Scale: The interval scale Las all characteristics of the ordinal scale and in
addition, the units of measure or intervals between successive positions are equal.
For example, a researcher scaled brands A, B and C on an interval scale regarding the
buyers' degree of liking of the brands. Brand A receives the 1ighest liking score of 6, B receives 3
and C receives 2. First the liking for brand A is more favorable than that for brand B S·xond the
degree of liking between A and B is three time~ greater thaa the liking between B and C
 (47)
The statistical tools used to analyze the interval data are range, mean, sandard deviation
and the like. Interval scales are frequently used in commercial marketing research studies,
especially in collecting attitudinal and overall brand rating information.

Example 3: How do you rate your present refrigerator for the following qualities?
Company Name Less Known 1 2 3 4 5 Well Known
Functions Few 1 2 3 4 5 Many
Price Low 1 2 3 4 5 High
Design Poor 1 2 3 4 5 Good
Overall Satisfaction Very Dis-Satisfied 1 2 3 4 5 Very Satisfied
Such a scale permits the researcher to say that position 5 on the scale is above position 4
and also the distance from 5 to 4 is same as distance from 4 to 3. Such a scale however does not
permit conclusion that position 4 is twice as strong as position 2 because no zero position has been
established. The data obtained from the Interval Scale can be used to calculate the Mean scores of
each attributes over all respondents The Standard Deviation (a measure of dispersion) can also be
calculated.
(4) Ratio Scale: Ratio scales represent the highest form of measurement. They have all the
properties of interval scales with the additional attribute of representing absolute quantities. Interval
scales represent only relative meaning, whereas ratio scales represent absolute meaning. In other
words, ratio .scales provide iconic measurement. Zero, therefore, has meaning in that it represents
an absence of some concept.
An absolute zero is a defining characteristic in determining between ratio and interval scales.
For example, money is a way to measure economic value.
The ratio scales are very common in physical scenarios. Quantified responses forming a
ratio scale analytically are the most versatile. Ratio scale possesses all the characteristics of an
internal scale, and the ratios of the numbers on these scales have meaningful interpretations. Data
on certain demographic or descriptive attributes, if they are obtained through open-ended questions,
will have ratio-scale properties. Consider the following questions:
i) What is your annual income before taxes? ___ Rs.
ii) How far is the Tl:eatre from your home? ___ Miles.
Answers to these questions have a natural, unambiguous starting point, namely zero. Since
starting point is not chosen arbitrarily, computing and interpreting ratio makes sense. For example a
respondent with an annual income of $ 40,000 earns twice as much as qne with an annual income
of $ 20,000.
Table : Summary of Scaling Techniques
Criteria Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Properties of Naming Naming and Naming, ranking Naming, ranking,
measurement ranking and equal equal intervals
intervals and zero point
Nature of Categorical Ranking Scoring Scoring
measurement
Examples Gender: Male and Caste: High, IQ: of A is 25% IQ: of A to B is
Female Intermediate higher than B 1:1.5
Residence : Rural Income: Upper, Age: A is twice Age: ratio of B to
and urban Middle and low as old as B A age is 1:2
Nature of Discrete Discrete or Continuous Continuous
underlying continuous
construct
Mathematical None None Additiona and Addition,
functions Subtraction Subtraction,
division, multiples

Que. 20 Evaluate Scalling techniques in brief.

Ans. :
 Scaling Techniques
There are two main categories of scaling techniques as shown in figure below
 (48)

Scaling Techniques

Rating Scales Rating Scales

Graphic Rating Scale Method of Paried Comparison

Itemized Rating Scales Method of Rank Order
LIkert Scale
Semantic Differential Scale

Stapel‟s Scale
Multi Dimensional Scaling

 Rating Scales
One uses rating scales to judge properties of objects without reference to ot similar objects.
These ratings may be in such forms as "like-dislike", "approve indifferent disapprove", or other
classifications using even more categories. There is little conclusive support for choosing a three-
point scale over scales with five or more points. ·

(1) Likert Scale: A Likert scale is a psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires,
and is the most widely used scale in survey research. When responding to a Likert questionnaire
item, respondents specifY their level of agreement to a statement. The scale is named after its
inventor, psychologist Rensis Likert. These scales are sometimes referred to as summated scales.
It requires a respondent to indicate a degree of agreement or disagreement with each of a series of
statements related to the attitude object.
A Likert item is simply a statement which the respondent is asked to evaluate according to
any kind of st.Jjective or objective criteria; generally the level of agreement or disagreement is
measured. Often five ordered response levels are used, although many psychometricia.Js advocate
using seven or nine levels; a recent empirical study found that a five or sevenpoint scale may
produce slightly higher mean scores relative to the highest possible attainable score, compared to
those produced from a ten-point scale and this difference was statistically significant. In terms of the
other data characteristics, there was very little difference among the scale formats in terms of
variation about the mean, skewness or kurtosis.
The format of a typical tive-level Likert item is:
i) Strongly disagree,
ii) Disagree,
iii) Neither agree nor disagree,
iv) Agree,
v) Strongly agree.

(2) Semantic Differential Scale: It is a special type of graphic scale, which is increasingly
being used, in marketing research. It establishes a cormection between the brand and company
image studies and also permits the development of descriptive profiles that facilitates comparison of
competitive items. The unique characteristics of semantic differential is the use of bipolar scales to
rate any product, company or concept of interest. Respondents are given a group of these scales
and asked to check on each one point that indicates their opinion of the subject in question. Each
seale consist of two opposing adjectives such as good/ bad, clean/ dirty, most pqpular/ least
popular, etc. which are separated by a continuum divided into seven segments. Respondents are
asked to check the segment that represents the degree of the characteristics involved that most
closely coincided with their opinion of the product or item being rated.

(3) Stapel's Scale: The Stapel scale was originally developed in the 1950s to measure
simultaneously the direction and intensity of an attitude. Modern versions of the scale, with a single
adjective, are used as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of
bipolar adjectives. The modified Stapel scale places a single adjective in the center of an even
 (49)
number of numerical values (ranging, perhaps, from +3 to -3).The scale measures how close to or
distant from the adjective given stimulus is perceived to be.
The advantages and disadvantages of the Stapel scale are very similar to those of the
semantic differential. However, the Stapel scale is markedly easier to administer, especially over the
telephone. Because the Stapel scale does not require bipolar adjectives, it is easier to construct
than the semantic differential. Research comparing the semantic differential with the Stapel scale
indicates that results from the two techniques are largely the same .

(4) Multi Dimensional Scaling: It consists of a group of analytical techniques which are
used to study consumer attitudes related to perceptions and preferences. It is a computer based
technique. The respondents are asked to place the various brands into different groups like similar,
very similar, not similar, and so on. A goodness of fit is traded off on a large number of attributes.
Then a lack of fit index is calculated by computer program. The purpose is to find a reasonably
small number of dimensions which will eliminate most of the stress. After the configuration for the
consumer's preference has been developed, the next step is to determine the preference with
regards to the product under study.
It is a computer based technique. The· respondents are asked to place the various brands
.into different groups like similar, very similar, not similar, and so on. A goodness of fit is traded off
on a large number of attributes. Then a lack of fit index is calculated by computer program. The
purpose is to find a reasonably small number of dimensions which will eliminate most of the stress.
After the configuration for the consumer's preference has been developed, the next step is to
determine the preference with regards to the product under study. These techniques attempt to
identify the product attributes that are important to consumers and to measure their relative
importance.

 Ranking Scales
In ranking scales, the subject directly compares two or more objects and makes choices
among them. Frequently, the respondent is asked to select one as the “best" or the "most
preferred." When there are only two choices, this approach is satisfactory, but it often results in
"ties" when more than two choices are found. For example, respondents are asked to select the
most preferred among three or more models of a product. Assume that 40 percent choose model A,
30 percent choose model B. and 30 percent choose model C. "Which is, the preferred model?" The
analyst would be taking a risk to suggest that A is most referred. Perhaps that interpretation is
correct, but 60 percent of the respondents chose some model other than A. Perhaps all B and C
voters would place A kst, preferring either B or C to it. This ambiguity can be avoided by discussing
the techniques described in this section.
There are two approaches of ranking scales
1) Method of Paired Comparison
2) Method of Rank Order

 Method of Paired Comparison

It is perhaps the most straightforward way of presenting items for comparative judgment.
With the method items are presented in pairs to one or more judges, for each pair the judge selects
the item that best satisfies the specified judgment criterion. Respondents are asked to choose which
item rates higher, according to a predetermined criterion. The requisite number of individual items
demonstrates a shortcoming of the paired-comparison technique. The items can be of almost any
type including, importantly, goods, services, and environmental conditions. The method can yield an
interval-scale ordering of items along a dimension such as preference or importance.
Importance and disadvantages of paired comparison analysis
1) It is useful where priorities are not clear.
2) It is particularly useful where no objective data to base on this.
3) It helps to set priorities where there are conflicting demands on resources.
4) This makes it easy to choose the most important problem to solve, or select the solution
that will give the greatest advantage.

 Steps to conduct paired comparison analysis

1) Li'tthe optio"' yo, will eomp'" (element' "' A, B, C, D, E foor example).
2) Create table 6 rows and 7 columns.
 (50)
3) Write down option to column and row; A to row second, cell first from left and A to row
first, cell second from left; B to row third; cell first from left and B to row first, cell third from left etc;
column seventh is total point.
4) Identify importance from 0 (no difference) to 3 (major difference).
5) Compare element "A" to B, C, D, E and place "pcint" at each cell.
6) Finally, consolidate the results by adding up the total of all th values for each of th
eoptions. You may want to convert these values into a percentatge of t hetaol score.

 Method of Rank Order

Rank order scales are comparative scales, where the respondent is asked to rate item in
comparison with antoher item or a group of items against each other based on a common criterion.
For example, a respondent may be asked to rank three motorcycle brands on attributes such as
cost, mileage, style and pick-up and so on.

 Advantages of Method of Rank Order

1) It is easy to develop rank among the objects
2) It becomes easy to analyze the objects after ranking

 Disadvantages of Method of Rank Order

1) It is very difficult to in include every possible brand or attribute on a scale. Therefore, a
respondent may rate a brand as number one, but it might not tbhee hliisst faitr satl l.c hoice as the
brand he prefers may not have been included in the list at all.
2) Respondents may feel that the attributes used to construct the scale are not relevant to
judging the subject under research.
3) One major shortcoming is that the researcher will not have any clue about why the
respondent has given aparticular rating for items listed on the scale.
4) Due to difficulties of rating, respondents usually cannot meaningfully rank more than five
or six objects.

Que. 21 Write a short note on following terminologies:

(A) Editing (B) Coding (C) Classification (D) Tabulation
Ans. :
(A) EDITING:
 Introduction:
The data, after collection, has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the outline
laid down for the purpose at the time of developing the research plan. This is essential for a
scientific study and for ensuring that we have all relevant data for making contemplated
comparisons and analysis. Technicaqy speaking, processing implies editing, coding, and tabulation
of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis. The term analysis refers to the computation
of certain measures along with searching for patterns of relationship that exist amo·ng data-groups.
Thus, "In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original
or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of significance to determine with what
validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions".

 Processing Operation
Processing of data includes:
1) Editing,
2) Coding,
3) Classification, and
4) Tabulation
 (51)
Data Processing

Refined Coding Computer Feeding

Data Distribution

Tabulation

Univariate Bivariate Multivariate

Data Analysis

Classification Frequency Distribution Measurement

Data Interpretation

Diagrammatic Presentation
Figure : Stages in Data Analysis

 Editing of Data
The raw data is likely to contain a number of errors during the process of recording the
information in surveys. By means of editing one tries to eliminate the errors or remove the points of
confusion, if any. Alternately, recorded raw data is normally less than perfect and the first phase
through which this data must pass is editing.
For proper analysis and interpretation, it is necessary that the collected data are present,
readable and accurate in the desired form, i.e., data collected has no missing values, all entries are
readable or all information is accurate.
This introduces errors in collected information, which are to be rectified before further
analysis. The errors or points of confusion in ·raw Jata are eliminated through editing.
Editing comprises inspecting, correcting and modifYing the raw data to ensure that
information is available correctly, adequately and relevantly.

 Essentials of Editing
(1) Completeness: The editor must find whether there is an answer to every question. If the
interviewer has forgotten to ask a question or to record the answer; it may be possible to deduce
from other data on the questionnaire and fill up the gap. The interviewer may also be able to fill in
the gap from his memory. If the information is vital, it can be collected by a postal enquiry.
(2) Accuracy: The editor must try to check whether the answers are accurate. In the first
place, inconsistencies should be looked for. Every effort should be made to resolve clear
inconsistencies. If this is not possible, then the inconsistent entries should be omitted.
(3) Uniformity: In editing data sets, another keen look out should be for any lack of
uniformity in interpretation of questions and instructions by the data recorders. For Example, the
responses towards a specific feeling could have been queried from a positive as well as a negative
angle. While interpreting the answers, care should be taken as to record the answer as a "positive
question" response or as "negative question" response. In all, uniformity checks for consistency in
coding throughout the questionnaire/interview schedu!e response/data set.

 Stages of Editing
The editing may be done in two stages:
(1) Field Editing: The field editing is a preliminary editing done to detect the glaring
omissions and inaccuracies in the data. It is useful for controlling the field force and removing
misunderstanding.
The field editing is done immediately after collection of data because the interviewers then
have a fresh memory about the lapses and wrong statements of answers. The preliminary editing
 (52)
should be done by a field supervisor. The editing is done to find out completeness, legibility,
comprehensibility, consistency and uniformity. The completeness-check involves scrutinizing the
data form to ensure that no questions or sections or pages are omitted.
The questions may be left out on account of oversight or not knowing the answers. Such
questions are corrected by observing another questionnaire. The incomprehensible questions
should be calcified at this stage. The responses should be recorded in uniform units. If required, the
interviewers should recontact the respondent and verify the puzzled and inconsistent records.

(2) Office Editing: The office editing is done after the field editing. This implies a complete
and thorough scrutiny of the questionnaire. There should be expert editors in the office to evaluate
and examine the completed returns of the respondents. There may be a division of labor for editing
purposes, and each editor may be assigned a particular portion of the questionnaire. The office
editors decide what to do with the data rather than follow up the procedures of interviewed
responses. They are more concerned with incorrect and incomplete answers.
The incorrect answers may be detected easily when two or more questions are inconsistent.
The handling of such answer depends upon the nature of the inconsistencies. The incorrect
answers may also be verified by observation. When the answers are given in an ambiguous
manner, serious efforts are made to rectify and complete them by consulting another questionnaire.
The earlier answers may form a basis for the correction of the incorrect answers.
Many incomplete answers are known from the responses of "don't know." It is a very difficult
answer because it reflects a variety of answers. It may represent a lack of knowledge or of memory.
The respondents may leave the questions blank intentionally or unintentionally. Such "don't know"
answers may be dealt with by distributing them proportionately among other categories, or
estimating the answers from other data, or showing them as a separate category.

 Types of Editing
(1) Manual Editing: Here the editor scans the whole data and amends it in accordance with
the given instructions. Here the drafted instructions are of great significance and helps the editor to
perform his work systematically with little scope of using his own judgment and intuition. The precise
forms in 'which editing instructions are written vary from one organization to the other.
(2) Mechanical Editing: When data are transferred on punch cards then counter sorter can
be used for editing the raw data. lt provides exhaustive and thorough logical checking. Cards which
contain some particular type of error/errors are sorted out. The process i.; extremely quick and
effective. Due to this it is found to be cheap and free from error.
(3) Computer Editing: It is similar to mechanical editing with the difference that several
hundred editing instructions can be executed at one time on a computer. Thus here editing is faster
and accurate.

(B) CODING
 Introduction:
Coding is the procedure of classifYing the answers to a question into meaningful categories.
The symbols used to indicate these categories are called codes. Coding refers to the process of
assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a limited number
of categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the research problem under
consideration. They must also posses the characteristic of exhaustiveness (i.e., there must be a
class for every data item) and also that of mutual exclusivity which means that a specific answer can
be placed in one and only one cell in a given category set. Another rule to be observed is that of uni-
dimensionality by which is meant that every class is defined in terms of only one concept.
Coding is necessary to carry out the subsequent operations of tabulating and analyzing data.
If coding is not done, it will not be possible to reduce a large number of heterogeneous responses
into meaningful categories with the result that the analysis of data Would be weak and ineffective,
and without proper focus.

Coding involves two steps:

(1) The first step is to specify the different categories or classes into which the responses are to be
classified.
(2) The second step is to allocate individual answers to different categories.
 (53)
Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be reduced
to a small number of classes, which contain the critical information required for analysis. Coding
decisions should usually be taken at the designing stage of the questionnaire.

 Essentials of Coding
(1) Appropriate to the Research Problem: The number of categories should be
reasonable. Generally 3 to 5 categories are considered reasonable. For example, categorization of
respondents on the basis of age, say, under 20 years, 20 to 29 years, 30 to 39 years and above 40
years may be relevant to the study.
(2) Exhaustive: The rule on exhaustiveness states that there must be a category for every
item.
For example, there is a question in the questionnaire. 'What is your favorite form of
entertainment?'
The alternatives will be:
i) Movies,
ii) Skipping,
iii) Boating,
iv) Watching TV,
v) Other (describe).
For each question a separate number shall be assigned. For question 'Other' number 5
should be allotted. If majority has stated 'horse riding' allot the number 5 for that. If some say
reading novels allot the number '6' to them.
(3) Mutually Exclusive: In an occupation survey the classification of respondents m'iy be
professional, managerial, sales, clerical, craftsman, operatives and unemployed. Some respondents
will think of themselves as being in more than one of these groups. A man who views selling as
profession may spend part of his time supervising others. He feels that he fits under three of these
categories say professional, managerial and sales. One of the functions of operational definition is
to provide categories.

(4) Single Dimension: Every class in the category set is defined in terms of one concept.
Suppose a respondent is both a salesman and unemployed. The 'salesman' label expresses the
concept of occupational type while the response unemployed is another dimension.
Coding can be greatly simplified if precoded questionnaires are used. Enormous time is
saved. When the possible answers anticipated, allot extra numbers when new categories emerge.
Coding is a laborious task. The problem can be kept to the minimum if preparations for
coding are made prior to administering the questionnaire/interview schedule.
(5) Code Sheets: Code sheets instruct the coders how to handle each question. When
codes are defined, a listing of all types of responses being assigned to each code should qe made
on the code sheet. The code sheet consists of the following elements:
i) Heading: The heading identifies the study.
ii) Column Identification: Each applicable column is to be listed on the left-hand side of the
page.
iii) Coding Instructions: Limitations/restrictions and required multiple codes are to be
stated next to each code where applicable.
iv) Special Instructions: Instructions for the use of ' borrowed columns'

(C) CLASSIFICATION:

 Introduction:
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into
homogeneous · groups if we are to get meaningful relationships.
This fact necessitates classification of data which happens to be the process of arranging
data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristic. Data having a common
characteristic are placed in one class and in this way the entire data get divided into a number of
groups or classes.
 (54)
 Types of Classification
Classification can be one of the following two types, depending upon the nature of the
phenomenon involved:
(1) Classification According to Attributes: Data are classified on the basis of common
characteristics which can either be descriptive·(such as literacy, sex, Honesty, etc.) or numerical
(such as weight, height, income, etc.) Descriptive characteristics refer to qualitative phenomenon
which cannot be measured quantitatively; only their preser.ce or absence in an individual item can
be noticed. Data obtained this way on the basis of certain attributes are known as statistics of
attributes and their classification is said to be classification according to attributes.
Such classification can be simple classification or manifold classification. In simple
classification we consider only one attribute and divide the universe into two classes-one classes
consisting of items possessing the given attribute and the other class consisting of items which do
not possess the given attribute. In manifold classification we consider two or more attributes
simultaneously, and divide the data into a number of classes (total number of classes of final order
is given by 2" , where n = number of attributes considered).
(2) Classification According to Class-intervals: Unlike descriptive characteristics, the
numerical characteristics refer to quantitative phenomenon, which can be measured through some
statistical units. Data relating to income, production, age, weight, etc. come under this category.
Such data are known as statistics of variables and are classified on the basis of class intervals. For
example, persons whose incomes, say, are within Rs. 201 to Rs. 400 can from one group; those
whose incomes are within Rs. 401 to Rs. 600 can form another group and so on.

 Objectives of Classification
(1) To condense the available data in a compact manner for quick understanding and also for
comparison.
(2) To make the data ready for further processing and analysis.
(3) To bring out important facts and also to facilitate comparison with the data of similar nature.
(4) To make data ready for tabulation.
(5) To facilitate easy and quick interpretation of data.

 Basic Principles in Classification of Data

(1) Classification should not be Ambiguous: They very purpose of classification is to
remove ambiguity. For this, homogeneity should be made the basis of classification. Various
categories/groups should be clearly defined in classification. This avoids confusion in classification
and facilitates analysis of concrete nature.
(2) Classification should be on the basis of a Single Classification Principle: The
consideration for classification should be only one at a time. For example, buyers may be classified
on the basis of economic or social status or frequency of purchases or the amount spent. For
classification, only one point at a time should be taken into account. If more than one point needs to
be applied, separate category should be created for each point. Thus, a single consideration should
be followed in classification. This is simple and easy for execution.
(3) Classification should be Mutually Exclusive: This means the answer given by a
respondent should be suitable for placement under one classification only. There should be no
overlapping of the categories after classification.
(4) Classification should be Mutually Exhaustive: Classification should cover all data
under one category or the other. For this, all possible categories should be prepared at the time of
classification. Answer of the respondents should not be omitted in the process of classification.
(5) Classification should be Action-Oriented: Classification should be devised keeping in
view the future action to be taken on the basis of the analysis and interpretation of data.
Classification is a means and not the end in itself.
(6) Classification should be Distinct: Various sub-divisions under each category of
classification should be so distinct as to indicate differences substantial enough to lead to different
de~isions to suit each specific aspect of the problem.
 (55)
(7) Classification should be Pertinent to Marketing Research Project: The purpose of
classification should be to study the marketing problem in the best possible manner. Classification
without reference to the purpose will not be useful for analysis of data.

(D) TABULATION:
Tabulation is the primary function of Data Analysis. The data is validated and analyzeJ to
generate tables in a client-specified format that helps the researcher to interpret the results of the
survey and present it to his/her client.
According to Tuttle, "The logical listing of related quantitative data in vertical columns and
horizontal rows of numbers with sufficient explanatory and qualifying words, phrases and
statements in the form of titles, headings and explanatory notes to make clear the full meaning,
context and the origin of the data".
According to Secrist, "Tables are a means of recording in permanent form the analysis that
is made through classification and by placing in juxtaposition things that are similar and should be
compared".
According to L.R. Connor, "Tabulation involves the orderly and systematic presentation of
numerical data in a form designed to elucidate the problem under consideration".
According to Blair, "Tabulation in its broadest sense is an orderly arrangement of data in
columns and rows".
Thus, tabulation is one of the most important and ingenious devices of presenting the data in
a condef!sed and readily comprehensible form. It attempts to furnish the maximum information in
the minimum possible space, without sacrificing the quality and usefulness of the data. However, it
is an intermediate process between the collection of the data and the statistical analysis. In fact,
tabulation is the final stage in collection and compilation of the data and forms the gateway :o further
statistical a'nalysis and interpretation.

 Objectives of Tabulation
(1) To Clarify the Object of Investigation: According to Prof. A. L. Bowley, "The function of
tabulation in the general scheme of statistical investigation is to arrange in easily accessible form
the answer with which the investigation is concerned". The presentation of data in tables makes the
problem under study simple and clear and answers many problems that are found there.
(2) To Clarify the Characteristics of Data: A table presents facts clearly and concisely,
eliminating the need for wordy explanation. It brings out the chief characteristics of data.
(3) To Present Facts in the Minimum of Space: A table presents facts in minimum of
space and communicates information in a far better way than textual material.
(4) To Facilitate Statistical Process: It simplifies reference to data and facilitates
comparative analysis and interpretation of the facts.

 Characteristics of a Good Table

(1) Suit the Purpose: A table should be in keeping with the object of statistical enquiry.
(2) Scientifically Prepared: The table should be prepared in a systematic and logically organized
manner, simple and compact so that it is readily comprehensible. It should be free from all
sorts of over-lapping and ambiguities.
(3) Clarity: A table should be easily understandable, complete and selfexplanatory.
(4) Manageable Size: A table should be so designed that it is neither very long and narrow nor
very short and broad. If need be, it should be adjusted to the space provided for the purpose.
(5) Columns and Rows should be Numbered: When there are a number of rows and columns in
a table, they must be numbered for reference.
(6) Suitably Approximated: If the figures are large, they should be suitably approximated or
rounded. The method of rounding should be indicated along with the units of measurement
such as a weight in thousand tones rounded to the nearest whole number. ·
(7) Attractive Get-Up: A table should have an attractive get-up which is appealing to the eye and
the mind so that the reader may grasp it without any strain. The rows and columns are
separated by single, double or thick lines depending on the broad classes and sub-classes
 (56)
used. Related percentages are given close to corresponding columns and rows. Whereas
columns are invariably separated by lines the rows may or may not be so separated.
(8) Units: The unit designations should be given at the top of the table below the title such as
'price in rupees' and 'weight in tonnes'. If there are different units for different items then they
should be mentioned in respective columns and rows.
(9) Averages and Totals: The averages and percentages should, as far as possible, be given to
the right or at the bottom of the columns containing original figures. Totals and sub-totals of
both columns and rows and, if necessary, the cross totals of each such group should be given.
(10) Logical Arrangement of Items: There should be logical and systematical classification of
items in the table. Items may be arranged:
i) Alphabetically,
ii) Geographically,
iii) Chronologically,
iv) Conventionally, and
v) In order of magnitude, in ascending or descending order.
(11) Proper Lettering: It is not advisable to use too many styles of letters in a table. Large capital
letters and bold face type may be used for headings, stubs, captions, and small letters may be
used for prefatory notes, footnotes and, source notes. Lettering also helps in adjusting the size
of the table.

 Structure of Table or Main Parts of a Table

(1) Table Number: Each table should be numbered. There are different practices with
regard to the place where this number is to be given. The number may be given either in the centre
at the top above the title or inside of the title at the top or in the bottom of the table on the lefthand
side.
(2) Title of the Table: Every table must be given suitable title. The title is a description of the
contents of the table. A complete title has to answer the question what. where and when in that
sequence.
(3) Caption: Caption refers to the column headings. It explains what the column represents.
It may consist of one or more column headings. Under a column heading there may be sub-heads.
The caption should be clearly defined and placed at the middle of the column.
(4) Footnotes: Anything in a table, which the reader may find difficult to v:.cterstand from
the title, captions and stubs should be explained in footnotes. If footnotes are needed they are
placed directly below the body of the table.
(5) Stubs: these refer to the headings of the horizontal rows and they are written on the left
hand side of the rows. Whether there is need for stubs, and if yes, how many, would depend on the
natuie of the data.
(6) Body: The body of the table ccntains the statistical data, which have to be presented.
This is the most vital part of a table and the data contained in the ·body are arranged according to
captions and the stubs.
(7) Headnote: Statistical tables contain a headnote, which refers to the data contained in the
major part of the table, and it is placed below the title of the table. Generally written as headnote like
'in lakhs', or 'in tonnes', etc.
Following is the specimen (i.e., structure or format) of a table indicating the above parts:
Table
Title Head Note
Stub Caption
Heading Column Column Column Total
Heading Heading Heading
Sub Entries B O D Y
Total
Foot Notes Source
 (57)
 Rules of Tabulation
The rule regarding the construction of table and general rules [or precautions or points to be
kept in mind are as follows:
(1) Rules Regarding the Table Structure
i) Table Number: When a number of tables are constructed, serial numbers of the tables
should be given to each table.
ii) Title: The title of the table should be clear and precise indicating "what, where, and
when" of the data in that order.
iii) Number of Rows and Columns: The number of rows and columns depends on the
nature of the data. Description of rows, columns, subrows sub-columns should be well defined.
Columns and rows should be numbered when it is desired to facilitate reference to specific parts
of a table.
iv) Captions and Stubs: The headings of various columns and rows (often called
captions and stubs respectively) should not consist of more lines or words than the bare
'minimum' required.
v) Ruling and Spacing: Horizontal and vertical lines should be drawn to separate
adjacent rows and columns. Different colors or lines of differed dimensions (i.e., light, heavy,
etc.) should be used to differentiate sub-rows and sub-columns from the main rows and main
columns.
The appropriate space must be given between the figures.
vi) Size cf Columns: The size (breadth) of the columns should be according to the
information to be written in those columns.
vii) Arrangemfnt of Items: The placement of items in the rows or columns should be, if
possible, in natural order or according to their importance.
viii) Units and Derivatives: The unit of measurement used should be clearly stated such as
'nrices in rupees', 'population in crore', etc.
ix) Exp!anatory Notes: To make certain points clear, the explanatory notes (foot notes or
head notes) should be incorporated directly in tody of the table or under or above the table. If the
information gain in the table is not self explanatory, sufficient information should be given as foot
notes.
x) Source: The source of information must be mentioned just below the table particularly in
case of secondary duta. Such notes give:
a) The name of the person! institution.
b) Place and other details and
c) An idea about their reliability.
xi) Totals: The sub-totals for each separate classification and a general total for all
combined classes should be given at the bottom and/or right side of the figures whose totals are
taken.

(2) General Rules

i) Attractive Shape: The table should be neat and attractive. The size ofthe table should
be neither too big nor too small.
ii) Simplicity: A table should be simple and self explanatory and according to the object
of statistical investigation.
iii) Place of Approximation: If approximation is done for the figures written in the table it
should be mentioned.
iv) free from Irrelevant Data: A table must be free from all types of irrelevant data.
v) Use of Circle or Box, etc.: Certain figures which are to be emphasized should be in
distinctive type or in circle or a box or between thick lines.
vi) Miscellaneous Cotumns: A table should have miscellaneous column or remMk
column for the information which cannot be grouped in the classification mode. .
vii) Non-availability uftlic Data: If some informativn is not available due to one or other
reason a line(-) or not avaialbe (N.A.) or a cross (x) should be ust:d, along with a classification of
these symbols.
 (58)

 Types of Tables
Tables may broadly be classified into two categories:
(1) Simple and Complex Tables
(2) General Purpose and Special Purpose (or Summary) Tables
Types of Tables

Simple and Complex Tables General and Special Purpose Tables

Simple table or one-way table
Two-way table
Higher order table

(1) Simple and Complex Tables: The distinction between simple ar complex table is based
upon the number of characteristics studied.
In a simple table only one characteristic is shown. Hence, this type of tab is known as one-
way table. In a complex table, on the other hand, two or more characteristics are shown. Such
tables are more popular in practice because they enable full information to be incorporated and
facilitate a proper consideration of all related facts. When two characteristics are shown such a table
is known as two-way table or double tabulation. When three characteristics are shown in a table,
this type of tabulation is known as treble tabulation. When four or more characteristics are
simultaneously shown it is a case of manifold tabulation.
i) Simple Table or One-way Table: In this type of table only one characteristic is shown.
This is the simple type of table.
ii) Two-way Table: Such a table shows two characteristics and is formed when either the
stub or the caption is divided into two coordinate parts.
iii) Higher Order Table: When three or more characteristics are represented in the same
table, such a table is called higher order table. The need for such a table arises when we are
interested in presenting a number of characteristics simultaneously. While constructing such a
table it is necessary to first establish an order of precedence among the attributes or
characteristics sought to be classified having regard to their relative importance.
In should be remembered that as the number of characteristics represented increases, the
table becomes more and more confusing and as such normally not more thrut four characteristics
should be represented in the same table. Where more than four characteristics are to be
represented we can have more than one table depicting relationship between the attributes. In the
following two illustrations, three and four characteristics are represented respectively.
General and Special Purpose Tables: General purpose tables also known , s reference
tables or repository tables provide information for general use reference. They usually contain
detailed information and are not onstructed for specific discussion. In other words, these serve as
repository of information and are arranged for easy reference. Tables published by the
governmental agencies are mostly of this kind, such as the tables contained in the Statistical
Abstract of the Indian Union, detailed tables contained in the census reports, etc. Such tables tell
facts which are not for particular discussion. When such tables tell facts which are not for particular
discussion. When such tables are used by a researcher, they arc usually placed in the appendix of
the reports for easy reference .

 Advantages of Tabulation
(1) It Simplifies Facts: Tabulation is helpful in presenting mass of complex data clearly, so
that their features can easily be understood.
(2) Economy: It occupies less space than textual reports, hence saving of paper and time.
Required figures can be located more quickly.
(3) Helpful in Comparison: Tabulation makes comparison easy. Comparable figures are
placed in juxtaposed columns; hence a comparative study can be made.
(4) Facilitates Computation: it helps in computation of different statistical measures. For
calculation average, dispersion, correlation, etc. data must be presented in tables.
 (59)
(5) Helps Classification: While classification is a theoretical process of data analysis,
tabulation is an applied process. Tabulation is helpful in classification also. After classifYing data,
the characteristics of different classes are not clear till they are placed in a suitable table.
(6) Helps in Reference: tabulated data are good for reference purposes.
(7) Helps in Interpretation and Presentation: It is convenient to interpret tabulated data:-
Tabulated data make it easy to present the facts in a graphical and diagrammatic form.

 Disadyantages of Tabulation
(1) No Description: A table contains only figures and not their description. The tables can
be said complementary to textual reports.
(2) Difficult for Layman: It requires a specialized knowledge to understand a table. A
layman cannot derive any conclusion form a table.
(3) Lack of Emphasis: A table does not lay emphasis on any section of particular
importance.

Que. 22 Discuss the types of Data Analysis.

Ans. :
 Introduction
Data analysis is a process of gathering, modeling and transforming data with the goal
ofhighlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions and supporting decision-making. Data
analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of
mimes, in different business, science and social science domains.

 Analysis Procedure:
In order to make effect use of data following tasks are performed by the investigator.
(1) An investigator first of all gathers together all the information collected from the
respondents.

(2) The investigator than arranges the items of information into various groups in a
preliminary way.
(3) To take account of the categories or grouping suggested by the respondents.
(4) The set of categories based on information will be formed.
Then so collected information should he reviewed to assess with reference to objectives of
the study. Then data to he analysed with selected tools. The-result emerging for this analyses than
to be related to the objective of the study.
In qualitative investigation is not only to know the various statements but it is concert with
various interpretations the statements in each category. Report in this investigation indicate how
hypothesis changed during the course of investigation.

 Types of Analysis
(1) Qualitative analysis.
(2) Quantitative analysis.
(1) Qualitative analysis. It is less influenced by theoretical assumptions. The limitation of
this type of analysis is that the findings tend to be unreliable. The information categories and
interpreted often differ considerable from one investigator to another one.
In this system researeherto go throl;lgh ''researeh cycle" to increase reliability. Repeating the
researeh cycle is of value in some ways, but it dose not ensure that the findings will have high
reliability. Qualitative analyses are carried out in several different-kinds of study like interview, case
studies and observational studies

(2) Quantitative Analysis. The numerical data collected in study through descriptive
statistics analysis can be conducted through measure of central tendency. So the descriptive
analysis is largely the study of distribution of one variable.
(a) DistriptiveAnalysis. This analysis of one variable.is called one dimensional analysis.
This analysis measures condition at particular time.
 (60)
(b) Bivariate Analysis. The analysis in respect of two variables is called bivcriiate
analysis. In this analysis collected data in placed into tabular form, so that the meaning of the data
can be derive. In this method simple dimensional data is developed and put in to two or more
categories.
(c) Casual Analysis. It is concerned with study of one variable affecting another one. The
dependent variable get affected with external factor. There are various ways to find out the
existence on non- existence of coordination's. There analysis is done with the help of statistical
tools. CausaI analysis is important in experimental researches.
(d) Multivariate Analysis. With an advancement of computer lications there is fast
development of multivariate analysis, in which szatistical method simultaneously analyse more
than two variable on sample observations. Multiple regression, discriminate analysis und analysis
variance are commonly used for this type of analysis of hypotheses. One the basis of inferential
analysis ·the task of interpretation is performed by estimating the population values.
(e) Inferential Analysis. In order to decide the validity of data to indicate conclusion this
analysis is concerned with tests for significance of hypotheses. One the basis of inferential
analysis the task of interpretation is performed by estimating the pppulation val\leS.

Que. 23 What is research report? Explain characteristics of research report.

Ans. :
 Introduction:
After the entire hard work researcher have put into designing research, collecting and
analyzing the data and testing hypotheses, it is time to start communicating researcher results. This
is a critically important final step in the research process. Without proper communications research
findings will not be known by others who could benefit from it.
At this stage in the research process researcher must pull together all the various parts of
the investigation. Many new researchers find at this time that the various elements of the research
are scattered in several locations, lack organization, research procedures may have been modified
somewhat from the original proposal and results are different from initially hypothesized. Much of
the 'research parts of the process, such as design and the discovery of new findings, are over and
researcher are left with what some view as the less glamorous need to write and present research
findings researcher may also lack experience in technical writing, which slows progress.
The final step in research is to report the study findings to those who authorized the
investigation. The American Marketiog assqciation is of the opinion that the findings in marketing
research remains valueless until they are communicated accurately and effectively to the persons
who are responsible for policy decisions.
Research report is the process of communicating the results of an investigation. It is a
document which reflects about the research conducted and the care that has been exercised
throughout the study.

It is observed that executives are never interested in the methodology adopted by the
researcher in the investigation. They are interested only in the final results. From their viewpoint, the
research report is the written/oral presentation which the executive see/hear of a project carried out
by the researcher but initiated by the decision maker (executive). The research report conveys the
information desired by the decision maker in an understandable form.
According to Lancaster, "A report is a smtement of collected and considered facts, so
drawn-up as to give clear and concise information to persons who are not already in rossession of
the full facts of the subject matter of the report".
A research report is a written document or oral presentation based on a written document
that communicates the purpose, scope, objective(s), hypotheses, methodology, findings, limitations
and finally, recommendations of a research project to others. ·
The researcher has to convince the client (and others who may read the report) that the
research findings can be acted on for their own benefit.

 Characteristics of Research Report:

(1) Accuracy: Information presented in reports should be accurate. Lnaccurate information
may often land the mangers in trouble. As far as possible, the report must be based on accurate
information.
 (61)
(2) Simplicity: A report should be simple. This would help in arriving at decisions quickly
and easily.
(3) Completeness: The report should be complete in all respects. There should be no room
for ambiguity.
(4) Brevity: Executives do not find sufficient time to read lengthy reports. Therefore, the
reports should briefly reflect the essential point.
(5) Appearance: The arrangement, organization, format, layout and make-up of a report
should be pleasing and as far as possible, eye-catching.
(6) Readability: Reports must be easy to read. They must avoid technical language as far
as possible. The writer must present the facts through elegant and grammatically correct English.
(7) Reliability: Reports should be reliable, and should not create an erroueous impression in
the minds of readers either due to oversight or neglect.
(8) Economy: Report writing should not be a costly exercise. The most economical methods
and standard quality must be employed, while conveying the matter.
(9) Timelines: To be useful and purposive, reports should reach the readers well in time.
Any delay in sul>mission of reports makes the preparation of reports a futile exercise.
(10) Logical Content: The content of the report must be presented in a logical manner. The
facts must be reported in an · unbiased manner. Distinctive points must bear self-explanatory
headings and sub-headings.

Que. 24 What are th evaruios type sof research reports?

Ans. :
 Types of Research Reports
(1) Technical Report: In the technical report the main emphasis is on the methods
employed, assumptions made in tht" course of the study, the detailed presentation of the findings
including their limitations and supporting data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
i) Summary of Results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or three pages.
ii) Nature of the Study: Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the
problem in operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.
iii) Research Methodology: Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For
instance, in sampling studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample
selection, etc.
iv) Details of Data: Discussion of data collected; their sources, characteristics and
.limitations. If secondary data are used, their suitabilicy to the problem at hand is fully assessed.
In case of a survey, the manner in which date were collected should be fully described.
v) Analysis of Data and Presentation of Findings: The analysis of data and
presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of tables and charts be
fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body of the report usually extending over
several chapters.
vi) Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn
from the results be explained.
vii) Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
viii) Technical Appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the
like ones.
ix) Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.

(2) Popular Report: The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear writing, minimization of technical,
particularly mathematical, details and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with
large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and then is another characteristic
 (62)
feature of the popular report. Besides, in such a report emphasis is givw on practical aspects and
policy implications.
We give below a general outline of a popular report:
i) Findings and their Implications: Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of
most practical interest and on the implications of these findings.
ii) Recommendations for Follow-up: Recommendations for action on the basis of the
findings of the study is made in this section of the report.
iii) Objective of the Study: A general review of how the problem arises is presented
along with the specific objectives of the project under study.
iv) Methods Employed: A brief and non- technical description of the methods and
techniques used, including a short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this
part of the report.
v) Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report where in the results of
the study are presented in clear and non- technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of
illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
vi) Technical Appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is
presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is
entirely meant for general public.
There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be prepared. The
only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis on simplicity and policy
implications from the operational point of view, avoiding the technical details of all sorts to the extent
possible.

(3) Interim Report: When there is a long time lag oetween data collection and the
presentation of the results in the case of a sponsored project, the study may lose its significance
and usefulness and the sponsor may also lose interest in it. One of the most effective ways to avoid
such eventualities is to present an interim report.
This short repvrt may contain either the first results of the analysis or the final outcome of the
analysis of some aspect/s completely analyzed. Whatever may be the coverage of the interim
report, it fulfills certain functions. It facilitates the sponsoring agency to take action without waiting
for the full report. It helps to keep alive the agency's interest in the study and prevent
misunderstandings about the delay. In addition, it serves to spread over a longer period the time
consuming process of discussion of research findings and their implications. The report also
enables the researcher to find the appropriate style of reporting.
The interim report contains a nmration of what has been done so far and what was its
outcome. It presents a summary of the findings of that part of analysis which has been completed.

(4) Summary Report: A summary report is generally prepared for the consumption of the
lay audience, viz., the general public. The preparation of this type of report is desirable for any study
whose findings are of general interest. It is written in non-technical, simple language with a liberal
use of pictorial charts. It just contains a brief reference to the objective of the study, its major
findings and their implications. It is a short report of two or three pages. Its size is so limited as to be
suitable for publication in daily newspapers.

(5) Algorithmic Research Report: There are problems, viz., production scheduling, JIT,
supply chain management, line balancing, layout design, portfolio management, etc., exist in reality.
The solution for each of the above problems can be obtained through algorithms. So, the
researchersshould come out with newer algorithms or improved algorithms for such problems. For a
combinatorial problem, the researcher should attempt to develop an efficient heuristic. The
algorithmic research report can be classified into the following categories:
i) Algorithmic research report for combinatorial problem.
ii) Exact algorithmic research r:!port for polynomial problem.

Que. 25 Explain the princpels of research report writing.

Ans. :
 Research Report Writing
 (63)
Having decided on the type of report, the report writer should now concern himself with its
preparation. This can best be done when he is clear about what aspects or points are to be covered
by it. Let us first consider the format of the research report.

 Significance of Report Writing

(1) Provide Details: It is the research report gives every other details of research.
(2) Source of Concise and Organized Data: A research report is a published document and as
such lucid explanation is to be given for the understanding of every other reader.
(3) Logical Presentation: The purpose of research cannot be served unless it is presented
properly.
(4) Reflects Final Research: Skill and care shall be taken to write a report because it is the final
work of the research.
(5) Tool of Evaluating Researcher: It is the research report which discloses the scholarliness of
the researcher.
(6) Bibliographical Evidence: A research report gives scope of further research and as such it is
considered as bibliographical evidence.

 Research Report Format

A research report can be written in a number of ways. However, three formats are generally
followed:
(1) Logical Pattern: The report may use a logical pattern, which implies that the findings are
presented in inductive order, i.e., moving from specific to general.
(2) Psychological Pattern: The report may fo1Iow a psychological pattern which is almost
inverse of the preceding pattern. In this forn.at, the most critical information, i.e., the conclusion, is
provided first, after which follow the findings supporting the conclusion.
(3) Chronological Format: The report may use a chronological format wherein information
is given along the time dimension, i.e., things which happened earlier precede those which
happened later. This form is generally combined with other formats. The chronological format is the
least popular though in respect of problems of a historiclll nature, it is the most appropriate.
Having decided the format to be used in a research report, the researcher has now to
prepare the report outline in accordance with that format.

 Principles of Report Writing

(1) Easy to Follow: The body of the report should be written in a self-evident and easy form.
Every subject should be presented under different heads. There may be different sub-topics and
sub-headings under one heading. The statement may be made in short and relevant paragraphs. ·
(2) Adhere to the Study Objectives: A good report seeks to achieve certain results
consisting primarily of answering the questions that derive from the statement of objectives. Merely
to report the findings without reference to the objectives is to produce a sterile piece of writing. This
requires researchers to be on intimate terms with the problem. If the management group has not
permitted the researchers to participate in formulating the problem and has either handed down the
problem-or, worse still, merely demanded certain information-then there can be no definite goal for
the report and it will suffer. Under such conditions it will be difficlllt, if not impossible, for report
writers to draw conclusions and make recommendations.
(3) Be Selective: The research report should be comprehensive as well as concise. The
report should be long enough to cover all the components and objectives of the research project.
But this does not mean that it should be too detailed and wide. It should not be too detailed unless it
is really required to be extensive. The researcher should not try to impress the reader with all the
information at his disposal. He should try to eliminate all unnecessary information rnd also such
information which is commonly known to people. Conciseness can also be obtained by the style of
writing. Duplication of words, use of unnecessary phrases, poor expression and long sentences
should be avoided. The researcher should express his findings in as few words as possible.
(4) Be Objective: Writers must at all times retain their objectivity. Often researchers will be
come· so enamored of a study that they overlook their scientific role. This is a natural temptation
since much marketing research is done within a sales environment. It is one thing to sell objective
 (64)
results and quite another to present results that have been slanted to make them salable. Writers do
neither themselves nor their company any favors if they lose their objectivity.
(5) Have a Purposeful Organization: Mere recording of facts without purpose or
organization inevitably results in confusion which leads to loss of interest. The objective of the report
is to give the read<!r the over all "picture" in the shortest possible time. Therefore each paragraph
should be written with the thought of its position in the entire report in mind. Readers should be so
conscious of the organization that at any one time they know where they are in the report and where
they are going. A working outline helps readers comprehend the organization and helps the writer
make certain that every point is co,·ered without duplication.
(6) Write Clearly: It is easy to say "write clearly." But this is difficult for most people to
.accomplish. Clarity has many facets and is highly subjective. Despite this subjectivity, some basic
principles can be itemized that, iffollowed, help to produce better reports.
(i) Use short, to-the-point sentences-avoid sentence structures that are too elaborate.
(ii) Use words the reader will be familiar with, but that will provide variety and change in pace to
the report. Avoid too many difficult words.
(iii) Make certain the words express precisely what the writer wants to say.
(iv) Avoid mechanical flaws such as incorrect grammar.
(v) Be sure that the report has uniform style and format.

Que. 26 Give the process of Report writing.

Ans. :
 Steps in Report Writing
Once clear about the purpose of writing a report, the persons for whom it is meant, the facts
to be examined, the facts to be included, the time at your disposal, and know what type of report
you are going to write, it is time to start the work. The following five steps are suggested to write a
report:
(1) Investigating the Sources of Information: Investigating the sources of information is a
kind of spadework. It is to be done right in the beginning. The extent of investigation will, of course,
depend on the length and importance of the report. Major sources of information are: company files,
personal observation, interviews, letters, questionnaires, and library research.

(2) Taking Notes: In the course of investigations, the writer keeps on taking notes of
anything that appears to be related to the subject. Then there is no time to analyze them and
determine how they will be of help in the final report. But as the writer keeps turning them in his
mind over and over again, a kind of pattern starts emerging and he begins to be clear about what is
relevant and what is not. It is a very general kind of patterns, but it gives the writer at least a starting
point.

Investigating the Sources of Information

Taking Notes

Analyzing the Data

Making an Outline

Writing the Report

Figure: Steps in Report Writing

(3) Analyzing the Data: Now is the time to analyze the collected data in the light of the
pattern that has evolved. A lot of data will have to be rejected while a need might be felt to collect
more data. The final pattern will emerge at this step. The writer should never hurry through this step,
since this is the most important stage in writing a report.

(4) Making an Outline: Once the final pattern of the report has taken shape in the writer's
mind he should prepare an outline to write the report In this outline the problem is stated, the facts
 (65)
are recorded, they are briefly analyzed, and the logical conclusion is arrived. An Ol}tline is not
essential, but it has been found extremely helpful in writing a systematic report.

(5) Writing the Report: The last step is that of writing the report. It will need a constant
shuttling between the outline and the notes. First a rough draft of the report is prepared. Then it is
revised, pruned and polished. If the writer has some more time at his disposal, he will find it
advantageous to come back to his rough draft after, say, a couple of days. This short interval will
make his revision really meaningful. The writer should also be careful that the language of the report
is simple, unambiguous and free from and submit it.

Que. 27 Give th structure / layout of reseach report.

Ans. :
 Layout/Structure of Research Report
There is no one best structure for all report. However, the physical structure can be
employed to create desirable emphasis and clarity. The use of widely spaced paragraphs, varied
margins, separated headings, different type sizes, and colors -all make it possible to emphasize
major points and to clarity the sequence and relationship of ideas. A report must use the format that
best fits the needs and wants of its readers. The following format is suggested as a basic outline
that has sufficient flexibility to meet most situations. It should not be thought of as a rigid outline that
must always be followed.
(1) Title Page: The Title page should indicate the topic on which the report has been
prepared- the person or agency who has prepared it, the person or agency for whom it has been
prepared and the date of submission (or completion) of the report.
(2) Table of Contents: The Table of contents is an outline of the order of the chapters,
sections and sub-sections with their respective pages. If report includes a number of charts, figures,
tables, maps, diagrams and graphs etc., a separate table for each category would immediately
follow the table
(3) Foreword: This section serves to introduce the reader to the research project. It should
give the background of the problem (e.g., how and when it came into existence); the importance of
the problem; the various dimensions of the problem; and whether any previous research was done
that is pertinent to the specific project being reported.
(4) Statement of Objectives: The specific objectives of the report need to be set forth
clearly. The reader must know exactly what the report covers. If the particular project is part of a
large problem, it is desirable to state the overall probiem and the problem solution process.
Sometimes it may even be wise to provide some background information on how the problem arose
and what previous research work, if any, has been carried out. If such information will help in
understanding the report, it should be furnished; but it should be kept as brief as possible.
(5) Methodology: The purpose of the methodology section is to describe the research
procedure. This includes the overall research design, the sampling procedures, the data-collection
method, the field methods, and analysis procedures.
i) Research Design: Research design denotes the description of the research technique.
It defines exploratory, conclusive and experimental designs. They have their respective merits
and demerits. The methodology will reveal why a particular design is beinb used for conducting
the research.
ii) Data-Collection Methods: The methodology reveals the methods of data collection.
There may be primary sources and secondary sources of data collection. The researcher should
explain why a particular method has been utilized to collect the data. A copy of the questionnaire
may be included to demonstrate the method and form of data collection. The methods of
interviewing are also given in the beginning of the report to reveal the technique of data
collection.
iii) Sampling: In describing the sampling procedure, it is first necessary to indicate the
nature of the universe studied. The exact sampling units, such as stores, consumers, or business
executives, must be defined and the geographical limits specified. If there were any difficulties in
identifying the sampling units in the field, the procedure used for overcoming such difficulties
must be explained. If the sampling unit definition used differed from the commonly accepted one,
the fact should be noted and the differences pointed out to avoid possible confusion.
 (66)
The sampling is based on probability and non-probability methods. Each method has
several techniques after their own advantages and disadvantages. The researcher should
explain why a particular selection process has been used. The sampling units and size may be
depicted on a map. For example, the number of villages selected in a particular district may be
mention on the map. The map itself will reveal the coverage of the population by sampling.
iv) Fieldwork: The researcher should explain the quality and nature of the field force.
The methods of their selection, training and motivation should be given before presentation of the
final report because this will help in understanding the quality of the data collection and their
interpretation in the light of their attitudes and merits.
v) Analysis and Interpretation: Relatively little can be said about the analysis and
interpretation methods. The findings tend to show what has been done in this regard. If any
special, statistical techniques have been used, they should be mentioned. If various executives
have assisted in interpretation, this fact should be noted. This may help gain acceptance of the
report; and, since interpretation is at least partially subjective, it helps readers appraise the
interpretation given.
(6) Limitations: The report should also point out the main limitations of the research
reported therein. This will be helpful to the reader who can form his own opinion as to how far the
results are reliable. In addition, it will be useful to researchers who subsequently undertake a study
on the same or a related theme.
(7) Findings: Findings are the results of the study. This section makes up the bulk of the
report. It is not just an assortment of statistical tables and charts but an organized narrative of the
results. Summary tables and graphic methods of presentation should be used liberally. Highly
detailed tables should be relegated to the appendix. The specific objectives of the study should be
kept in mind and findings presented with them in view. Too often, Writers feel they must present all
findings regardless of their bearing on the objectives of the study. The list of information needed to
achieve the objectives, which was prepared in the problem formulation step, should limit the scope
of the finding presented.
(8) Conclusions and Recommendations: Conclusions should be drawn with direct
reference to the objectives of the study. The readers should be able to read the objectives. Turn to
the conclusions section and find specific conclusions relative to each objective.
If, as sometimes happens, the study does not obtain satisfactory data from which to draw a
conclusion relative to an objective, this should be acknowledged rather than disguised.
While it is almost always necessary for the researchers to draw conclusions, it is not always
possible or advisable for them to make recommendations. On occasions the researchers may be
specifically ask not to make recommendations. In other situations where the researchers have
worked on one problem but have limited knowledge of the company's background and general
operating policies, they would be unwise to recommend definite courses of action even if asked to
do so. Making recommendations assumes considerable knowledge of the total picture, including the
resources of the firm and all the alternative courses of action. Often research workers do not have
this knowledge.
(9) Annexure: This is the last section of the report. An annexure gives supplementary
information which supports the body of the report but which cannot be given within it. If it is given
within the main report, it may distort the focus on the main theme and confuse the reader. The
purpose of the appendix is to provide a place for those repOit items that do not fit in the main body
of the research report because they are either too Jetailed or too specialized. For example, the
appendix may contain a detailed statement of the sample design, the formulas used to determine
the sampling error, detailed statistical tables, and the various research forms used, such as the
questionnaire and the written interviewer instructions. Nothing should be relegated to the appendix if
its absence from the report proper will make it difficult for the readers to understand the results. If
certain data are discussed in any detail, the tables containing such data should be included in the
report at that point. In many cases the main ideas can be presented graphically in the findings
section. In this case the tables on which the charts are based should be included in the appendix.
Thispermits anyone who wishes to check the details to do so.
(10) Bibliography and References: The bibliography contains the detailed information on
books, references, journals and other materials, showing the title of the books/ reports used in the
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preparation of the reports, names of authors, publishers, the year of publication and, if possible, the
page numbers.

Que. 28 What is research report presentation? What are the factors/principle of

effective presentation.
Ans. :
 Introduction
A presentation is a commitment by the presenter to help. the audience do something, to
solve a problem. The interesting thing to note is that in a presentation occurrence of commitment by
the presenter and judgment by the audience is simultaneous. The presenter advocates and
audience evaluates to render a verdict.
In terms of content and structure, presentations and speeches have a gvod deal in comn'on
with fonnal reports many of them are oral version of a written document. Presentation and a process
through which you present some things, some thoughts, some ideas, some products, some
information, some reports, some findings, etc. to some individuals or a group of individuals, with a
definite purpose and a clear goal in your mind. Your intention is to put your point across to your
audience in a manner, which best serves your urpose and that of your audience. Therefore, the
underlying idea is that you should be an effective presenter for which you need to possess the
required skills to understand the intricacies involved in the act of presentation.

 Essential Characteristics of a Presenlation

A good presentation has the following characteristics:
(1) Proper Sequencing: A clear structure with an introduction, discussion, and end.
(2) Facts and Figures: Facts and figures are visually presented in tables, graphs, and charts.
(3) Colors: Different colors are used to make the presentation of the content attractive.
(4) Rapport: The presenter shov.s an understanding of the audience's needs and level of
understanding, while discussing his ideas.
(5) Fillers: Humor and anecdotes are often employed to create a good relationship with the
audience.
(6) Feedback: Questions are given serious attention and are regarded as an essential part of
presentation.

 Factors Affecting Presentation

Following factors affect the effectiveness of the presentation:
(1) Audience Analysis: If the speaker-has analyzed the audience in a proper way before
presentation, his presentation will be more effective. On the other hand, poor or improper audience
analysis leags , to ineffective presentation. The style of the presentation is largely dependent upon
the type and size of the audience. If audience is large, presentation should be more formal whereas
informal· presentation can work in small audience.
(2) Communication Environment: Communication environment affects the effectiveness of
the presentations·. Much of the audience notices the physical things surrouatding the speaker, the
stage, lighting arrangement, background, etc. Proper arrangement of these things can enhance the
impact of the presentation. If there is noise in the surrounding environment, it detracts the audience
from listening and consequently leaves unhealthy messages.
(3) Personal Appearance: Personal appearance of the speaker has great impact on the
audience. Well dressed up person can deliver good presentation. Therefore, the speaker should
wear neat and clean clothes and take time to check his appearance just before starting
presentation.
(4) Use of Visuals: Visuals can enhance the professional image of the presentation.
Different research studies demonstrate that presenters using latest visual techniques are perceived
as better prepared, more persuasive, more credible and more interesting than speakers who do not
use visuals. But visuals work only if the technology on which they depend works well. Therefore,
presenter should check the equipment in advance before presenting.
(5) Opening and Closing of Presentation: The beginning and closing of a presentation are
the positions of emphasis. Those presenters who can open the presentation with interesting
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remarks which are likely to create more interest and enthusiasm for listening the presentation. On
the other hand, presenters with poor opening are likely to leave the audience bored. Similarly, the
ending of the presentation has profound impact on the audience. Endings, with vivid and positive
pictures are more likely to have profound impact on the audience.
(6) Organization of Presentation: Clarity in presentation is essential that comes with
proper organization of the information. Organizing the information in a proper manner can make the
message more understandable, keep the audience happy and boost the image of the speaker.
Proper orgar:ization of presentation enhances the effectiveness of the presentation. On the other
hand, improper organization of the presentation will not influence the audience. Improper
organization of presentation is reflected as follows:
i) Taking a long time to get to the point.
ii) Inclusion of irrelevant material
iii) Leaving out necessary infomtation.
iv) Mixing up of ideas.
To overcome these problems, presentation can be organized in one of the five standard
patterns:
i) Chronological: It starts with past, moves to the present and ends by looking ahead.
ii) Problem-Causes-Solution: It explains the symptoms of the problem, identifies its
caUS(;S and suggests the remedial measures.
iii) Excluding Alternatives: It shows the symptoms of the problem, suggests possible
solutions, explains the reasons why these don't work and ends the discussion with a solution that
will work.
iv) Pros-Cons: It explains the advantages and disadvantages of problem(s).
v) 1-2-3: It discusses three aspects of a topic.
(7) Language and Words: The quality of presentation is affected by the language and
words. To make the audience understand the message, the speaker has to talk in the language
known to the audience. To enhance the impact of presentation, he should choose the catchy words
that appeal to the heart and emotions of the audience.
If the language spoken by presenfator is different from audience's language, and words used
are stereotyped, it is likely to have least impact on the audience.
(8) Quality of Voice: Quality of voice of the presenter affects the effectiveness of the
presentation. Voice modulation is likely to have greater impact upon the audience whereas
monotonous voice will bore the audience.
(9) Body Language: The effectiveness of the presentation is also affected by the body
language of the speaker, A speaker having eye contact with audience is likely to impress more than
a speaker reading out the hand outs. A speaker who looked more at the audience is judged as
better informed, more experienced, more honest and friendliest than a speaker who delivers the
speech with less eye contact. With eye contact members of audience feel that speaker is talking to
them.
Similarly, confidently moving speakers are likely to have more impact than nervous
speakers. To calm one's nervousness, one should be wellprepared, take several deep breaths,
relax one's muscles, pause and look at the audie11ce and use body energy in strong gestures and
movement.
(10) Answering Questions: The effectiveness of presentation is also affected by presenter'
s skill in handling questions asked at the end of presentation. A speaker who answers the
audience's questions and handles hostile qul'stions with tact is likely to influence the audience more.
On the other hand, a speaker who answers rudely will leave negative impact upon the audience.