Botany ii XII By Mustafa Mir

Short All Ans 👇

**Section A: Short Answer Questions**

**Q1. What is the role of microorganisms in the nitrogen cycle?**

Microorganisms play a critical role in the nitrogen cycle by transforming nitrogen into various chemical forms.
This includes:
- **Nitrogen fixation**: Bacteria such as Rhizobium convert atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia (NH₃).
- **Nitrification**: Nitrifying bacteria like Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter convert ammonia into nitrites (NO₂⁻)
and then nitrates (NO₃⁻).
- **Denitrification**: Denitrifying bacteria such as Pseudomonas convert nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N₂),
completing the cycle.
- **Ammonification**: Decomposers convert organic nitrogen into ammonia.

**Q2. Differentiate between primary and secondary succession.**

- **Primary succession**: Occurs in lifeless areas where soil is absent, such as on bare rock. It starts with
pioneer species like lichens and progresses to more complex plant communities.
- **Secondary succession**: Occurs in areas where a disturbance has destroyed a community but left the soil
intact, such as after a fire. It progresses more quickly than primary succession.

**Q3. Write the function of DNA polymerase I, II & III.**

- **DNA Polymerase I**: Involved in DNA repair and removal of RNA primers in the lagging strand during DNA
replication.
- **DNA Polymerase II**: Primarily involved in DNA repair processes.
- **DNA Polymerase III**: The main enzyme responsible for DNA synthesis in prokaryotes during replication,
adding nucleotides in the 5' to 3' direction.

**Q4. Write down any three causes of acid rain.**

1. **Burning of fossil fuels**: Releases sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NOₓ) into the atmosphere.
2. **Industrial processes**: Factories and power plants emit sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
3. **Vehicle emissions**: Cars and trucks emit nitrogen oxides.

**Q5. Write a short note over the mechanism that is given in the diagram.**
The diagram illustrates the process of crossing over during meiosis. Homologous chromosomes pair up and
exchange genetic material, resulting in recombinant chromosomes with new combinations of genes. This
increases genetic diversity in offspring.

**Q6. Describe briefly O-negative (O⁻ve) blood group as a universal donor.**

O-negative blood is considered the universal donor because it lacks A, B, and Rh antigens, making it
compatible with all other blood types for transfusions. It can be given to patients of any blood type without
causing an immune reaction.

**Q7. Define the following terms:**

- **(i) Sex linkage**: The association of a gene with a sex chromosome (X or Y). Traits controlled by these
genes are called sex-linked traits.
- **(ii) Phenotype and genotype of body**:
- **Phenotype**: The observable characteristics or traits of an organism.
- **Genotype**: The genetic makeup of an organism.
- **(iii) Callus in plant**: An unorganized mass of plant cells that forms at a wound site or in tissue culture,
often used in plant propagation.

**Q8. Differentiate between gene linkage and linkage group.**

- **Gene linkage**: The tendency of genes located close to each other on the same chromosome to be
inherited together.
- **Linkage group**: All the genes on a single chromosome that are linked together.

**Q9. Define:**
- **(i) Heterochromatin**: Densely packed form of DNA which is transcriptionally inactive and found at
centromeres and telomeres.
- **(ii) Co-dominance**: A genetic scenario where both alleles in a heterozygote are fully expressed, resulting
in a phenotype that shows both traits.
- **(iii) Ecological niche**: The role and position a species has in its environment, including all interactions
with biotic and abiotic factors.

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