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On Praxeological Logic and Postulated Logic

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On Praxeological

Logic and

Postulated Logic

Ludovico Lalli
2
3
Introduction
In the present text, the author will put forward a

novel theory of logic, Praxeological Logic.

Praxeological logic will be analyzed and put in

relation with the logical construct called under the

name of Postulated Logic which, in ultimate

analysis, will be incorporated in the general theory

of Praxeological Logic. The readers will be in a

position to understand how Postulated Logic is

necessary for the construction of a correct

Praxeological Theory. The author will, in addition,

put the focus on Utilitarian theory.

4
Hong Kong

11/10/2023

5
6
7
 Contents
I. On Postulated Logic,

p.12

II. Postulated Logic and

Praxeology, p.16

8
III. Praxeological Logic

and Postulated Logic,

p.21

IV. On Utilitarianism,

p.32

9
10
11
I
On Postulated Logic

Once we refer to postulated logic, we put the focus

on the process of reasoning which prioritizes the

finding of certain, i.e., positive, data which is

useful in order to advance genuine evaluations and

thoughts. The fact that 2+2 is equal to 4 is an

example of postulated knowledge. The individual,

in the action of using postulated logic, is sure about

the genuineness of the latter in virtue of the positive

acceptation of postulated logic and its product,

namely postulated knowledge. Once we use

postulated logic, we do that in order to be firm and

12
sound in the process of reasoning itself. Postulated

knowledge is equal, for example, to chronological

data characterized by objective (recognized)

genuineness of the sources, biological data,

chemical data, calculus, etc. Postulated logic cannot

be confuted. Postulated logic is equal, put it in

other words, to certainty. In the action of using

postulated logic, the individual is, basically, on the

side of truth. The individual, once he / she does

advance postulated reasoning, cannot incur in a

process of antithesis. Postulated reasoning is the

bedrock of science and positivism. A further

example of postulated knowledge is represented by

the sentence “For speaking I have to use my vocal

chords.” Once we use postulated logic, we use the

same logic which governs laboratory research.

13
14
15
 II
Postulated Logic and

Praxeology

The more the individual is affected by uneasiness,

the more the latter looks for postulated knowledge.1

Postulated logic is the logic of certainty. Once the

individual is characterized by uneasiness, he / she is

naturally inclined to find a solution. For solving a

form of uneasiness, the individual looks for a

1
An example of postulated knowledge is the vaccine’s chemical

composition.

16
 methodological praxis2 thus a cause - effect

relationship. Put it in other words, the individual, in

order to solve a form of uneasiness, has to allocate

scarce resources such as his / her body, money,

medicines, time, objects, etc., by following

postulated logic. The cause - effect relationship is

postulated in its redundant certainty. The redundant

certainty of the cause-effect relationship is

postulated as the latter is taken for certain in

aprioristic terms by the subjectivity. The more

intellectually demanding a job, the more the latter

is composed of cause-effect relationships.

Specialized workers are always equal to individuals

who can boast the capacity of managing various

cause-effect relationships. Praxeology, the science

affirming how human action is equal to the attempt

2
A methodological praxis is equal to a formulation composed of

systematic knowledge of the positive type, a procedural technique whose

functionality and workability are corroborated by exact knowledge.

17
to solve forms of uneasiness, needs the presence of

perpetual postulated logic (and postulated

knowledge) managed by genuine professionals.

Postulated logic (causal logic) is the starting point

of positivism and positive research. In using

postulated logic, the individual looks for postulated

knowledge usable by the latter for putting forward

apotropaic behaviour towards phenomenons of

uneasiness.

18
19
20
III
Praxeological Logic

and Postulated Logic

The evenly rotating human psychology, in virtue of

environmental variables (variables external to the

individual) and biological variables (variables

internal to the individual), does encounter perpetual

forms of uneasiness which are solved by the

individual through determined methodological

praxises, i.e., cause-effect relationships. The

appearance of uneasiness is a phenomenon inherent

in human psychology and human action. The

individual is distinguished by evenly rotating

21
psychology which, in turn, exists within evenly

rotating ‘’environmental and biological variables.’’

Thus, the evenly rotating human psychology

encounters a perpetual series of environmental and

biological variables which are in a position to alter

the contingent psychological status. The

psychological status is not a fixed value as the latter

is subjected to fluctuations. The contingent form of

uneasiness requires the usage of postulated logic,

also definable as causal logic, e.g., the logic

looking for cause-effect relationships. Once the

individual is in a position to use postulated logic,

the latter is capable of finding postulated

knowledge, namely a knowledge produced by a

cause-effect relationship. Postulated logic is the

unique typology of logic which is in a position to

repudiate doxasticism. Postulated logic is a

synonym for epistemic logic. The evenly rotating

psychology is in a position to heal its statuses of

22
uneasiness by relying on epistemic logic, the logic

which analyses positive knowledge. The volatile

acceptation of environmental phenomenology is, in

itself, a valid excuse for finding praxeological

certainty through postulated logic. The logic of

praxeology is the logic which looks for the suitable

tools for perpetually transcending statuses of

uneasiness. Praxeological Logic, in itself, is not in a

position to be self - sufficient. Praxeology, the

science of human action, states that human action is

equal to the attempt to solve a form of uneasiness.

In its epistemological singularity, praxeological

logic is not enough for directing human action in a

satisfactory manner. The individual, however

conscious of praxeological logic, is thus required to

make a further logical step for solving uneasiness.

This step is equal to the mastering of postulated

logic, the logic which perpetually looks for

cause-effect relationships. Once praxeological logic

23
is nurtured by postulated logic, we are in a position

to arrive at the following basic axiom:

Human action is equal to the attempt to

use proper cause-effect relationships for

solving forms of uneasiness.

Uneasiness, in order to be solved, must be faced

with a proper cause-effect relationship, a proper

methodological praxis. The sapiens is equal to a

man / woman who is in a position to know a wide

variety of cause-effect relationships. Action is

performed in the presence of uneasiness. However,

uneasiness can be solved only through a proper

cause-effect relationship. In the presence of

uneasiness x, the individual acts by knowing that

with cause a, e.g., a medecine, effect b, e.g., the

disappearance of fever, can be reached.

24
The individual should embrace postulated logic,

thus looking for the proper cause-effect relationship

for solving uneasiness. More precisely, the

individual who does want to act has to use

postulated knowledge, the product of postulated

logic. In situations distinguished by

epistemological uncertainty, the individual has to

return to the sheer logical device called under the

name of postulated logic, the cause-effect

relationship. In most of the cases, human action is

‘’facile,’’ ‘’impulsive,’’ and epistemologically

redundant. The individual can solve many forms of

uneasiness by using the postulated knowledge

which is already within his / her epistemological

baggage. The process of education is equal to the

process with which the individual absorbs

postulated knowledge. However, the individual

may be in a position to encounter a challenging

25
form of uneasiness which cannot be solved by the

latter by relying on his / her already known

postulated knowledge. In moments of

epistemological uncertainty the individual should

rely on sheer causal reasoning by finding the proper

methodological praxis through the usage of causal

logic.

The individual, for comprehending the dynamic

and ordinary (apodictically recurrent) nature of

praxeology should, first of all, be aware that human

psychology and human action are ontologically

destined to face statuses of epistemological

contraposition, uneasiness and easiness. The status

of uneasiness is not something of rare. More

precisely, the status of uneasiness is a recurrent

condition of the human mind. Examples of

uneasiness are the uneasiness of being thirsty which

brings the individual to drink a liquid, the

uneasiness of being hungry which brings the

26
individual to eat, the uneasiness of being lonely

which brings the individual to encounter his / her

friends or calling a dear, the uneasiness of not

possessing a car which brings the individual to buy

a car, the uneasiness of not possessing glasses

which brings the individual to buy glasses etc.

Thus, uneasiness is something of recurrent and

ordinary.

The individual, in facing and solving uneasiness,

practices human action. Human action is always

propelled by a status of uneasiness. The individual

acts for improving his / her existential condition. In

determined circumstances, the individual may be

even unaware concerning the psychological source

of his / her action. However, in analytic terms, it is

always uneasiness the true ontology of human

action. The most relevant problem concerning

praxeology is its intrinsic lack of methodology. In

knowing that human action is equal to the attempt

27
of solving uneasiness, the individual is not in a

position to understand how to tangibly solve

uneasiness. Thus, praxeology must be necessarily

enriched with postulated logic. Uneasiness, the true

source of human action, can be solved only by

using the proper cause-effect relationship. Those

who do care about the proper understanding of

praxeology, the science of human action, must

work in order to build a solid epistemological

connection between praxeological logic and

postulated logic. In the presence of the discounting

of postulated logic, we may incur in the problem of

producing a praxeological theory which cannot

explain its eschatology. The action of solving

uneasiness (praxeology) can be completed only

once the individual can use the proper cause-effect

relationship (postulated logic). Put it in different

terms, the action of solving uneasiness

(praxeology) can be completed only once the

28
individual can use the proper postulated

knowledge, the knowledge which is the product of

postulated logic, namely the knowledge which is

the product of a cause-effect relationship.

29
30
31
IV
On Utilitarianism
The principle of utility can be described as a basic

formulation of human behaviour stating how the

individual, in order to maximize his / her

happiness, must choose to perform those actions

that do appear at his / her judgement as

characterized by usefulness; in turn, the principle of

utility does equalize what is useful to what appears

at the sight of the subjectivity as necessary for the

satisfaction of a determined form of uneasiness.

The role of utility is to solve uneasiness. What is

not useful is equal to what is not capable of solving

uneasiness. Human action is ontologically

32
distinguished by the a priori of utility; in this sense,

what is done by the individual is always equal to an

action that is intended by the latter as the bringer of

utility.

The a priori of utility is thus a pre - condition of the

psychological type. The nature of utility itself is

determined by subjective speculation; however, the

individual tends to equalize his / her conception of

utility with what can or may be intended as useful

by the community - the majority of the individuals

composing the community - according to the pre -

existent canons of usefulness (utilitarian

praxeology). The subjectivity thus exists as a self -

interested individuality who, in virtue of his / her

environmental pre - condition of the communitarian

type, can satisfy his / her forms of uneasiness by

being effectively integrated into the aggregation of

free acting men. It is the very starting point of the

process of utilitarian calculation; conventional

33
ethics and the nature of the principle of utility are

equal to what is intended as legitimate by the

majority of free acting men. The individuality is

indeed free to reject conventional ethics and the

current communitarian "understanding" of utility;

however, this eventuality is distinguished by self -

evident risks and side effects. The rejection of

conventional ethics is performed as far as the

individuality conceives this action as strictly

necessary for the preservation / upgrading of his /

her well - being. The individual who bases his / her

modus operandi on the principle of utility must

necessarily act by following postulated logic. A

useful action is always equal to an action that is the

materialization of a cause-effect relationship.

- On the process of argumentation

In this section, I'm going to put the focus on the

utilitarian nature of the argumentative phenomenon

34
itself; in order to do so, I will put forward an

analysis of the paleographic type whose major goal

is to underline how, from the very outset of human

species, the process of argumentation (gestural and

linguistic) was characterized by utilitarian nature.

Human beings argue in order to transcend

determined forms of uneasiness. The process of

argumentation presents itself as an action grounded

in the principle of utility; accordingly, the

subjectivity would simply refuse to argument in the

presence of a possibility of argumentation that is

not perceived by himself / herself as the bringer of

utility. Recent researches put the focus on the

utilitarian nature of communication within

hominids showing how the development of

language should be contextualized within the

process of gradual "enhanced socialization"

distinguishing the Homo genus, especially since

Homo habilis.

35
 Tomasello stresses the significance of

ecological pressures exerted on

hominins by their increasingly more

complex social lives, which required

management by means of efficient and

explicit communication. The modern

language would provide this, driven by

the same mind that was ready to handle

the corresponding complex social

interactions. He argues that cooperation

and joint attention played as important a

role in the emergence of language as in

social organization.3

The development of language (gestural and

linguistic) is linked to a variety of functional

aspects distinguishing the well - being of the

3
The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics, Oxford Handbooks,

ed. Keith Allan, OUP Oxford, 2013, p.42.

36
 hominids' communities. According to

MacWhinney, "differentiation of local patterns for

speech and gesture" represented the operative pre -

condition with which the communities of hominids

succeeded in maintaining “their territory against

competitors."4 Morgan et al, puts the focus on

language, and its related developmental process, as

the fundamental "epistemological" pre - condition

that enabled homo sapiens to materialize a

productive and relatively fast transmission of

technological rudiments among their communities.

... due to the challenging ecological

niche that early hominins occupied and

the difficulty of acquiring tool - making

4
Brian MacWhinney, "Language Evolution and Human Development", in

David F. Bjorklund & Anthony D. Pellegrini (Eds.). Origins of the Social

Mind: Evolutionary Psychology and Child Development, (New York:

Guilford Press, 2005), p.7.

37
 skills, fitness benefits were likely

associated with the ability to make and

deploy effective cutting tools as well as

the ability to rapidly transmit the skills,

and so a co-evolutionary relationship

between tool making and cognition,

specifically teaching and language,

would seem plausible.5

The process of argumentation appears as the

communicative tool with which our ancestors

maximized the welfare of the community; gestures

and, later on, verbal language, were functional for

the process of transmission of technical and

locational knowledge. In this sense, Dessalles

5
Morgan et al, "Experimental evidence for the co-evolution of hominin

tool-making teaching and language", Nature Communications 6, article

no. 6029 (January 2015): 2, accessed August 13, 2020.

DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7029

38
 stresses the importance of language as the

necessary medium with which the anthropological

exceptions6 ruling the communities of hominids

communicated to their subordinates "relevant

information"7 extracted from the environment. The

principle of utility characterizing argumentation is

thus the self - evident driving force of our process

of civilization. The above mentioned findings shed

further light on which ethics should be regarded as

the natural "moral" pre - condition of mankind.

While the concept of private property was certainly

neglected by our ancestors - accordingly, private

6
Even within the communities composed of hominids, the social

aggregation was headed by particular individuals characterized by

rulership and entrepreneurial traits.

7
Jean-louis Dessalles, "Language and Hominid Politics", in Chris Knight,

James R. Hurford & Michael Studdert-Kennedy (eds), The evolutionary

emergence of language: social function and the origin of linguistic form.

Cambridge :Cambridge University Press, p.74.

39
property rights are a relatively modern "institution"

- the principle of utility inherent, for example, in

the process of argumentation itself is now

corroborated by relevant findings concerning the

development of human communication. The free

acting man intended the process of argumentation

as nothing but a functional social binding agent

with which to reach his / her ends by intensifying

and ameliorating the collaboration with the other

agents. Whether or not the subjectivity is endowed

with property rights, whether or not the

individuality is a king or a slave, even his / her

"hypothetical" process of argumentation must be

intended as necessarily grounded in the principle of

utility, the notion stating how a sound human action

is the one that, once put forward, is in a position to

40
 transcend a determined form of uneasiness.8 9 The

8
The individuality argues as far as he / she interprets the process of

argumentation as necessary for the transcending of a determined form of

uneasiness, e.g., counterbalacing solitude, the need to argument, the need

to externalize sentiments and opinions, the need to find companions, the

need to argument with a determined person intended as important, the

need to argument with a determined person intended as informative, the

need to obtain determined informations etc. Accordingly, even the

individual who is equipped with the best and widest possible range of

rights, e.g., property rights etc., would not even start a process of

argumentation which is not necessary for the satisfaction of a determined

form of uneasiness. Contrarily, let us apply the a priori of utility to a

disadvantaged individual such as a slave; in addition, let us imagine that a

determined slave x is even prevented by his / her master from talking or

even uttering. In this scenario, slave x would be only able to materialize

an "argumentation" of the intra - mental type. Even in this paradoxical

context, slave x would produce an intra - mental soliloquium animated by

a principle of utility, the addressing of a determined uneasiness, e.g.,

counterbalancing imposed loneliness, impossibility of externalizing his /

her emotional / intellectual speculation etc. A process of argumentation

realized for the sake of argumenting, viz., the utility obtained from the

41
 true ontology of human action is thus the a priori of

utility.10 The ontology of the process of

process of argumentation as such, is necessarily grounded in the a priori

of utility.
9
Praxeology, the science stating how human action is equal to the attempt

to transcend forms of uneasiness, is, in summary, an aprioristic behavioral

axiom of the apotropaic type.

10
The a priori of utility is thus a pre - condition of the psychological type.

The nature of utility itself is determined by subjective speculation;

however, the individual tends to equalize his / her conception of utility

with what can or may be intended as useful by the community according

to the pre - existent canons of usefulness (utilitarian praxeology). The

subjectivity thus exists as a self - interested individuality who, in virtue of

his / her environmental pre - condition of the communitarian type, can

satisfy his / her forms of uneasiness by being effectively integrated into

the aggregation of free acting men. It is the very starting point of the

process of utilitarian calculation; conventional ethics and the nature of the

principle of utility are equal to what is intended as legitimate by the

majority of free acting men. The individuality is indeed free to reject

conventional ethics and the current communitarian "understanding" of

utility; however, this eventuality is distinguished by self - evident risks

42
 argumentation is the principle of utility itself. The

process of argumentation is not an end in itself but

instead a means to an end. The development of

human communication shows how human beings,

from the very beginning of our history, regulate

their relations by being pushed by the principle of

utility. The free acting man arguments in order to

reach a result which, according to praxeology, must

be self - interested; the free acting man would not

dissipate his / her time and energies, which are

scarce resources, in order to fuel a process of

argumentation which does not point at the

satisfaction of a determined form of uneasiness

which is perceived as such by the individual. In

sum, the free acting man would not talk, thus

preferring the existential possibility of remaining

and side effects. The rejection of conventional ethics is performed as far

as the individuality conceives this action as strictly necessary for the

preservation / upgrading of his / her well - being.

43
silent, in the presence of a possibility of

argumentation that is not perceived by himself /

herself as the means with which to reach a form of

utility.

a. The A Priori of Utility as the being

function of human life
The supporters of the "property rights account"

may attack the a priori of utility by using the

following argument. The individual, in order to be

in a position to materialize a human pattern of

behaviour determined, accordingly, by his / her

aprioristic allegiance to the a priori of utility,

should, first of all, be in a position to exist as a

human being. Accordingly, the praxeological agent

should be able to sustain his / her existence by

boasting property rights over the most elementary

means of subsistence such as food, shelter etc. This

attack, however ingenious, would not be in a

44
position to delegitimize the a priori of utility. The

fact that the individual does act in order to

systematically appropriate the most elementary

means of subsistence, e.g., food, shelter, etc. is

necessarily grounded in the a priori of utility itself.

Only the subjectivity who intends his / her life as a

value distinguished by utility is prone to act in a

systematic manner with the intention to prolong his

/ her existence; accordingly, the individual, in the

act of practicing systematic self - caring does

preserves himself / herself from the uneasiness of

loosing his / her life, namely the uneasiness of non

- existence. Let us take into consideration the

example represented by an individual committing

suicide, that is equal to a situation in which the

subjectivity surrenders definitively the property

rights over his / her body and whatever possible

form of possession. From a bare utilitarian

perspective, the subjectivity committing suicide is

45
nothing but a character who does not intend

anymore his / her existence as a value marked by

utility. Everyone is potentially in a position to

deliberately starve to death in order to end his / her

existence; however, an individual who looks at his /

her life as something characterized by utility would

not endanger it by refusing to appropriate the most

rudimentary means necessary for its preservation.

The very fact that a subjectivity desires to exist

proves how this choice is grounded in the a priori

of utility. Put it in a different way, the a priori of

utility is the being function of human life as the

very fact that the individual desires to continue to

live is the result of the fact that he / she interprets

his / her existence as a value distinguished by a

clear degree of utility. It is now the propitious time

to associate the a priori of utility with the principle

of parenthood. Each praxeological agent is in a

position to exist in virtue of the fact that he / she,

46
during his / her childhood, received the systematic

care of interested adult characters.

The moral duty or responsibility of the

parents to their children stems also from

their act of voluntary creation, from

their responsibility for bringing helpless

babies into the world. Their moral

responsibility is to raise these children,

to bring them from their natural state of

infant dependency to the status of

rational, self-owning, independent

adults. Their moral responsibility is to

rear the children to the status of

independence. What, then, does this

imply? It implies caring, provision of

food, shelter, education, etc., to the best

of the parents’ love and ability. And it

implies something else: it implies the

47
 moral duty as well as the right of the

parents to train the children in the

values, self-discipline, and techniques

which are needed to become a fully

mature adult.11

We arrive at the conclusion that the very fact that

determined interested parental characters, e.g.,

parents, tutors, etc. acted in order to sustain the

physical and intellectual developing process of the

baby is grounded in the a priori of utility. The

parental character who does act in order to fuel the

physical and intellectual developing process of the

baby is moved by a determined driving force, the a

11
Rothbard Murray, "Kid Lib", in Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against

Nature and Other Essays, Alabama: The Ludwig von Mises Institute,

2000, p.150.

48
 priori of utility.12 In the same sense, the parental

character who is neglectful towards the baby should

be conceived as a subjectivity who does not

perceive any principle of utility in the action of

caring for the child himself / herself.

b. Praxeology and the Law: the Law and

its Utilitarian Teleology

The law is firmly grounded in the principle of

utility. The principle of utility can be described as a

basic formulation of human behaviour stating how

the individual, in order to maximize his / her

happiness, must choose to perform those actions

that do appear at his / her judgement as

12
In this sense, the parent recognizes utility in the action of taking care of

the prole moved by the praxeological axiom of human behaviour.

Accordingly, the parent does take care of the prole with the aim to

transcend determined forms of uneasiness, e.g., the uneasiness of not

taking care of the prole, the uneasiness of knowing that a prole who is

neglected would not be in a position to survive etc.

49
 characterized by usefulness; in turn, the principle of

utility does equalize what is useful to what appears

at the sight of the subjectivity as necessary for the

satisfaction of a determined form of uneasiness.

The law must be conceived under the form of a

methodological praxis with which the political

institution does attempt to preserve the society from

the appearance of determined forms of uneasiness13

such as, for example, the citizen’s uneasiness of

losing his / her life.14 Hence, the set of norms

13
The set of norms composing the law are formulations aiming at the

avoidance of forms of uneasiness. For example, the prohibition to kill is

equal to the political institution's attempt of preserving the citizen from

the uneasiness of being murdered, the uneasiness of witnessing a

murdering etc., the prohibition to steal is equal to the political institution's

attempt of preserving the citizen from the uneasiness of losing his / her

properties by theft, the uneasiness of witnessing a theft etc. etc.

14
Determined Nations do try to avoid the citizen’s uneasiness of losing

his / her life by the usage of the death penalty, i.e., capital punishment. It

is the intention of the present note to suggest to the reader that capital

50
punishment should be eradicated for a series of reasons. The State should

instill in the citizens the culture of compensation and obliterate the

culture of vindication that does animate many contemporary citizens. In

primis, the criminal who is the culprit of assassination should be

conceived under the form of a subjectivity who can compensate the State

and the victim’s family by performing a job in jail and send the lion share

of his / her salary to the latter. In secundis, the person who is in jail

because of being accused of being an assassin is not always that

individual who has performed the assassination itself. Even judges are in

a position to commit mistakes in producing their sentences; we cannot

idealize judges under the form of individuals who are endowed with

apodictic truths. In this sense, capital punishment should be eradicated as

the latter is, in aprioristic terms, in a position to be the instrument with

which incompetent judges can, de facto, eliminate innocent people. No

court is in a position to redeem itself once an innocent individual is killed

through the usage of the capital punishment. In the same sense, the author

does suggest to the readers how corporal punishments - in the name of the

earthly nature of judges which is, accordingly, subject to error - should be

eradicated as the latter are, once fallen into the hands of incompetent

judges, in a position to subject innocent citizens to indelible corporal

violence.

51
composing the law is characterized by a self -

evident praxeological teleology. The utility of the

law resides in its ability of creating objective

expectations of legal conduct in the citizens; thus,

one of the functions of the law is thus to create an

archetype of behavioural praxis or, put it in other

words, a commonsensical perception of good sense.

The individual who disrespects the archetype of

behavioural praxis is intended by the law as a

transgressor deserving punishment. The law can be

enforced or produced; accordingly, the law is

enforced for attempting to prevent determined

forms of uneasiness from their appearance in the

society and created in the moment in which the pre

- existent normative corpus cannot attempt to

prevent the appearance of a determined form of

uneasiness within the Nation. The act of enforcing

the law is equal to the confirmation of the pre -

existent normative corpus while the initiative of

52
producing new law is undertaken at the moment in

which a determined new form of uneasiness, in

virtue of the obsoleteness of the pre - existent

normative corpus, is not characterized by the a

priori of solvability. Hence, an article of the law

can be conceived as the methodological praxis that

equips a determined form of uneasiness with the a

priori of solvability. Once the political institution

emanates a new law, it does it by confiding in the

fact that the educational and vindicative, e.g.,

punitive, powers of the law will be in a position to

persuade the citizen in materializing illegal

behaviors. The political institution thus tries to

solve determined forms of uneasiness through the

law by 1. using the latter to publicize norms of

conduct that, according to the pre - existent moral

canons distinguishing the society, can be

considered as constructive by the citizens and 2.

clothing the law itself with vindictive precepts that

53
are equal to expectations of punishment in the

presence of behaviors contradicting the normative

corpus.

54
Bibliography
Dessalles, J.L., "Language and Hominid Politics", in Chris

Knight, James R. Hurford & Michael

Studdert-Kennedy (eds), The evolutionary

emergence of language: social function and

the origin of linguistic form. Cambridge

: Cambridge University Press.

MacWhinney, B., "Language Evolution and Human

Development", in David F. Bjorklund &

Anthony D. Pellegrini (Eds.). Origins of

the Social Mind: Evolutionary Psychology

and Child Development, New York:

Guilford Press, 2005.

Morgan et al, "Experimental evidence for the co-evolution of

hominin tool-making teaching and language",

Nature Communications 6, article no. 6029

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 (January 2015): 2, accessed August 13, 2020.

DOI: 10.1038/ncomms7029

Rothbard, M., "Kid Lib", in Egalitarianism as a Revolt

Against Nature and Other Essays, Alabama:

The Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2000.

The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics, Oxford

Handbooks, ed. Keith Allan, OUP

Oxford, 2013, p.42.

56
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