Q:1
The role of microorganisms in the nitrogen cycle
includes the following processes ¹ ²:
- Nitrogen Fixation: Microorganisms like Rhizobium
and certain bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen
(N2) into ammonia (NH3), making it accessible to
living organisms.
- Nitrification: Microorganisms like Nitrosomonas and
Nitrobacter convert ammonia into nitrate (NO3–),
which plants can absorb.
- Assimilation: Plants absorb nitrogen compounds
(e.g., nitrate, ammonia) from the soil, using them to
produce amino acids, nucleotides, and other vital
chemicals.
- Ammonification: Microorganisms like soil bacteria
decompose organic matter, releasing ammonia and
nitrate back into the soil.
- Denitrification: Anaerobic microorganisms like
Pseudomonas and Clostridium convert nitrate back
into nitrogen gas (N2), often in low-oxygen
environments.
Q:2
Primary Succession:
- Begins in areas where no previous vegetation
existed, such as newly exposed rock surfaces, sand
dunes, or volcanic lava flows.
- Starts from scratch, with no soil or organic matter
present.
- Pioneer species, such as lichens and mosses, colonize
the area first.
- Soil formation occurs through weathering and
decomposition.
- Takes a longer time to reach a stable community.
Secondary Succession:
- Occurs in areas where vegetation existed previously
but was disturbed or destroyed, such as after a fire,
flood, or human activities like deforestation or
agriculture.
- Starts with existing soil and organic matter.
- Pioneer species are often grasses, shrubs, and small
trees.
- The process is faster than primary succession since
soil and nutrients are already present.
- The community returns to its pre-disturbance state
or a similar equilibrium.
Q:3
DNA Polymerase I (Pol I):
- Repairs damaged DNA by filling gaps and removing
RNA primers
- Has proofreading and editing activities to ensure
accuracy
- Involved in the processing of Okazaki fragments
during lagging strand synthesis
DNA Polymerase II (Pol II):
- Involved in leading strand synthesis during DNA
replication
- Has proofreading and editing activities to ensure
accuracy
- Responsible for the synthesis of the leading strand of
DNA
DNA Polymerase III (Pol III):
The main enzyme responsible for DNA replication
- Involved in both leading and lagging strand
synthesis
- Has high processivity, allowing it to synthesize long
stretches of DNA quickly
- Has proofreading and editing activities to ensure
accuracy
Q4:
Here are three causes of acid rain:
1. Burning of Fossil Fuels: The combustion of fossil
fuels like coal, oil, and gas releases sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) into the atmosphere,
which eventually lead to the formation of acid rain.
2. Industrial Processes: Various industrial processes,
such as the production of steel and chemicals, also
release SO2 and NOx emissions, contributing to acid
rain.
3. Vehicle Emissions: The exhaust from vehicles,
especially those powered by diesel and gasoline,
contains NOx and other pollutants that contribute to
acid rain.
Q 5. Crossing over is a genetic process that occurs
during sexual reproduction in organisms. It involves
the exchange of genetic material between
homologous chromosomes, resulting in genetic
recombination and increased genetic diversity.
During crossing over, segments of DNA are exchanged
between paired chromosomes, creating new
combinations of alleles. This process occurs in
prophase I of meiosis, the stage of cell division that
produces gametes (sperm or egg cells).
Crossing over is important because it:
- Increases genetic diversity by creating new
combinations of alleles
- Allows for the shuffling of genetic traits
- Enables adaptation and evolution
Q 8:
Gene Linkage:
- Refers to the tendency of two or more genes to
inherit together due to their physical proximity
on the same chromosome.
- Means that the genes are close enough to be
inherited together more frequently than expected
by chance.
- Does not imply a specific order or distance
between the genes.
Linkage Group:
- A set of genes that are linked together and tend
to inherit together.
- Consists of genes that are physically close on
the same chromosome and are inherited as a
unit.
- Defines a specific group of genes that are linked
and inherited together, often in a specific order.
Q10:
The Griffith experiment (1928) was a landmark study
that demonstrated DNA as the genetic material
responsible for heredity. Here's how:
1. Transformation: Griffith observed that a non-
virulent strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae (R strain)
could be transformed into a virulent strain (S strain)
by exposing it to a heat-killed S strain.
2. Hereditary change: The transformed R strain
retained its new virulent characteristics even after
multiple generations, indicating a hereditary change.
3. DNA as the transforming principle: Griffith proposed
that a specific molecule, later identified as DNA, was
responsible for this transformation. He called it the
"transforming principle".
4. DNA carries genetic information: The experiment
showed that DNA contains the genetic information
necessary to confer specific traits (in this case,
virulence) to bacteria.
5. DNA is responsible for heredity: Griffith's
experiment provided evidence that DNA is the genetic
material responsible for heredity, challenging the
prevailing belief that proteins were the genetic
material.
While Griffith's experiment didn't directly prove DNA
as the genetic material, it laid the foundation for later
experiments (like Avery-MacLeod-McCarty and
Hershey-Chase) that conclusively established DNA as
the molecule responsible for heredity.
In summary, Griffith's experiment demonstrated that
DNA is responsible for heredity by showing that:
- DNA can transform bacterial traits
- The transformed trait is hereditary
- DNA carries genetic information
- DNA is the genetic material responsible for heredity
The Hershey-Chase experiment (1952) was a
landmark study that conclusively demonstrated DNA
as the genetic material responsible for heredity. Here's
how:
Experiment:
1. Bacteriophage T2: Hershey and Chase used a virus
(bacteriophage T2) that infects E. coli bacteria.
2. Radioactive labels: They labeled the phage's DNA
with radioactive phosphorus-32 (32P) and its protein
coat with radioactive sulfur-35 (35S).
3. Infection: The labeled phage was allowed to infect
E. coli bacteria.
4. Centrifugation: The mixture was centrifuged,
separating the bacterial cells from the phage particles.
5. Measurement: The radioactivity in the bacterial cells
and the supernatant was measured.
Results:
1. 32P (DNA) in bacteria: The radioactive phosphorus-
32 (32P) was found in the bacterial cells, indicating
that the phage's DNA had entered the bacteria.
2. 35S (protein) in supernatant: The radioactive
sulfur-35 (35S) remained in the supernatant, showing
that the phage's protein coat remained outside the
bacteria.
Q 11:
Polygenic inheritance refers to the phenomenon
where a single trait is influenced by multiple genes. In
the case of wheat color, it is a classic example of
polygenic inheritance.
Wheat color is determined by three genes: R, r, and Y.
Each gene has two alleles:
- R (red) and r (white)
- Y (yellow) and y (white)
The possible genotypes and phenotypes are:
- RR or Rr: Red color
- rr: White color
- YY or Yy: Yellow color
- yy: White color
The interaction between these genes produces a range
of colors:
Red (RR or Rr)
- Yellow (YY or Yy)
- White (rr or yy)
- Pink (RrYy)
- Purple (RRYy or rryy)
This is an example of polygenic inheritance because:
- Multiple genes (R, r, Y, and y) influence the trait
(wheat color)
- Each gene has a small effect on the trait
- The combination of alleles from each gene
determines the final phenotype (color)
This polygenic inheritance leads to a continuous
variation in wheat color, from white to red to yellow to
pink to purple, depending on the combination of
alleles.