shells

Neutron 0

atoms can have different masses and properties because they can exists as

isotopes.
 this is the weight in grams of the mass an atom compare to the mass of

carbon -12 in exactly 12 grams of carbon.

(20 x 90.9) + (21 x 0.3) + (22 x 8.8)

-------------------------------------------- = 20.179 amu
100
1S2 2S2 2P4

the oxygen atom contains two sets of half filled orbitals . One set overlaps

axially / intranuclearly to form a sigma bond and the

other set overlaps sideways / laterally to form a pi bond. Hence both are

linked by a double bond covalently.

Ice is less dense than water because the ice ,molecules arrange themselves in

a rigid like tetrahedral structure due to which cage like spaces remain

in their bonding.

the intermolecular hydrogen bonding, beimg the strongets intermolecular force,

harder to break , thus alot of energy is required to break the bonds causing

the boiling point to be higher than usual.

Bond energy is the amount of energy needed to break one mole of a

particular bond in one mole of gaseous molecules.

4 x 410 =1640 2 x 740 = 1480

2 x 496 = 992 2 x 460 = 920

1640 + 992 = 2632 1480+ 920 = 3320

2632 - 3320 = - 688 kj mol

1. measure 50 cm3 of NaOH and HCL separately in a measuring cylinder.

2. Pour NaOH and HCI into separate beakers and record the temperature.

3. Prepare a polystyrene cup and place in a beaker.

4. Pour HCI into the cup and then add NaOH then quickly cover the cup with a plastic
lid.
5. Stir the mixture and record the highest temperature with a thermometer.

6. Repeat the procedure three times to get accurate results.

NaOH (aq) + HCI (aq) ---- NaCI (aq) + H2O

1.00 1.00
2 x 50 cm3 = 100g )
c = 4.2 j ) x = heat of neutralisation.
At = x )
pH is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in a substance.

Kw = 1.00 × 10−14mol2 dm−6

[OH ] = 10 ^-14
--------------- = 2.38
[4.2 ]

[H+] = __10 ^-14__

[0.020 dm ^-3 ]
=5 x 10 ^-13

- log of the above = 12. 3

graph b
phenolp
 rate of reaction is the amount of time taken for a product to form or

a reactant to be used up.

a catalysts increases the rate of rxn because it lowers the activation

energy for the reaction and this results in an increase in the number of

particles with energy greater than the cativation energy, resulting in more

successful collisions.

surface area increases the rate of rxn by increasing the amount of

sucessful collisions.
 rate 2 3.0 x 10^-5
-------- = --------------- = 2 - 2= 1
rate 1 1.5 x 10^-5
with respect to

0.05
------- = 5- 5 = 1 1+1= 2
0.10

the order of the reaction is the 2nd order

K = [S2O8 ^-2] [I ^-]

The standard electrode potential, EØ, of a half cell is the voltage measured

under standard conditions with the standard hydrogen electrode as the

other half cell.

As the halogens get larger, the increasing number of electrons makes the

van der Waals forces between the molecules stronger. So the boiling

points increase down the group as it takes more energy to break these

intermolecular forces.

The halogens are less reactive going down the group. A more reactive

halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from an aqueous halide

solution.
2 (Br)- + 2 H+ + H2SO4 → SO2 + 2 H2O + Br2
Iron has a much stronger metallic bonding due to the

presence of unpaired electrons in its orbitals which makes it

more difficult to break the intermolecular forces and overcome the strong

metallic bonding.

Calcium, on the other hand, has a weaker metallic bonding because it has

only two valence electrons and thus can form only two covalent bonds,

making it easier to break the intermolecular forces between atoms.

↑↓