Protección Catódi

Cathodic Protection System Application and
Maintenance Guide
Effective December 6, 2006, this report has been made publicly available
in accordance with Section 734.3(b)(3) and published in accordance with
Section 734.7 of the U.S. Export Administration Regulations. As a result of
this publication, this report is subject to only copyright protection and does
not require any license agreement from EPRI. This notice supersedes the
export control restrictions and any proprietary licensed material notices
embedded in the document prior to publication.
Technical Report
Cathodic Protection System
Application and Maintenance Guide
1011905
Final Report, December 2005
EPRI Project Manager

W. E. Johnson
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1395 ▪ PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 ▪ USA
800.313.3774 ▪ 650.855.2121 ▪ askepri@epri.com ▪ www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN
ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:
(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR
SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR
INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S
CIRCUMSTANCE; OR
(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

(INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE
HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR
SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD,
PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT.
ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT
Sargent & Lundy, LLC
NOTE
For further information about EPRI, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 or
e-mail askepri@epri.com.
Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power
Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright © 2005 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
CITATIONS
This report was prepared by
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC)
1300 W. T. Harris Blvd.
Charlotte, NC 28262
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Cathodic Protection System Application and Maintenance Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2005.
1011905.
iii
REPORT SUMMARY
The design life of a typical cathodic protection system is 20-25 years. Since a number of nuclear
power plants have been in operation for more than 30 years, the existing systems have operated
beyond their original design lives. Since plants are entering into life extension, it is important to
focus on systems that are designed to prolong the life of plant equipment, structures, and
components and to ensure their reliable operation.
Typically, cathodic protection system equipment includes rectifiers, anodes, anode junction
boxes, reference cells (electrodes), and test stations. The scope of this guide includes addressing
the maintenance and testing of the system, its components, and providing appropriate
recommendations. These recommendations will provide the basis for a suitable preventive (PM)
and predictive (PdM) maintenance program.
Objectives
• To develop an application and maintenance guide for the classic cathodic protection system
and associated equipment
Approach
In power plants, underground pipes (circulating water and service water intake, discharge,
cooling tower piping, and off gas piping), storage tanks (diesel oil, circulating water, condensate,
fire water, feedwater/demineralizer waste products) building foundations, containment
structures, turbine, service stacks (off gas, vent), and condenser waterboxes typically have
cathodic protection.
Results
Although the guide covers the application of cathodic protection, it also focuses on proper
equipment selection, system monitoring, and maintenance of equipment important for providing
corrosion protection. In order to plan and implement the appropriate maintenance methods to
ensure adequate cathodic protection system performance, the materials, type of cathodic
protection (sacrificial anode or impressed current), the considerations that went into making
equipment selections, and the pre-testing, post-testing, and in-service testing methods should be
understood, documented, and properly applied.
EPRI Perspective
This guide provides power plant staff with information for establishing an effective maintenance
program for the cathodic protection system and components. The guide outlines the most
common failure modes, describes appropriate predictive and preventive maintenance (PdM/PM)
techniques, and provides information on the methods available to optimize service life and
minimize maintenance costs through effective preventive maintenance and condition monitoring.
v
Keywords
Cathodic protection
Corrosion prevention
Maintenance
Equipment reliability
vi
ABSTRACT
In power plants, there is a considerable amount of equipment that must be protected from
environmental as well as dissimilar metal corrosion. Corrosion of material is inevitable, but
uncontrolled corrosion increases maintenance costs and, in some instances, can promote the
failure of some structures, systems, and components.
Controlling corrosion can be done through the proper application of materials and preventive
practices. There are various methods available to plant designers for controlling corrosion, with
cathodic protection being one of the most effective.
With the effort in the nuclear industry and other industrial facilities to maximize equipment life,
it is important for plant operators to understand the importance of cathodic protection in their life
extension efforts. Cathodic protection can aid plant personnel in their attempts to protect and
maintain safe and reliable equipment.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
EPRI would like to acknowledge the contribution of the following respondents to the initial
survey that sent out for this project.
Respondent’s Name Plant Name
Alan Parker/Youssef Tabib LaSalle Generating Station
Barry Bowen Hope Creek
Bill Alkema Agua Fria Generating Station
Brian Weber Michoud S.E.S.
Calvin C. King Jr. PSEG Salem Units 1 & 2
David Knights Tarong Power Station, Queensland, Australia (Tarong

Energy Corp., Ltd.)
Derek Fanguy Callaway Nuclear Power Plant
Doug Dayton South Texas Project Electric Generating Station
Gary Corsiglia Diablo Canyon Power Plant
Gary Deck/Youssef Tabib Braidwood Generating Station
John Rogenmuser Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station
Justyna Kapotec Darlington Nuclear
Mark Rooney Delta Electricity/Vales Point Power Station
Mike Peters Harris
Roy Echols Coronado Generating Station
Shayne Jones Navajo Generating Station
ix
Solly Sikwa Eskom Matla Power Station
Todd Johnson VC Summer Station
Yoga Swamy LABADIE (AmerenUE)
EPRI appreciates the following corporations for granting permission for use of the material from
their publications:
CORRPRO
Farwest Corrosion Protection
M.C. Miller Corporation
Amber Science, Inc.
NMAC was supported in preparing this document by Sargent & Lundy, LLC.
x
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1-1
1.1 Scope and Purpose of the Guide.................................................................................1-1
1.2 Organization of the Guide ............................................................................................1-3
1.3 Key Points....................................................................................................................1-3
2 CORROSION..........................................................................................................................2-1
2.1 General Corrosion .......................................................................................................2-1
2.2 Electrochemical Corrosion ...........................................................................................2-2
2.2.1 Basic Reaction ....................................................................................................2-4
2.2.2 Corrosion Initiation ..............................................................................................2-5
2.3 Electrochemical Corrosion Cells ..................................................................................2-5
2.3.1 Dissimilar Environment .......................................................................................2-6
2.3.2 Oxygen Concentration ........................................................................................2-7
2.3.3 Moist/Dry Electrolyte ...........................................................................................2-8
2.3.4 Non-Homogeneous Soils ....................................................................................2-8
2.3.5 Concrete/Soil Interface........................................................................................2-9
2.3.6 Biological Effects...............................................................................................2-10
2.3.7 Galvanic Cell Corrosion ....................................................................................2-10
2.3.8 Dissimilar Metals ...............................................................................................2-10
2.3.9 Old-to-New Syndrome.......................................................................................2-14
2.3.10 Marred or Scratched Surface.........................................................................2-15
2.3.11 Environmental Factors ...................................................................................2-16
2.3.12 Stray Current Corrosion .................................................................................2-16
2.3.13 Simultaneous Sources of Corrosion ..............................................................2-18
2.4 Rate of Corrosion.......................................................................................................2-19
2.4.1 Electrical Effects on the Rate of Corrosion .......................................................2-20
2.4.1.1 Potential Difference.....................................................................................2-20
2.4.1.2 Resistivity of the Electrolyte ........................................................................2-20
xi
2.4.1.3 Contact Resistance.....................................................................................2-20
2.4.1.4 Coating of the Structure ..............................................................................2-20
2.4.1.5 Polarization of the Structure........................................................................2-20
2.4.1.6 Amount of Current Flow ..............................................................................2-21
2.4.1.7 Surface Area Ratios....................................................................................2-21
2.4.2 Chemical Effects on the Rate of Corrosion .......................................................2-21
2.4.2.1 Temperature ...............................................................................................2-22
2.4.2.2 pH of the Electrolyte....................................................................................2-22
2.4.2.3 Ion Concentration........................................................................................2-22
2.4.2.4 Electron Concentration ...............................................................................2-23
2.5 Corrosion Prevention .................................................................................................2-23
2.5.1 Material Selection..............................................................................................2-23
2.5.2 Coatings and Liners ..........................................................................................2-23
2.5.3 Corrosion inhibitors ...........................................................................................2-24
2.5.4 Cathodic Protection (CP) ..................................................................................2-24
3 CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS ..................................................................................3-1

3.1 Sacrificial Anode System .............................................................................................3-1
3.2 Impressed Current System ..........................................................................................3-3
3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode and Impressed Current
Systems ................................................................................................................................3-6
3.4 Factors Affecting Cathodic Protection..........................................................................3-7
3.4.1 Coatings ..............................................................................................................3-7
3.4.2 Soils ..................................................................................................................3-11
3.4.3 Water Analysis ..................................................................................................3-11
3.4.4 Electrical Shielding/Interference........................................................................3-12
3.4.5 Grounding and Grounding Mats........................................................................3-12
3.4.6 Other Considerations ........................................................................................3-13
3.5 Cathodic Protection System Components .................................................................3-13
3.5.1 Anodes for Sacrificial Anode Systems ..............................................................3-13
3.5.1.1 Zinc .............................................................................................................3-14
3.5.1.2 Magnesium .................................................................................................3-15
3.5.1.3 Aluminum ....................................................................................................3-15
3.5.2 Anodes for Impressed Current Systems ...........................................................3-16
3.5.2.1 High-Silicon Cast Iron .................................................................................3-17
xii
3.5.2.2 Graphite ......................................................................................................3-17
3.5.2.3 Aluminum ....................................................................................................3-19
3.5.2.4 Platinum ......................................................................................................3-19
3.5.2.5 Lead Alloy Anodes ......................................................................................3-20
3.5.2.6 Mixed Metal Oxide ......................................................................................3-20
3.5.3 Interconnecting Cable .......................................................................................3-20
3.5.4 Power Supplies .................................................................................................3-21
3.5.4.1 Transformer ................................................................................................3-23
3.5.4.2 Rectifying Elements ....................................................................................3-24
3.5.4.3 Overload Protection ....................................................................................3-24
3.5.4.4 Meters .........................................................................................................3-24
3.5.4.5 Other Power Supplies .................................................................................3-24
3.5.5 Test Stations .....................................................................................................3-24
3.5.6 Anode Junction Box ..........................................................................................3-27
3.5.7 Reference Electrode .........................................................................................3-28
3.5.8 Connections ......................................................................................................3-29
3.6 Anode Beds ...............................................................................................................3-31
3.6.1 Local Distributed Anode Bed.............................................................................3-31
3.6.2 Deep Anode Beds .............................................................................................3-33
3.6.3 Remote Anode Bed...........................................................................................3-34
3.7 Backfill .......................................................................................................................3-35
3.8 Other Accessories .....................................................................................................3-36
3.9 Design Considerations...............................................................................................3-36
3.9.1 Electrical Isolation .............................................................................................3-38
3.9.2 Soil Resistance .................................................................................................3-39
3.9.3 Power Supply Requirement ..............................................................................3-39
3.9.4 Chloride Removal..............................................................................................3-39
3.9.5 Basic Design Procedure for Sacrificial Anode Systems....................................3-39
3.9.6 Basic Design Procedure for Impressed Current System...................................3-40
3.9.6.1 Total Current Determination........................................................................3-40
3.9.6.2 Total Resistance Determination..................................................................3-40
3.9.6.3 Rectifier Size Determination .......................................................................3-41
3.9.7 Analysis of Design Factors................................................................................3-41
3.9.8 Vulnerability to Physical Damage......................................................................3-42
xiii
4 INDUSTRY EXPERIENCE .....................................................................................................4-1
4.1 INPO EPIX Database ..................................................................................................4-1
4.1.1 Failures Due to Lack of Adequate Cathodic Protection ......................................4-1
4.1.2 Failures of the Cathodic Protection System Equipment......................................4-5
4.1.3 INPO Operating Experience..............................................................................4-10
4.1.3.1 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems .......................................4-10
4.1.3.2 Anodes........................................................................................................4-11
4.1.3.3 Coatings......................................................................................................4-12
4.1.3.4 Other Corrosion Issues ...............................................................................4-12
4.1.4 NERC/GADS Database ....................................................................................4-18
4.2 NRC Regulatory Guides ............................................................................................4-18
4.3 NRC Summary for IE Notices ....................................................................................4-18
4.4 Survey Data and Summary........................................................................................4-21
4.4.1 Plant Equipment Protected by CP System........................................................4-21
4.4.2 Design Life ........................................................................................................4-21
4.4.3 Equipment Failures ...........................................................................................4-22
4.4.4 Cathodic Protection Component Replacements ...............................................4-22
5 FAILURE MODES AND MECHANISMS ................................................................................5-1

5.1 Anodes.........................................................................................................................5-2
5.2 Anode Beds .................................................................................................................5-2
5.3 Fuse.............................................................................................................................5-2
5.4 Coating and Liner ........................................................................................................5-2
5.5 Continuity .....................................................................................................................5-3
5.6 Aging............................................................................................................................5-3
5.7 Personnel Safety .........................................................................................................5-3
5.8 Under Protection ..........................................................................................................5-3
5.9 Excessive Cathodic Protection ....................................................................................5-4
5.10 Hydrogen Generation..............................................................................................5-4
5.11 Hydrogen Embrittlement .........................................................................................5-4
5.12 Stray Currents .........................................................................................................5-4
5.13 Water Chemistry .....................................................................................................5-4
5.14 Galvanic Corrosion..................................................................................................5-5
5.15 Spalling Rebars.......................................................................................................5-5
xiv
6 TESTING AND MAINTENANCE PRACTICES ......................................................................6-1
6.1 Coating Inspection Criteria...........................................................................................6-2
6.2 Cathodic Protection Criteria .........................................................................................6-2
6.3 Test Station..................................................................................................................6-4
6.4 Close-Interval Corrosion Survey ..................................................................................6-5
6.5 Corrosion Survey (Cathodic Protection Survey) ..........................................................6-8
6.6 Impressed Current Anode Bed Survey ........................................................................6-9
6.7 Sacrificial Anode System Survey .................................................................................6-9
6.8 Use of Coupons .........................................................................................................6-10
6.9 Leak Survey ...............................................................................................................6-10
6.10 Data Collection (Parameter Monitoring)................................................................6-11
7 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE..............................................................................................7-1
7.1 Required Data..............................................................................................................7-2
7.2 Sacrificial Anode System .............................................................................................7-2
7.2.1 Requirements from NACE Standards .................................................................7-3
7.2.2 Industry Best Practices .......................................................................................7-3
7.2.2.1 Visual Inspection...........................................................................................7-3
7.2.2.2 Electrical Measurements...............................................................................7-4
7.3 Impressed Current System ..........................................................................................7-5
7.3.1 Requirements from NACE Standards .................................................................7-5
7.3.2 Industry Best Practices .......................................................................................7-6
7.3.2.1 Visual Inspection...........................................................................................7-6
7.3.3 Rectifier Inspection..............................................................................................7-8
7.3.4 Panel Inspection..................................................................................................7-9
7.3.5 Stacks .................................................................................................................7-9
7.3.6 Contacts ............................................................................................................7-10
7.3.7 Filter ..................................................................................................................7-10
7.3.8 Arc Paths...........................................................................................................7-10
7.3.9 Automatic Control Circuits.................................................................................7-10
7.4 Coupons ....................................................................................................................7-10
8 TROUBLESHOOTING ...........................................................................................................8-1
8.1 Sacrificial Cathodic Protection Troubleshooting ..........................................................8-1
8.1.1 Common Problems .............................................................................................8-1
xv
8.1.2 Lead Wire............................................................................................................8-2
8.1.3 Anode Consumption............................................................................................8-2
8.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Troubleshooting ............................................8-2
8.2.1 Initial Inspection ..................................................................................................8-3
8.2.2 Structure Isolation ...............................................................................................8-3
8.2.3 Non-Isolated Structure ........................................................................................8-4
8.2.4 Coatings ..............................................................................................................8-4
8.2.5 Outputs (Meters) .................................................................................................8-4
8.2.6 Dry Anode Bed....................................................................................................8-4
8.2.7 Anode Bed Troubleshooting................................................................................8-5
8.2.7.1 Gradual Deterioration....................................................................................8-5
8.2.7.2 Sudden Deterioration ....................................................................................8-5
8.2.8 Polarization .........................................................................................................8-5
8.2.9 Header Cable ......................................................................................................8-6
8.2.10 Structure Lead .................................................................................................8-6
8.2.10.1 Current Flow ...............................................................................................8-6
8.2.10.2 No Current Flow..........................................................................................8-6
8.2.11 Loss of Rectifier Diode.....................................................................................8-7
8.2.12 Loss of AC Power ............................................................................................8-7
8.2.13 Spurious Circuit Breaker or Fuse Operation ....................................................8-8
8.2.14 Voltage Transients...........................................................................................8-8
8.2.15 Excessive Heat ................................................................................................8-8
8.2.16 Temporary Overload ........................................................................................8-9
8.2.17 Structure Isolation............................................................................................8-9
8.2.18 Shorts or Failed Lightning Arrestor ................................................................8-10
8.2.19 Improperly Sized Fuse...................................................................................8-11
9 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................9-1
9.1 Standards ....................................................................................................................9-1
9.2 Technical References ..................................................................................................9-1
9.3 Websites ......................................................................................................................9-2
A GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................... A-1
B INDUSTRY STANDARDS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND GUIDELINES ............................ B-1

B.1 American Petroleum Institute (API)............................................................................. B-1
xvi
B.2 American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM) .......................................................... B-1
B.3 American Water Works Association (AWWA)............................................................. B-3
B.4 National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) ................................................ B-3
C TEST METHODS .................................................................................................................. C-1

C.1 Soil Analysis and Testing ....................................................................................... C-1
C.1.1 Soil Resistivity .................................................................................................... C-1
C.1.2 pH....................................................................................................................... C-1
C.1.3 Chemical Constituents ........................................................................................... C-2
C.2 Water/Liquid Analysis............................................................................................. C-2
C.2.1 pH Measurement................................................................................................ C-2
C.2.2 Resistivity Measurement .................................................................................... C-2
C.3 Potential Surveys ................................................................................................... C-2
C.4 Current Requirement Tests.................................................................................... C-2
C.5 Location of Other Structures in the Area................................................................ C-3
C.6 Soil Corrosiveness ................................................................................................. C-3
C.7 Soil Resistivity ........................................................................................................ C-4
C.7.1 Typical Resistivity Ranges ................................................................................. C-4
C.7.2 Environmental Effects ........................................................................................ C-6
C.8 Measurement of Electrolyte Resistivity .................................................................. C-7
C.8.1 Measurement of Soil Resistivity ......................................................................... C-7
C.8.2 Liquid Resistivity Measurement ....................................................................... C-10
C.9 Potential Survey ................................................................................................... C-11
C.9.1 Potential Measurements .................................................................................. C-11
C.9.2 Anode-to-Electrolyte Potential Survey ............................................................. C-13
C.10 Current Measurement .......................................................................................... C-13
C.11 Resistance Bond Check....................................................................................... C-16
C.12 Chemical Analysis of the Environment................................................................. C-16
C.13 Continuity Testing ................................................................................................ C-16
C.14 Insulation Testing ................................................................................................. C-17
C.15 Coating Conductance........................................................................................... C-18
C.16 Stray Current Measurements ............................................................................... C-19
C.17 Current Requirements.......................................................................................... C-20
xvii
D LISTING OF KEY POINTS ................................................................................................... D-1
E TRANSLATED TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. E-1

Français (French) ................................................................................................................. E-2
日本語 (Japanese) ............................................................................................................. E-15

Español (Spanish) .............................................................................................................. E-31
xviii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1 Electrochemical Corrosion Cell (Source: Draft UFC 3-570-06) ................................2-2
Figure 2-2 Concentration Cell Caused by Different Soils ..........................................................2-7
Figure 2-3 Concentration Cell Caused by Different Concentrations of Oxygen.........................2-7
Figure 2-4 Concentration Cell Caused by Different Concentrations of Water ...........................2-8
Figure 2-5 Concentration Cell Caused by Non-Homogeneous Soil...........................................2-9
Figure 2-6 Concentration Cell Caused by Concrete and Soil Electrolytes.................................2-9
Figure 2-7 Galvanic Corrosion Cell Caused By Different Metals .............................................2-11
Figure 2-8 Steel Pipe Corrosion Due to Interaction with Plant Grounding System ..................2-13
Figure 2-9 Corrosion of Steel at Soil-Concrete Interface .........................................................2-14
Figure 2-10 Galvanic Corrosion Cell Caused By Old and New Steel ......................................2-15
Figure 2-11 Galvanic Corrosion Cell Caused by Marred and Scratched Surfaces ..................2-16
Figure 2-12 Stray Current Corrosion Cell Caused By External Anode and Cathode...............2-17
Figure 2-13 Combination of Many Different Corrosion Cells at Work ......................................2-19
Figure 2-14 Effect of Electrolyte pH on the Rate of Corrosion .................................................2-22
Figure 3-1 Sacrificial Anode System..........................................................................................3-2
Figure 3-2 Typical Sacrificial Anode System Installation ...........................................................3-2
Figure 3-3 Impressed Current System .......................................................................................3-4
Figure 3-4 Typical Impressed Current System ..........................................................................3-5
Figure 3-5 Cathodic Protection of a Coated pipe.......................................................................3-8
Figure 3-6 Cathodic Protection of an Uncoated Pipe.................................................................3-9
Figure 3-7 Sacrificial Anode Installation...................................................................................3-14
Figure 3-8 Graphite Anode Installation ....................................................................................3-18
Figure 3-9 Junction Box Internal Cabling.................................................................................3-21
Figure 3-10 Typical Rectifier Arrangement ..............................................................................3-23
Figure 3-11 Flush Test Station.................................................................................................3-25
Figure 3-12 Above Grade Test Station ....................................................................................3-25
Figure 3-13 Typical Impressed Current Test Station ...............................................................3-26
Figure 3-14 Typical Flush-to-Grade Cathodic Protection Test Stations...................................3-27
Figure 3-15 Junction Box .........................................................................................................3-28
Figure 3-16 Typical Reference Electrodes...............................................................................3-29
Figure 3-17 Typical Connection of Conductor to Pipe by Welding ..........................................3-29
Figure 3-18 Connection of Conductor to Cast Iron Anode .......................................................3-30
xix
Figure 3-19 Splicing of Conductors with Thermite Welding .....................................................3-30
Figure 3-20 Local Distributed Horizontal Anode System .........................................................3-32
Figure 3-21 Local Distributed Vertical Anode System .............................................................3-33
Figure 3-22 Typical Deep Anode Bed System .........................................................................3-34
Figure 3-23 Remote Anode System.........................................................................................3-34
Figure 3-24 Anode Immersed in Bag of Backfill.......................................................................3-35
Figure 3-25 Typical Power Plant Layout of a Cathodic Protection System..............................3-37
Figure 3-26 Electrical Isolation.................................................................................................3-38
Figure C-1 Typical Variations in Soil Resistivity as a Function of Moisture, Temperature
and Salt Content ............................................................................................................... C-6
Figure C-2 Four-Pin Method for Measuring Soil Resistivity ...................................................... C-8
Figure C-3 Four-Pin Cable and Equipment for Measuring Soil Resistivity................................ C-8
Figure C-4 Soil Box for Determination of Resistivity ............................................................... C-10
Figure C-5 Liquid Conductivity Meter...................................................................................... C-10
Figure C-6 Over-the Pipe Potential Survey............................................................................. C-11
Figure C-7 Structure-to-Soil Potential Survey ......................................................................... C-12
Figure C-8 Sacrificial Anode Current Measurement ............................................................... C-15
Figure C-9 Rectifier Output Current Measurement ................................................................. C-15
Figure C-10 Ultrasonic Testing for Isolation Areas ................................................................. C-17
Figure C-11 Insulation Testers................................................................................................ C-17
Figure C-12 Coating Conductance Testing – Short Line Method ........................................... C-18
Figure C-13 Coating Conductance Testing – Long Line Method ............................................ C-19
Figure C-14 Current Requirements......................................................................................... C-20
xx
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2-1 Galvanic Series for Metals Commonly Used in Power Plants .................................2-12
Table 2-2 Weight Loss of Metals at a Current of One Ampere for One Year (1 Amp-Year) ....2-18
Table 3-1 Potential Required for Cathodic Protection................................................................3-4
Table 3-2 Cathodic Protection Current Requirements .............................................................3-10
Table 3-3 Corrosion Classification of Soil and Water ..............................................................3-11
Table 3-4 Properties of Sacrificial Anodes...............................................................................3-13
Table 3-5 Properties of Impressed Current Anodes ................................................................3-16
Table 4-1 EPIX Plant Equipment that had Corrosion Failures due the Lack of or Failure
of Cathodic Protection........................................................................................................4-3
Table 4-2 Cathodic Protection Equipment Failures ...................................................................4-6
Table 4-3 INPO Operating Experience Summary ....................................................................4-14
Table 4-4 NRC Generic Communications................................................................................4-20
Table 4-5 Percentage of Plant Equipment Protected by CP System .......................................4-21
Table 4-6 Consolidated Plant Data for Cathodic Protection System .......................................4-23
Table 5-1 Failure Modes, Mechanisms, Causes and Corrective actions ...................................5-5
Table 6-1 Methods for Evaluating In-service Field Performance of Coating..............................6-2
Table 6-2 Criteria for Cathodic Protection.................................................................................6-3
Table 6-3 Anode Voltages with respect to Cu/CuSO4 Reference Cell.......................................6-4
Table 6-4 Close Interval Survey Potential Measurement Requirements ...................................6-6
Table 6-5 Initial Cathodic Protection System Test Requirements.............................................6-7
Table 6-6 Corrosion Survey Requirements................................................................................6-8
Table 6-7 Test Locations for the Impressed Current Anode Bed Survey ..................................6-9
Table 6-8 Recommended Corrective Actions for Preventing Leaks ........................................6-10
Table 6-9 Initial Survey Data Collection...................................................................................6-11
Table 7-1 Recommended Maintenance Program for Sacrificial Anode System .......................7-5
Table 7-2 Recommended Maintenance Program for Impressed Current System ...................7-7
Table 8-1 Troubleshooting Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems .........................8-11
Table C-1 Corrosion Classification of Soil and Water ............................................................... C-3
Table C-2 Sample Form for Recording Soil Resistivity Measurements ................................... C-4
Table C-3 Resistivity Values of Earthing Medium .................................................................... C-5
Table C-4 Factors Used in Four-Pin Resistivity Measurements ............................................... C-9
Table C-5 Comparison of Reference Electrodes with a Copper Sulfate Electrode at 25ºC.... C-12
xxi
Table C-6 Current Requirements for Cathodic Protection of Bare Steel ................................ C-13
Table C-7 Current Requirements for Cathodic Protection of Coated Steel ............................ C-14
xxii
1
INTRODUCTION
The design life of the typical cathodic protection (CP) systems is 20–25 years. However at a
number of nuclear power plants, the existing CP systems have operated beyond their original
design lives. Based on the age of exiting CP systems, they may not provide the required cathodic
protection and corrosion related failures of plant components may increase with time unless
appropriate cathodic protection system preventive maintenance actions are implemented.
1.1 Scope and Purpose of the Guide
In order to plan and implement the appropriate maintenance methods to ensure adequate cathodic
protection system performance, the materials, type of cathodic protection (sacrificial anode or
impressed current), the considerations that went into making equipment selections, the pre-
testing, post-testing, and in-service testing methods should be understood, documented, and
properly applied.
A 1999 study performed by a team led by CC Technologies in collaboration with National

Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE) estimated the yearly cost of corrosion in the United
States was approximately $276 billion. EPRI estimated the cost of corrosion in the electric power
industry in 1998 to be $17 billion, representing about 7.9% of the cost of electricity to consumers
in the United States. About 22% of the corrosion costs were considered avoidable [21].
Corrosion can cause numerous problems that affect the integrity and capability of various
structures, systems, or components. For instance, piping systems can degrade and rupture as a
result of corrosion. Also, structures such as storage tanks, ships, railcars, tanker trucks, and
nuclear waste facilities-all of which store and/or transport potentially hazardous materials-can be
subject to the harmful effects of corrosion. When the structural integrity of equipment is
weakened by corrosion, system function, plant operation, personnel safety, public safety, and the
environment can be threatened.
There are four common methods used in controlling corrosion, proper material selection,
protective coatings and/or linings, corrosion inhibitors, and cathodic protection:
• Proper Material Selection refers to the selection and use of corrosion-resistant materials such
as stainless steels, plastics, and special alloys to enhance the lifespan of a structure. Some of
the most common materials used in construction, such as steel and steel reinforced concrete,
can be severely affected by corrosion.
• Coatings and linings can be any mixture of film-forming materials, solvents, and other
additives, which, when applied to a surface and cured or dried, provides a thin film that
1-1
Introduction
protects the underlying material. These substances are often applied in conjunction with
cathodic protection systems to provide the most cost-effective protection for a structure.
• Corrosion inhibitors are substances which, when added to a particular environment, decrease
the rate of attack, an environment has on a material such as metal. They can help extend the
life of equipment, prevent system shutdowns and failures, avoid product contamination,
prevent loss of heat transfer, and preserve structural finishes.
• Cathodic Protection (CP) consists of methods that use selected materials and/or application
of direct electrical current to counteract the normal external corrosion of a metallic structure,
such as water tanks and natural gas and water piping. On new structures, CP can help prevent
corrosion from evolving and for existing structures; it can slow the growth of existing
corrosion.
This guide focuses the selection, design, and maintenance of the cathodic protection (CP) system
and the components used in the cathodic protection systems. The guide provides a systematic
approach to the considerations used to determine the materials and type of cathodic protection
(sacrificial anode or impressed current) and the considerations that go into making equipment
decisions, the pre-testing, post-testing, and in-service testing of cathodic protection equipment.
In a power plant, the equipment typically protected catholically are underground pipes
(circulating water and service water intake, and discharge, cooling tower piping, off gas piping),
storage tanks (diesel fuel oil, circulating water, condensate, fire water, feedwater/demineralizer
waste products), and condenser waterboxes.
This guide provides power plant staff with information for establishing an effective maintenance
program for the cathodic protection system and components. The guide outlines the most
common failure modes, describes appropriate predictive and preventive maintenance (PdM/PM)
techniques, and provides information on the methods available to optimize service life and
minimize maintenance costs through effective preventive maintenance and condition monitoring.
Operating history, published literature, and the experience and expertise of numerous users and
manufacturers were used in preparing this guide. Data sources include the following:
• Power plant maintenance, operating, and engineering personnel
• Cathodic protection system and equipment manufacturers
• INPO databases (including NPRDS/EPIX, OEs, and SOERs)
• Results of a survey completed by power plant personnel
• EPRI and other technical publications
1-2
Introduction
1.2 Organization of the Guide
The organization of this guide is as follows:
Section 1 is an introduction and discussion of the guide’s purpose and organization.
Section 2 provides basic discussion of corrosion, corrosion mechanisms, and basic cathodic
protection theory
Section 3 provides types of cathodic protection theory, cathodic protection systems, and
description of cathodic protection system components.
Section 4 provides available data on failure trends, failure rates, and failure causes.
Section 5 provides a discussion on failure modes of cathodic protection systems and components.
Section 6 provides guidance for testing and maintenance practices.
Section 8 provides guidance for troubleshooting.
Section 7 includes preventive maintenance recommendations.
Section 9 is a list of references.
Appendix A lists a glossary of items, definitions, and acronyms used in this guide.
Appendix B lists applicable industry standards.
Appendix C discusses properties of soil and soil testing methods and their effect on cathodic
protection systems application and maintenance.
Appendix D provides a listing of the key points identified in this guide.
1.3 Key Points
Throughout this guide, key points are summarized in bold lettered boxes that succinctly restate
information covered in detail in the surrounding text, making the information easier to locate.
The primary intent of key points is to emphasize information that will allow individuals to take
action for the benefit of their plant. The information included in these key points was selected by
the EPRI Project Manager, TAG members, and the consultant that prepared this guide.
The key points are organized according to three categories: Operation and Maintenance (O&M)
Cost, Technical, and Human Performance. Each category has an identifying icon, as shown
below, to draw attention to it when quickly reviewing the guide.
1-3
Introduction
Appendix D contains a listing of all of the key points in each category. The listing restates each
key point and provides reference to its location in the body of the report. By reviewing this
listing, users of this guide can determine whether they have taken advantage of key information
that the writers of the guide believe would benefit their plants.
Key O&M Cost Point

Emphasizes information that will result in reduced purchase, operating, or
maintenance costs.
Key Technical Point

Targets information that will lead to improved equipment reliability.
Key Human Performance Point

Denotes information that requires personnel action or consideration in order
to prevent injury or damage or ease completion of the task.
1-4
2
CORROSION
Corrosion is the deterioration of a material, usually a metal, which occurs because of a reaction
with environmental and other conditions. Corrosion related damage is accelerated by factors
such as interaction with interconnected components, corrosive environmental conditions, and
stray electric currents. Over time, uncontrolled corrosion can weaken or destroy structures or
components, which could result in localized deterioration or possible structural failure.
Consideration of corrosion in the design, material selection, construction, operation and

maintenance of structures and components saves billions of dollars in repair, maintenance and
replacement costs. Controlling corrosion in the infrastructure can prevent premature failure and
lengthen useful service life, both of which save money and natural resources, promote public
safety, and protect the environment.
Key O&M Cost Point

Consideration of corrosion in the design, material selection, construction,
operation and maintenance of structures and components saves billions of
dollars in repair, maintenance and replacement costs..
Cathodic protection is an electrical method of mitigating corrosion. It is essential to understand

the corrosion process to understand how cathodic protection works in reducing or preventing
corrosion. This section briefly describes the theory behind the corrosion process and the effect of
cathodic protection on the corrosion process.
There are two basic ways corrosion can occur, general corrosion (chemical in nature) and
electrochemical corrosion.
2.1 General Corrosion
General corrosion is purely chemical in nature. General corrosion is sometimes referred to as

uniform anodic dissolving. The energy state of the metal causes this reaction. The refining and
processing of metal ores add high levels of energy to raw material to produce a metal. After high
levels of energy are added to a metal, it tends to revert to its natural state when it is exposed to
the environment (an electrolyte). The general corrosion process is extremely slow and is
dependent on the ion concentration of the electrolyte to which the structure is exposed. General
corrosion is a very mild form of corrosion and is typically uniform over the surface of an
exposed metal. General corrosion tends to slow down over time because the potential gradually
becomes lower. For example, failures of pipes or tanks do not occur quickly from this type of
2-1
Corrosion
corrosion since no pitting or penetration of the structure occurs - it only causes surface corrosion.
General corrosion can become significant only under very extreme conditions (acidic
electrolyte). For example, the corrosion rate for steel climbs drastically at a pH below 4 and at a
pH of about 3, steel will dissolve.
However, in general, metal is not completely uniform and an electrolyte is not completely
homogeneous, resulting in electrochemical corrosion cells, which greatly overshadows general
corrosion. For example, rust is a common form of corrosion and can form as a result of general
corrosion or as a result of a corrosion cell.
Key Technical Point

Rust is a common form of corrosion and can form as a result of general
corrosion or as a result of a corrosion cell.
2.2 Electrochemical Corrosion
A more aggressive form of corrosion is caused by the formation of a corrosion cell, which is an
electrochemical process. The area of higher potential (less negative) is the cathode and the area
of lower potential (more negative) is the anode. As shown in figure 2-1, every electrochemical
corrosion cell consists of an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte and a metallic path for the flow of
electrical current between the anode and cathode.
Figure 2-1
Electrochemical Corrosion Cell
(Source: Draft UFC 3-570-06)
The anode and cathode must be in an electrically conducting medium. The medium (called an
electrolyte) can be soil, water, or any other chemically suitable material. When these conditions
exist, direct current flows between the anode and the cathode. The anode loses metal ions to the
electrolyte and corrodes (or dissolves). The phenomenon is similar to that which takes place in a
standard “dry cell” battery when it generates a direct current. The anode (negative electrode),
2-2
Corrosion
cathode (positive electrode) and the electrolyte (environment), and the external circuit
connecting the anode and cathode are required for corrosion to occur.
Key Technical Point

In order for an electrochemical corrosion cell to form, there must be a
difference in potential between two different metallic structures or between
one part of a metallic structure and another.
This potential difference can be caused by many factors but commonly results from the use of
dissimilar metals, such as copper and steel. In addition, there must be a metallic path electrically
connecting the anode and the cathode.
Chemical systems tend to change so that the free energy present is minimized. Metals are
generally found in nature in an ore form with low free energy. These metal ores are chemical
compounds consisting of the metal atoms combined with other atoms such as oxygen or sulfur.
The breaking up of these ores into their metallic and non-metallic atoms involves the addition of
energy to free the metal atoms from the naturally occurring low energy content chemical
compounds. The corrosion process is driven by the tendency of these metal atoms to revert to
their natural low energy state.
Key Technical Point

Every metal immersed in an electrolyte (soil, water, or other chemically
suitable material) develops an electrochemical potential due to the free
energy of the atoms in the metal.
In order to prevent anodic reactions from occurring due to electrochemical reactions on that
metal, electrons must be prevented from leaving the metal. Electrons can only flow from an area
of high (negative) potential to an area of less (negative) potential (or from the electron point of
view from a negative to positive potential). This means that one can effectively prevent the
anodic reaction on the metal to be protected and thus prevent corrosion by connecting the metal
to be protected to a source of more negative electrons. When the more negative source is
connected to the metal, the flow of electrons is from the external source to the metal being
protected.
Cathodic protection utilizes a flow of direct current to interfere with the activity of the
electrochemical cell responsible for corrosion. Coupling a metal with a more active metal when
both are immersed in an electrolyte and connected with an external path can prevent corrosion of
the less active material. In this case the entire surface of the metal being protected becomes a
cathode; thus, the term “cathodic protection”.
Oxidation and reduction must occur together, i.e., when an atom or molecule is oxidized, another
must be reduced. When metals with different potentials are in a common electrolyte a direct
current flows between the anode and the cathode. The anode looses metal ions to the electrolyte
and corrodes.
2-3
Corrosion
To better understand the application of cathodic protection in corrosion control, the basic
chemical concepts of corrosion of metals in the presence of moisture is reviewed in this section.
2.2.1 Basic Reaction
Key Technical Point

Oxidation is the loss of electrons from an atom or molecule and as a result,
energy is released. Reduction is the gain of electrons by atoms and as a result
energy is gained. Electrons function as energy carriers.
When metals with different potentials are in a common electrolyte, a direct current flows
between the anode and the cathode and promotes corrosion of the anode.
Dissolution of metal occurs at the anode where the corrosion current enters the electrolyte and
flows to the cathode (see Figure 2-1). The general reaction that occurs at the anode is the
dissolution of the metal as ions:
M → Mn+ + en-
where:
M = metal involved
n = valence of the corroding metal
e = electrons
In this reaction, the metal atom, which in combination with the other metal atoms, forms a piece
of metal that is transformed into a metal ion that usually dissolves. This basic reaction shows that
the loss of electrons, or oxidation, occurs at the anode. Electrons lost at the anode flow through
the metallic circuit to the cathode and permit a cathodic reaction to occur.
At the cathode, chemical reduction occurs as follows:
R+ + e- —> R0
where:
R+ = positive ion in solution

e- = electron
R0 = reduced atom
The reduced atom may either be discharged as a gas or deposited on the cathode. The electrolyte
serves as a medium for the deposition of the products of the chemical reactions, and a path for
the flow of charged ions. In the electrochemical cell, a conducting path for electrons such as a
metallic connection is required so that the electrons produced at the anode can flow to the
cathode where they are absorbed.
2-4
Corrosion
In alkaline and neutral aerated soil (electrolyte), where the predominant cathodic reaction is:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e → 4(OH)
In aerated acidic conditions, the cathodic reaction is generally:
O2 + 4H+ + 4e- → 2H2O
All of these reactions involve a gain of electrons and a reduction process.
2.2.2 Corrosion Initiation
The number of electrons lost at the anode must equal the number of electrons gained at the
cathode. For example, if iron (Fe) was exposed to aerated corrosive water, the anodic reaction
would be:
Fe → Fe++ + 2e- (anodic reaction)
At the cathode, reduction of oxygen would occur:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4(OH¯ ) (cathodic reaction)
Since, there can be no net gain or loss of electrons two atoms of iron must dissolve to provide the
four electrons required at the cathode. Thus, the combined anodic and cathodic reactions would
be:
2Fe + O2 + 2H2O → 2 Fe++ + 4(OH¯)
After dissolution, ferrous ions (Fe++) generally oxidize to ferric ions (Fe+++) and these ions
combine with hydroxide ions (OH¯) formed at the cathode to give a corrosion product called rust
(FeOOH or Fe2O3 + H2O). These equations show that anodic dissolution of metal occurs
electrochemically and the insoluble corrosion products are formed by a secondary chemical
reaction.
2.3 Electrochemical Corrosion Cells
There are three types of corrosion cells that cause three general types of electrochemical
reactions depending on the cause of the potential difference between the anode and the cathode.
The causes of the potential differences for each of the reactions are:
a. environment (electrolyte)
b. differences in the metal
c. by external electrical sources of dc current
2-5
Corrosion
Understanding that there are three different electrochemical reactions will provide an
understanding of the principles of operation of cathodic protection systems.
• Concentration cell corrosion (electrochemical cell caused by differences in the environment
(electrolyte))
• Galvanic cell corrosion (electrochemical cell caused by differences in the metal)
• Stray current cell corrosion (electrochemical cell caused by external electrical sources)
A concentration corrosion cell is the result of the potential difference (electromotive force - emf)
caused by a difference in concentration of some component in the electrolyte (soil, water, etc.).
Any difference in the electrolyte that contacts the metal forms discrete anode and cathode
regions on the metal. Metal exposed to these discrete electrolyte regions has a measurable
potential or voltage difference. This potential difference causes the metal to develop anodic and
cathodic regions. When there is also a metallic path, the circuit is complete, current flows, and
electrochemical corrosion occurs.
Soil is a combination of many different materials. There are also many different types of soil,
and even the same type of soil varies greatly in the concentration of its constituents. Soil
variations cause potential differences (electromotive force) on the metal surface resulting in
electrochemical corrosion cells. Liquids tend to be more uniform, but the concentration of some
components such as oxygen and salts can vary by depth and flow rates.
In nature, biological organisms are present in virtually all aqueous environments. Biological
organisms tend to attach to and grow on the surface of structural materials, resulting in the
formation of a biological film. These biological films and the surrounding electrolyte are
different and have many adverse effects. Common forms of concentration cell corrosion are
discussed in the following paragraphs.
2.3.1 Dissimilar Environment
Pipes tend to pass through many different types of soils. The metal of the pipe exhibits different
electrical potentials in different soils. The electrical potential of the pipe surface in contact with
the soils determines which areas become anodic and which areas become cathodic. Since both
the anode and cathode are electrically continuous (the pipe serves as the metal path) and the
electrolyte is in contact with both, current flows, resulting in oxidation and reduction reactions
(protection and corrosion). The anodic area of the pipe corrodes.
Ground typically consists of horizontal layers of dissimilar soils. Pipes that go through several
layers of soil containing different materials such as rock, gravel, sand, loam, clay, or different
combinations of these materials frequently tend to be affected by this type of corrosion. Water
and oil well casings are prime examples of this type of electrochemical corrosion cell. Figure 2-2
shows the concentration cell caused by different soils.
2-6
Corrosion
Figure 2-2
Concentration Cell Caused by Different Soils
Soils have been characterized for corrosion properties into general types. Different types of soils
have different soil resistivity values. Dissimilar environment corrosion cells are generally formed
where the soil resistivity values vary greatly in relatively short distances. These types of
electrochemical corrosion cells are most serious when the anode is relatively small in area, soil
resistivity is low and the electrical potential difference is high. This causes a concentrated
corrosion of the anodized surface. Appendix C provides a discussion on soil resistivity and
corrosiveness.
2.3.2 Oxygen Concentration
Pipes or tanks exposed to an electrolyte with a low oxygen concentration as shown in Figure 2-3
are generally anodic to the same material exposed to an electrolyte with high oxygen content.
This is most severe when a pipe or tank is placed on the bottom of an excavation and backfill is
placed around the remaining part of the structure. During the excavation and backfill operation,
the backfill is exposed to oxygen. As a result, the backfill contains a relatively high amount of
oxygen compared to the undisturbed earth.
Figure 2-3
Concentration Cell Caused by Different Concentrations of Oxygen
2-7
Corrosion
2.3.3 Moist/Dry Electrolyte
Pipes or tanks that are exposed to areas of low and high water content in the electrolyte as shown
in Figure 2-4 also exhibit different potentials in these different areas. Generally, the area with
more water content becomes the anode. This is most severe when a pipe passes through a
localized wet area adjacent to dry areas or a tank is located in dry soil, but the water table in the
soil saturates the tank bottom.
Figure 2-4
Concentration Cell Caused by Different Concentrations of Water
2.3.4 Non-Homogeneous Soils
Structures that are exposed to a non-homogenous electrolyte exhibit different electrical potentials
in different components of the soil (See Figure 2-5). This can occur in any soil, which is a
mixture of materials from microscopic to substantially sized components. This is most severe
when a pipe or tank is placed in soils that have large variations in their composition, which cause
large potential differences.
The soil can become non-homogeneous by the introduction of backfill impurities. Backfill
impurities are foreign materials that are mixed into the soil during or between the excavation and
the backfill process. Backfill impurities can be any material that forms anodic or cathodic areas
on the structure. Backfill impurities can also be an isolating material that forms different
conditions in the soil, or a metallic material that actually becomes an anode or cathode when in
contact with the structure (galvanic corrosion).
2-8
Corrosion
Figure 2-5
Concentration Cell Caused by Non-Homogeneous Soil
2.3.5 Concrete/Soil Interface
Structures that are in contact with cement and are exposed to another electrolyte, such as soil,
will exhibit different potentials in each area as shown in Figure 2-6. The area not in contact with
cement becomes the anode. The structure that is in contact with concrete and soil may create a
very severe corrosion cell, because of the high potential difference of the metal in the two
different electrolytes.
Figure 2-6
Concentration Cell Caused by Concrete and Soil Electrolytes
2-9
Corrosion
2.3.6 Biological Effects
Biological organisms can cause extremely corrosive environments for metal by attaching and
growing on the surface of a metal. Most bacteria that have been implicated in corrosion grow
best at temperatures of 60ºF (15.5ºC) to 115ºF (46.1ºC). Corrosion causing bacteria are generally
classified by their oxygen requirements, which vary widely with species, and may be aerobic or
anaerobic. Their metabolism products influence the electrochemical reaction by forming
materials or films (slime) on the metal surfaces that act as a diffusion barrier, or change local
area ion concentrations and pH. Some bacteria are capable of being directly involved in the
oxidation or reduction of metal ions and can shift the chemical equilibrium that influences the
rate of corrosion. Aerobic bacteria form oxygen and chemical concentration cells, which are
capable of oxidizing ferrous ions, further accelerating corrosion. Many bacteria produce mineral
or organic acids, which may breakdown structural coatings and some of these breakdown
products are used as food, leading to accelerated corrosion. Anaerobic bacteria reduce sulfate to
sulfide and if iron is available, as black ferrous sulfide. Anaerobic bacteria cause the corrosion of
cast iron and steel, ferritic stainless steels, 300 series stainless steels (also very highly alloyed
stainless steels), copper nickel alloys, and high nickel molybdenum alloys. Anaerobic bacteria
generally require a complete absence of oxygen and a highly reduced environment to function
efficiently.
2.3.7 Galvanic Cell Corrosion
Galvanic corrosion is caused by an electrochemical corrosion cell developed by a potential

difference in the metal which makes one area of the metal an anode, and another area of the
metal a cathode. In the same electrolyte, different metals have different potentials. This potential
difference is the driving force or the voltage of the cell. As with any electrochemical corrosion
cell, if the electrolyte is continuous from the anode to the cathode and there is a metallic path
present for the electron, the circuit is completed and current will flow and electrochemical
corrosion will occur.
2.3.8 Dissimilar Metals
The most obvious form of this type of galvanic corrosion is when two different kinds of metal
are in the electrolyte and metallically bonded or shorted in some manner as shown in Figure 2-7.
2-10
Corrosion
Figure 2-7
Galvanic Corrosion Cell Caused By Different Metals
Every metal has a distinctive potential or voltage. An “active” metal is a metal with a high
negative potential, which also means it is anodic when compared to most other metals. A “noble”
metal is a metal with a low negative potential, which also means it is cathodic when compared to
most other metals. When the potential difference between the two dissimilar metals is the
greatest, metal corrosion is most severe.
A corrosion cell is established when two dissimilar metals are metallically bonded or shorted in
some manner and are in contact with a common electrolyte. Dissimilar metal corrosion is most
severe when the potential difference between the two metals i.e., driving voltage, is the greatest.
Table 2-1 is a practical galvanic series for a number of metals that are typically used in power
plants. The relative position of the metals per their electromotive force will determine which
metal will corrode relative to each other. It should be noted, the potential of metals change with
alloying.
The more negative of two dissimilar metals in a corrosion cell will become the anode and
corrode. For example, if a direct buried carbon steel pipe (voltage = -0.61 V were in contact with
carbon steel pipe encased in concrete from exiting a building (voltage = -0.35 V), the buried
carbon steel pipe would corrode.
Galvanic series tables are generally used to identify materials of widely different voltages so that
their use in combination can be avoided. If combinations of metals with widely different voltages
can not be avoided, then appropriate cathodic protection measures need to be put in place to
mitigate corrosion problems.
2-11
Corrosion
Table 2-1
Galvanic Series for Metals Commonly Used in Power Plants
(Source: EPRI Power Plant Electrical Reference Series, Volume 11)
Material Approximate
Voltage*
Magnesium -1.60 Anodic (Sacrificial)
Zinc -1.03
Cast iron -0.61
Carbon steel (direct buried) -0.61
Muntz -0.40
Naval brass -0.40
Carbon steel (encased in concrete) -0.35
Copper -0.30
90-10 copper nickel -0.28

Aluminum bronze -0.26
70-30 copper nickel -0.25
316 stainless steel -0.18

Allegheny 6X (20.3% Cr, 24.5% Ni, 6.3 MO) -0.05
Titanium 0.00
Inconel 0.03
Platinum 0.20
Graphite 0.25 Cathodic (Protected)
* Potential to a saturated calomel electrode
In a power plant, various piping, storage tanks, rebars embedded in buildings, and conduits are in
many different electrolyte environments. Plant condensers can have pit-resistant stainless steel or
titanium tubes, Muntz metal tube sheets, and carbon steel waterbox walls. The large variety of
different metals in close proximity or contact provides numerous opportunities for dissimilar
metal corrosion to occur.
Some times it is impractical or nearly impossible to avoid combinations of dissimilar metals.

These situations should be identified so that measures can be taken to reduce corrosion. One
example is when coated steel pipelines are metallically connected to bare copper grounding
systems or other copper pipelines (usually water lines). For personnel safety reasons, electrical
grounding practices typically dictate that all-metallic structures be bonded together. Buried pipes
run between and connect storage tanks and pumps together. The tanks and pumps are electrically
connected to the plant’s grounding grid, which is usually an interconnected network of buried
2-12
Corrosion
bare copper cable. Figure 2-8 provides an example of how a corrosion cell could exist between
the buried plant steel pipe and the switchyard grounding system causing the steel pipe to corrode.
Figure 2-8
Steel Pipe Corrosion Due to Interaction with Plant Grounding System
Dissimilar metal corrosion also commonly occurs when steel is encased in concrete. The steel
encased in concrete has a more positive potential (that is, appears lower in Table 2-1) than it
would have if buried in soil. This could cause problems in two areas: where a buried pipe enters
a building and where a buried pipe makes contact with reinforcing steel bars in building
foundations and underground duct banks.
Dissimilar metal corrosion of the same metal is shown in Figure 2-9 where a buried steel pipe
enters a building. The steel embedded in the concrete is cathodic with respect to the steel pipe in
the soil. The corrosion cell is created by the pipe being encased in concrete and direct buried. For
example, the galvanic potentials are approximately -0.35V and –0.61V respectively. The pipe in
the soil (-0.61) will corrode, with most corrosion occurring close to or at the soil-concrete
interface.
2-13
Corrosion
Figure 2-9
Corrosion of Steel at Soil-Concrete Interface
Rebars are susceptible to corrosion in power plants. The electromotive potential of steel rebar (-
0.35V) in concrete is approximately the same as the potential of direct-buried copper (-0.30V).
As a result, rebar has approximately the same corrosion effect on buried steel piping as the
buried copper grounding system. The large quantity of steel rebars used in power plant
foundations accelerates corrosion in piping near buildings. Pipes penetrating reinforced concrete
are often in direct mechanical contact with the rebars encased in concrete; thus electrical
continuity exists, with resulting corrosion.
Another way to get dissimilar metals is with dissimilar alloys of the same metal family such as
steels. For example, there are over 200 different alloys of stainless steel. In addition, metals are
not generally 100 percent pure. They contain small percentages of other types of metals to obtain
specific engineered properties. Different batches of a metal vary in content of these other metals.
Different manufacturers may use different raw materials and even the same manufacturer may
use raw materials from different sources. Each batch of metal, even if it is intended to be the
same, may be slightly different in electrical potential. Even in the same batch of metal, the
concentration of these other materials may vary slightly throughout the finished product. All
these differences will produce the electromotive force for corrosion to occur.
During manufacturing, small impurities may be mixed into the metal as it is produced or cooled.
Impurities left at the surface of the metal may become part of the electrolyte causing
concentration cell corrosion, or if metallic, they may be anodic (corrodes and leaves a pit
behind), or cathodic (corroding surrounding metal).
2.3.9 Old-to-New Syndrome
Old-to-new corrosion can be rather severe. The process of producing steel requires a very high
input of energy. This high level of energy input to produce new steel means new steel is more
active, than corroded steel. The potential difference between the high negative potential of the
new steel and the low negative potential of the old steel is the driving force, or voltage, of this
2-14
Corrosion
electrochemical corrosion cell as shown in Figure 2-10. A common example of this type of
corrosion is when an old bare steel pipe fails, and a small section of the old steel pipe is replaced
with a new steel pipe. Because of the large negative potential relative to the old corroded steel,
the new section becomes the anode and corrodes to protect the large cathode, resulting in failure
of the new section of pipe.
Figure 2-10
Galvanic Corrosion Cell Caused By Old and New Steel
2.3.10 Marred or Scratched Surface
A marred or scratched surface becomes anodic to the surrounding metallic surface. This is
similar to the Old-to-new syndrome, where new steel is anodic to the old steel. An
electrochemical corrosion cell is caused by the potential difference between the scratched surface
exposing new material and the remaining surface of the structure. Some of the examples of this
type of electrochemical corrosion cell are threaded pipe, bolts, and marks from tools. Corrosion
in these areas is caused by pipe wrenches and other tools, and marks from shovels and backhoes
are common examples of this type of electrochemical corrosion cell. This situation is further
aggravated because the metal thickness is also reduced in these areas (see Figure 2-11).
2-15
Corrosion
Figure 2-11
Galvanic Corrosion Cell Caused by Marred and Scratched Surfaces
2.3.11 Environmental Factors
Environmental factors such as physical stresses or elevated temperatures increase corrosion.

Metals under stress become anodic to metals that are not under stress. Common examples
causing metal to be stressed are bolts, bends, structural or mechanical stresses, and soil
movement. These situations result in the metal shearing or cracking from the stress long before
corrosion has penetrated the entire thickness of the structure. Metal at an elevated temperature
becomes anodic to the same metal at a lower temperature. As previously discussed, a more active
metal is anodic to a more noble metal. Since elevated temperature makes a metal more active, it
becomes anodic to the rest of the metal. This electrochemical corrosion cell may cause
accelerated corrosion on metals that are at elevated temperatures.
2.3.12 Stray Current Corrosion
Stray current corrosion occurs where the current from the external source leaves the metal
structure and enters back into the electrolyte, normally near an external power source. The
external power source is the driving force, or the voltage, of the cell. Stray current corrosion is
different from natural corrosion because it is caused by an externally induced electrical current
and is basically independent of such environmental factors as concentration cells, resistivity, pH
and galvanic cells.
A corrosion cell can be established when an external electrical source causes a current flow in
the electrolyte. This stray current can be from a grounded dc system, a welding machine, or a
cathodic protection system on a nearby structure. Generally, the most significant adverse stray
current effect in a power plant occurs when a cathodic protection system is installed on a
structure adjacent to an electrically isolated structure (See Figure 2-12). Because the isolated
structure is not electrically connected to the cathodic protection system and is located within the
voltage gradient of the system, cathodic protection current is picked up and discharged from the
isolated structure. Where the current is discharged, corrosion occurs. The potential gradient in
2-16
Corrosion
the electrolyte forces one part of the structure to pick up current (become a cathode) and another
part of the structure to discharge current (become an anode).
The external power source is the driving force, or the voltage, of the cell. The amount of current
(and hence, corrosion) depends on the external power source, and the resistance of the path
through the metallic structure compared to the resistance of the path between the external
source’s anode and cathode.
Figure 2-12
Stray Current Corrosion Cell Caused By External Anode and Cathode
This type of corrosion can be extremely severe because of very high voltages, which can be
forced into the earth by various sources. The metallic structure becomes an anode and the
amount of current translates directly into metal loss. If the amount of current leaving a structure
to enter the electrolyte can be measured, this can be directly translated into metallic weight loss.
Different metals have specific amounts of weight loss when exposed to current discharge. This
weight loss is normally measured in pounds (or kilograms) of metal lost due to a current of one
amp for a period of one year (one amp-year). For example, if a stray current of just two amps
was present on a steel pipe, the result would be a loss of 40.2 pounds (18.2 kilograms) of steel in
one year. For a coated pipe, this could result in a penetration at a defect in the coating in an
extremely short period of time, sometimes only a few days. Table 2-2 provides consumption
rates for various metals. Large stray currents usually require special analysis and corrective
measures.
Key Technical Point

Different metals have specific amounts of weight loss when exposed to
current discharge. This weight loss is normally measured in pounds (or
kilograms) of metal lost due to a current of one amp for a period of one year
(one amp-year).
2-17
Corrosion
Table 2-2
Weight Loss of Metals at a Current of One Ampere for One Year (1 Amp-Year)
Weight Loss Weight Loss

Metal (Ion)
(Kilograms) (Pounds)
Cadmium 18.39 40.5
Carbon (C+) 1.91 4.2
Carbon (C++++) 1.00 2.2
Chromium 5.65 12.5
Cobalt 9.63 21.2
Copper (Cu+) 20.77 45.6
Copper (Cu++) 10.39 22.8
Iron (Fe++) 9.13 20.1
Lead (Pb++) 33.87 74.5
Magnesium 4.00 8.8
Aluminum 2.95 6.5
Nickel 9.58 21.1
Silver 35.2 77.6
Tin 19.39 42.7
Zinc (Zn++) 10.66 23.6
2.3.13 Simultaneous Sources of Corrosion
Each of the above types of electrochemical corrosion cells may cause significant corrosion, but
in many cases a combination of different types of corrosion simultaneously work to make
corrosive situations even worse on the metal surface (see Figure 2-10). Understanding the actual
cause of corrosion is of utmost importance in maintaining a submerged or buried metallic
structure, such as a pipe or storage tank.
When corrosion is noted, or when a leak occurs due to corrosion, it is essential that the cause(s)
of the corrosion be identified so that the appropriate corrective action can be taken. Once the
types of corrosion are understood, the method of repairing can be determined and future leaks
can be prevented. In many cases, the location of the anodic area can be predicted by
understanding the process of corrosion. These anodic areas tend to be in the worst possible
places such as pipes entering pits or foundations, pipes under stress, or pipes at elevated
temperatures.
2-18
Corrosion
Key Technical Point

When corrosion is noted, or when a leak occurs due to corrosion, it is
essential that the cause(s) of the corrosion be identified so that the
appropriate corrective action can be taken.
In a majority of leak situations, the primary concern is to patch the hole in the pipe or tank.
Without an understanding of corrosion mechanism and corrosion control, a bad situation can be
made even worse. Even considering the criticality of stopping a gushing leak, it is imperative to
fix the cause of the leak. This means taking action to identify and mitigate the cause of the leak.
In some situations it may be a failed insulator or broken bond wire which actually caused the
leak. Probably the most common causes of corrosion leaks are the methods or materials used
from previous leak repairs, breaking or shorting the continuity. An example of many types of
corrosion at work simultaneously can be demonstrated by the Figure 2-13, which shows most of
the different types of corrosion discussed.
Figure 2-13
Combination of Many Different Corrosion Cells at Work
2.4 Rate of Corrosion
Most corrosion is an electrochemical reaction. Anything that affects the speed of the chemical
reaction will in turn affect the amount of current flow, which will affect the rate of corrosion.
The rate of corrosion is directly proportional to the amount of current in the electrochemical
corrosion cell. If the current can be measured accurately, then an exact calculation of the metal
loss can be made. This means that a measurement in amps or milliamps can be mathematically
translated into pounds (kilograms) of material consumed per amp year. One amp year is one amp
flowing for a period of one year. Different metals have different consumption rates (see Table
2-2).
2-19
Corrosion
2.4.1 Electrical Effects on the Rate of Corrosion
Any factor that affects the amount of current flowing in a circuit will affect the rate of the
electrochemical reaction (corrosion). Ohm’s law applies to these electrical circuits. The law
states that the direct current flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the potential difference
between its ends. It is usually formulated as V = IR, where V is the potential difference, or
voltage, I is the current, and R is the equivalent resistance of the circuit. The following
paragraphs provide a descriptions and examples of the factors affecting the rate of the electrical
portion of corrosion.
2.4.1.1 Potential Difference
The potential difference between the anode and the cathode is an electromotive force and can be
measured as voltage—The greater this potential difference, or voltage, the greater the potential
of corrosion. Per Ohm’s law (V=IR), the voltage is directly proportional to the current, and
therefore the corrosion, in an electrochemical cell. If the voltage is doubled, and the electrolyte
resistance remains the same, the amount of corrosion doubles.
2.4.1.2 Resistivity of the Electrolyte
A significant factor in determining the rate of corrosion is the resistivity of the electrolyte. The
electrolyte resistivity is a property of the electrolyte (the soil or water). The definition of an
electrolyte is a material that will allow ions to migrate, and the resistivity of the electrolyte is the
rate at which it allows ions to migrate at a given potential. Current is inversely proportional to
resistivity (V/R=I) and therefore, in an electrochemical cell. If the resistivity is doubled, and all
other factors remain the same, the amount of corrosion is cut in half.
2.4.1.3 Contact Resistance
The contact resistance of the anode to electrolyte and of the cathode to electrolyte is a component
of the overall corrosion cell resistivity—the lower the contact resistance, the greater the
corrosion current. As the contact resistance increases, the corrosion cell current will decrease.
The decrease will be in relation to the sum of the total resistance of the circuit. That is, the
resistance of the electrolyte plus the contact resistance.
2.4.1.4 Coating of the Structure
Coating of the structure normally raises the contact resistance of the anode and the cathode since
most coatings have a high dielectric (non-conductive) property.
2.4.1.5 Polarization of the Structure
The change of the electrode potential as a result of the electrochemical current flow is call called
polarization. Polarization usually results in the formation of a film on the cathode electrode
2-20
Corrosion
surface called a “polarization film.” This polarization film consists partly of a thin film of
hydrogen. The polarization film and other changes resulting from current flow have beneficial
effects at the cathode. The layer of hydrogen acts as an additional coating. Other beneficial
changes are water is driven away from the surface of the cathode, ion concentration in the
electrolyte is reduced, the contact resistance of the electrode to electrolyte is raised, and
essentially, corrosion cell current is reduced to a fraction of its previous value.
2.4.1.6 Amount of Current Flow
The amount of current flow in the corrosion cell directly influences the rate of corrosion. The
amount of current flow is determined by the activity of the metal as given in Table 2-1. The
amount of metal associated with the transfer of a specific amount of electrons is expressed as
pounds per ampere-year as given in Table 2-2. Table 2-2 provides a basis for estimating the
amount of anode metal that will be dissolved in a given time.
2.4.1.7 Surface Area Ratios
How rapid the anode corrodes is dependent on the relative size of the anodic and cathodic areas.
The same dissimilar metal combination can result in a very rapid rate of corrosion when the
anodic area is very small compared to a large cathodic area. If the anode is much smaller than the
cathode, the corrosion current per unit area is relatively high and the anode corrodes rapidly.
Under this circumstance the corrosion is concentrated and generally becomes more severe for the
limited anodic areas. However, if the area of the anode is larger compared to the area of the
cathode, corrosion current per unit area is relatively small over the entire surface and the anode
corrodes slowly.
The effect of the surface area ratio can be especially pronounced on coated structures. Small
coating defects or voids, commonly called holidays, can result in accelerated corrosion of the
metal exposed to the electrolyte. The corrosion current concentrates at the holidays and corrosion
is more rapid than it would be on an uncoated structure.
Under stray current conditions, this size relationship can be extremely critical. The discharge
current density from the pipe under stray current conditions can be extremely high, resulting in
failure of the pipe in an extremely short period of time.
2.4.2 Chemical Effects on the Rate of Corrosion
Any factor, which affects the speed of a chemical reaction, will affect the rate of the chemical
portion of the electrochemical reaction (corrosion). Following is a description and example of the
factors affecting the rate of the chemical portion of corrosion.
2-21
Corrosion
2.4.2.1 Temperature
Temperature is a complex external variable to the electrochemical corrosion cell. A more active
metal is anodic to a more noble metal. Metal at an elevated temperature becomes anodic to the
same metal at a lower temperature. Generally, as temperature increases, corrosion increases.
However, this depends on the availability of oxygen. The corrosion rate of iron in a system
closed to the atmosphere has been shown to increase almost linearly with temperature from about
105ºF to 320ºF (40ºC to 160ºC). However, in an open system, the corrosion rate increases up to
about 175ºF (80ºC) and then decreases. Since elevated temperature makes a metal more active, it
becomes anodic to the rest of the metal. Thus an electrochemical corrosion cell may cause
accelerated corrosion on metals, which are at elevated temperatures.
2.4.2.2 pH of the Electrolyte
The pH of the electrolyte in an electrochemical corrosion cell affects the rate of the corrosion by
speeding up or slowing down the chemical reactions at the anode and/or the cathode. The pH of
an electrolyte is basically the concentration of hydrogen ions. A pH below 4 increases the
corrosion rate of mild steel. At a pH of 3 the corrosion rate increases tremendously. Metals
having the capacity to react as either an acid or a base, known as amphoteric metals, also show
an increase in the corrosion rate in alkaline environments. Aluminum and lead are examples of
amphoteric metals.
Figure 2-14
Effect of Electrolyte pH on the Rate of Corrosion
2.4.2.3 Ion Concentration
For some metals, ion concentration has an effect similar to pH. For example, aluminum corrodes
not only by alkalis, but shows pronounced attack by traces of copper ions in aqueous media and
is subject to rapid attack by mercury metal, mercury ions, and anhydrous chlorinated solvents.
Iron is subject to attack by chloride and chloride ions, which may increase the corrosion rate in
2-22
Corrosion
some electrolytes; however, bromide and iodide ions may slow down (inhibit) the rate of
corrosion. The effect of concentration of one ion on corrosion is dependent on other
environmental variables present in the electrolyte, such as the presence of salts, availability of
oxygen, and differences in oxygen solubility, pH, and temperature.
2.4.2.4 Electron Concentration
Saturation of electrolyte by high concentrations of free electrons around the cathode can inhibit
corrosion due to the maximum ion migration rate through the electrolyte environment.
Conversely, very low concentrations of free electrons in the electrolyte around the cathode could
increase the corrosion rate because of nature establishing chemical equilibrium, where the
electrons readily migrate into the environment.
2.5 Corrosion Prevention
Corrosion can be prevented using one or a combination of methods. Corrosion is a common

phenomenon and affects most materials and material combinations. There are four general
methods available to limit corrosion.
2.5.1 Material Selection
Selecting the right materials is crucial first step for corrosion prevention. Some of metals, such as
aluminum when exposed to air, form protective oxide layers and stops corrosion.
Where possible, materials such as stainless steels, plastics, and special alloys should be selected
to enhance the life span of a structure. Selecting the metals that are close together in the galvanic
series reduces corrosion.
Alloying may provide better corrosion resistance, for example stainless steel, where the stainless
steel is protected by a thin film of chromium sesquioxide, Cr2O3.
2.5.2 Coatings and Liners
Coating surfaces is the most widely used method for protecting the surfaces. However, coatings
are often applied in conjunction with cathodic protection systems to provide the most cost-
effective protection for a structure. Coatings protect metals from corrosion by providing a
barrier.
The electrical contact between metals can also be broken by using insulators such as plastic
washers and plastic bolts. In case of stray current, insulating the structure from source current
reduces corrosion.
2-23
Corrosion
2.5.3 Corrosion inhibitors
Corrosion inhibitors are chemical additives which, when added to a corrosive environment,
decrease the rate of attack. The inhibitors can help extend the life of equipment, prevent system
shutdowns and failures, avoid product contamination, prevent loss of heat transfer, and preserve
structural finishes. By carefully controlling the chemistry of the fluids with the addition of
corrosion inhibitors, the life of the component is extended.
Cathodic inhibitors are used to reduce oxygen in liquids such as water by using strong reducing
agents. Other cathodic inhibitors are used to reduce available area for cathodic reaction such as
using insoluble coatings on the cathodic sites.
Anodic inhibitors such as orthophosphates, nitrites, ferrycyanide, and silicates are used to block
anodic areas. If the entire anodic areas are not blocked, localized corrosion becomes a very
serious problem. Therefore, extreme caution should be exercised in using anodic inhibitors.
Adsorption corrosion inhibitors form films that block the surface from corrosion or by retarding
the electrochemical process.
Key Technical Point

Corrosion inhibitors are also known as passivators.
2.5.4 Cathodic Protection (CP)
Cathodic Protection consists of deliberate methods which uses selected materials and/or
application of direct electrical current to counteract the normal corrosion of a structure that
contains metal, such as an underground petroleum storage tank or natural gas pipeline. The
fundamental principle of cathodic protection is the application of a counter potential to prevent
the electrochemical interchange of ions, which occurs in corrosion. On new structures, CP can
help prevent corrosion from evolving and for existing structures; it can slow the growth of
existing corrosion.
Key Technical Point

Cathodic protection can limit the evolution of corrosion or new structures
and slow the growth of corrosion on existing structures.
2-24
3
CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS
The basic two methods of cathodic protection are the sacrificial anode system, which is a passive
system and impressed current system, which is an active system. The sacrificial anode system
takes advantage of the natural potential difference between dissimilar metals.
Corrosion can be prevented by coupling a metal with a more active metal when both are
immersed in an electrolyte and connected with an external metallic path (sacrificial anode) or by
having a source of direct current electricity to interfere with the activity of the electrochemical
cell responsible for corrosion (impressed current). The metal being protected becomes a cathode,
and hence, the name cathodic protection.
Cathodic protection whether using an impressed current method or the sacrificial anode method
is essentially the same from the standpoint of the structure being protected. Both cathodic
protection systems supply high-energy electrons to the structure being protected and the circuit
of the electrochemical cell is completed through the soil. These two systems are described in the
following sections.
3.1 Sacrificial Anode System
The corrosion of an active metal such as magnesium or zinc generates the high potential
electrons needed for protection. In this system, the anode material is consumed, or sacrificed in
the process, and the anodes must be periodically replaced to maintain continuous protection. The
anodes are designed with sufficient anode material that the anode replacement interval is set at
an economic desired number of years. For buried systems, common practice is to design the
system for a 10- to 15-year anode life. For systems where anode replacement is difficult
(expensive), longer (20- to 30-year) anode life is often used as design criteria. Figure 3-1 shows
the working of a sacrificial anode system.
3-1
Cathodic Protection Systems
Figure 3-1
Sacrificial Anode System
(Source: [27])
The structure-to-electrolyte potentials required for protection with a sacrificial anode cathodic
protection system are identical to those for impressed current cathodic protection systems. Due to
the limited driving potential of sacrificial anodes, they must be located close to the structure
being protected. Figure 3-2 shows a typical sacrificial anode system.
Figure 3-2
Typical Sacrificial Anode System Installation
(Source: US Army Center for Public Works Technical Bulletin 420-49-29)
3-2
For the protection of underground structures such as pipelines, the anodes are not usually
attached directly to the structure, but are placed in the soil, evenly distributed a short distance
from the pipeline and connected to the pipeline by a wire, usually through a test station.
The application of galvanic anodes is limited by the small potential difference (normally less
than 1 Volt dc) that can be obtained. Galvanic systems can only be economically used on small
or well-coated structures in low-resistivity electrolytes. Since the amount of cathodic protection
depends on the current density supplied to the protected structure, the electrolyte resistivity
determines the amount of current that the limited voltage will supply and the amount of metal
exposed to the electrolyte determines the amount of current required. Uncoated structures may
require an exorbitant number of anodes for adequate protection. In higher resistivity electrolytes,
the small anode-structure voltage difference would yield (via Ohms law) an extremely small
amount of anode current, hence requiring a large number of anodes. High purity magnesium
anodes have the highest potential available, but in high resistivity soil, there would not be
sufficient current to protect a structure unless it had an extremely good coating.
Key O&M Cost Point

Uncoated structures may require an exorbitant number of anodes for
adequate protection.
The sacrificial anode system consists of the following components:

• Sacrificial anode
• Anode bed/backfill
• Interconnecting cable
• Test station
• Reference electrode
3.2 Impressed Current System
In an impressed current system, an external supply of direct electrical current is used to develop
the potential difference between the anode and the structure being protected. This external
current is supplied by a rectifier or other external dc power source instead of the potential
difference of the anode with respect to the structure being protected. Table 3-1 provides the
potential required for cathodic protection of various metals using an impressed current system.
3-3
Table 3-1
Potential Required for Cathodic Protection
(Reference: National Physical Laboratory (UK) Life Time Management of Materials,
Cathodic Protection Practise by F.E. Francis)
Metal Potential (Cu/CuSO4)
Steel -850mV
Steel (Sulphate Reducing Bacteria) -950 mV
Copper Alloys -500 to -650 mV
Lead -600 mV
Aluminum -950 to -1200 mV
Figure 3-3 shows a typical impressed current system.
Figure 3-3
Impressed Current System
(Courtesy of West Cost Corrosion Prevention, Ltd.)
The external current is injected into the soil (or electrolyte) via engineered anodes. The anodes of
an impressed current system provide the means for the protective current to enter the electrolyte
and anode consumption is not the primary mechanism for generating the protective current.
Materials such as graphite, high silicon cast iron, platinum, or mixed metal oxide are used as
anodes because they have a very low loss of weight per ampere-year. Voltages of up to 100V and
high current densities can be used. Therefore, large areas of structures can be protected by a
single anode and due to the high driving voltages the anode can be located remotely from the
structure being protected. Figure 3-4 shows a typical impressed current system.
3-4
Key O&M Cost Point

Materials such as graphite, high silicon cast iron, platinum, or mixed metal
oxide are used as anodes because they have a very low loss of weight per
ampere-year.
Figure 3-4
Typical Impressed Current System
(Source: Army Corp of Engineers, Construction Research Laboratory)
A typical impressed system consists of the following components:

• Relatively inert anode
• Transformer (where needed)
• dc power source (rectifier, batteries, etc.)
• Inter connecting cables
• Control panel
• Circuit breaker
• Fuses
3-5
• Meters (current, voltage)

• Test station
• Anode junction box
3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Sacrificial Anode and Impressed

Current Systems
The primary advantage of sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems over impressed current
cathodic protection systems is their simplicity. The simplest sacrificial anode system consists of
an anode fabricated from an active metal such as zinc, which is directly connected to the
structure in an area where it is exposed to the same environment as the structure being protected.
Sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems have fewer critical components requiring routine
maintenance such as, rectifiers, as compared to impressed current systems. Another advantage of
sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems is the nearly zero probability that interference
problems will be created when this type of system is used.
Sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems are also in some cases less costly to install and
maintain than impressed current cathodic protection systems. This is particularly true for systems
with small protective current requirements (0.5 A or less per 100 linear feet of structure). There
are no added costs (such as costs associated with furnishing power at a remote site) associated
with sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems.
The primary disadvantages of sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems are associated with
the limited driving potential between the structure and the anode. The limited driving potential
means the current output of the anode will be limited and therefore, the metal area that can be
protected using a single anode is restricted. In addition, higher resistivity of soil provides
additional limits to the area of protection by a single anode. Therefore, to protect the same metal
area, a large number of sacrificial anodes are required compared to the impressed current system.
A sacrificial anode system for a buried metallic piping system in a power plant becomes
unrealistic. Anode consumption is also inherent in sacrificial anode systems and economic
allowances for periodic anode replacement must be made.
Key O&M Cost Point

A sacrificial anode system for a buried metallic piping system in a power
plant becomes unrealistic. Anode consumption is also inherent in sacrificial
anode systems and economic allowances for periodic anode replacement
must be made.
3-6
3.4 Factors Affecting Cathodic Protection
The factors that affect the cathodic protection requirements are as follows:
• Coatings
• Soils
• Electrical shielding/interference
• Grounding and grounding mats
3.4.1 Coatings
Most coatings slowdown or stop the flow of electrons by forming a dielectric (electrical
insulation) barrier that is relatively impermeable to moisture and electrolytes (e.g., salts) and thus
slow the ion migration at the anode and at the cathode. Slowing the migration rate corresponds to
slowing the corrosion rate. The coatings when applied to a surface and cured or dried, yields a
thin film that is functional for protecting the underlying material. A strong adherent coating of
high resistance will prevent even minute amount of corrosion. The coating efficiency is the
percent of the structure that is effectively isolated from the electrolyte. For coated structures, the
amount of current required can be much lower than for bare structures, as only those areas where
the coating has a void (holiday) due to damaged, deterioration, or inadequate installation require
or will receive current. Therefore, (in conjunction with cathodic protection systems) coatings are
often used to protect structures or components.
Key Technical Point

Coatings are often used to protect structures or components in conjunction
with cathodic protection systems.
Figure 3-5 (a coated pipe) with Figure 3-6 (a pipe with cathodic protection of a bare structure)
shows the difference in the current or electron flows.
3-7
Figure 3-5
Cathodic Protection of a Coated pipe
3-8
Figure 3-6
Cathodic Protection of an Uncoated Pipe
In Figures 3-5 and 3-6, current flows to all areas of the pipe where metal is in direct contact with
the electrolyte. Because no coating material is a perfect insulator, a small current also flows
through the coating itself. However, when coating materials with high electrical resistance are
used, the current passing through the coating will be negligible compared to the current flowing
through the defects in the coating or the current flowing to the bare pipe.
Table 3-2 illustrates how a coating can reduce the current requirements for cathodic protection of
a structure and provides a comparison of the cathodic protection requirements for uncoated pipe
with those for coated pipe at various effective coating resistances. The table shows that a bare
structure requires hundreds of times as much current as the same structure with a superior
coating. It should be noted that efficiencies of coatings can vary greatly due to the type of
coating, quality of surface preparation, quality of application, structure handling, structure
installation, backfill techniques, and backfill material used and that Table 3-2 is a typical
example. Current requirements for coated structures are best determined by actual testing after
the structure is installed.
3-9
Table 3-2
Cathodic Protection Current Requirements
Ratio of Current Required for a

Effective Coating Resistance, Ω/ft2
Coated Structure to Current Required
(Ω/m2)
for an Uncoated Structure
Uncoated Pipe 1
10,000 (929) 0.030
25,000 (2323) 0.012
50,000 (4645) 0.006
100,000 (9290) 0.003
Under some conditions, it is possible to apply excessive amounts of current to a coated structure
and damage the coating. When cathodic protection potentials are substantially greater than
minimum protection requirements (above –1.050 Volts relative to a permanent copper-copper
sulfate reference electrode), free hydrogen in the form of hydrogen gas bubbles develops on
exposed metal surfaces at coating defects. This situation can cause blistering of the coating and
coating deterioration resulting in coating breaks. Breaks in the insulation can sequentially permit
electrolyte to fill the gap between the coating and the metal, as the coating is an electrical
insulator, sufficient current for effective cathodic protection cannot reach the affected area and
corrosion will occur. It is important that the limitations of the individual coatings used to prevent
or slow corrosion should be understood.

Under some conditions, it is possible to apply excessive amounts of current
to a coated structure and damage the coating.
Coatings can be any mixture of impermeable film-forming materials. The coating may be
another metal such as zinc or tin coating on steel, a protective coating derived from the metal
itself, or organic coatings such as resins, plastics, paints, enamel, oils and grease. Zinc coating on
iron or steel provides cathodic protection by forming a corrosion resistant barrier. Linings can be
made of rubber or plastic.
Some pigments are used in primers for metals to inhibit the corrosion reaction at the
metal/primer interface. Examples of the pigments are zinc oxide, zinc phosphate, zinc
molybdate, calcium borosilicate, calcium phosphosilicate, and barium metaborate.
Some coatings such as zinc silicate have a high concentration of fine zinc particles to provide
cathodic protection to steel surfaces. They convert anodic areas on the steel to cathodic areas and
thus provide a very good protection from corrosion. The zinc particles must be in electrical
contact with each other. As the zinc corrosion products fill the natural film porosity, they begin
to provide barrier protection. An example of zinc coatings is zinc silicate. Some examples of
coatings on steel are galvanizing, zinc coating, and aluminum.
3-10
When coatings are first applied, they contain flaws and additional defects may develop over
time. By employing coatings and cathodic protection, the advantages of each method are
employed. The bulk of protection is provided by the coatings and cathodic protection provides
protection to the flawed areas. As the coating degrades over time, the cathodic protection system
protects the flawed areas in the coating.
3.4.2 Soils
The rate of corrosion depends on the type of soil and the type of underground structures. No
single index of soils has been devised, but the characteristics of non-corrosive soil are: high pH,
low moisture content, sandy structure, little organic matter, light color, high oxygen content, and
low temperature. In contrast, corrosive soils are generally acidic, contain substantial amount of
moisture, clay and organic material, dark in color, hold little oxygen, and are higher
temperatures. High resistivity soils reduce corrosion currents and thereby reduce corrosion rates.
Table 3-3 gives the relative classification of the corrosive nature of the soils as a function of their
electrical resistivity.
Table 3-3
Corrosion Classification of Soil and Water
Resistivity (Ω cm) Corrosion Classification
0-1000 Extremely corrosive
1000-2000 Very corrosive
2000-10,000 Corrosive
Greater than 10,000 Progressively less corrosive
A soil resistivity survey is typically conducted prior to the beginning of construction at the site so
the data can be used in determining the soil resistivity and to determine any interference from
buried structures.
Key Technical Point

A soil resistivity survey is typically conducted prior to the beginning of
construction at the site so the data can be used in determining the soil
resistivity and to determine any interference from buried structures.
3.4.3 Water Analysis
Water analysis is important in determining the corrosion properties of submerged structures such
as process exchangers and intake structures. This analysis should include resistivity or
conductivity, pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), sulfates and chloride concentration. Chloride
concentration can result in closed systems with recirculating water.
3-11
3.4.4 Electrical Shielding/Interference
In an impressed current system, electrical shielding/interference occurs when a secondary

structure located in the vicinity of the cathodic protection system interferes with the expected
distribution of current to the cathodically protected structure. The secondary structure provides
an alternate low-resistance path. Stray currents from poorly insulated dc systems near the station
can follow the plant underground system as a low resistance path.
Interference may be minimized by careful design of the cathodic protection system, by operating
at the lowest possible current density, and maintaining greatest possible separation between the
structure to be protected and the secondary structure and between the ground beds or anodes and
the secondary structure.
3.4.5 Grounding and Grounding Mats
The cathodic protection of power grounds is substantially different than the cathodic protection
of other structures such as pipelines. A careful choice of the grounding system materials should
be made to minimize the possibility of bimetallic corrosion between the underground structures
and grounding system. In power plants extensive grounding system is normally required to carry
large fault currents. These fault currents have to be carried by the grounding system and
dissipated to the ground without endangering personnel. Therefore, the grounds should be of low
resistance and low reactance. Since the potential of lead covered copper ground cable is less
negative than the potential of bare copper ground cable, the corrosion currents flowing from the
grounding cables to the buried steel piping will be greatly reduced when lead covered copper
ground cable is used. Therefore, where practical, bare lead-covered copper ground cable and
stainless steel ground rods should be used instead of bare copper and copper weld ground rods.
Copper ground rods or copper wire in excess of that needed for grounding is a waste of material
as well as increases corrosion of the structures to be protected. It makes cathodic protection more
expensive.
Key Technical Point

Therefore, where practical, bare lead-covered copper ground cable and
stainless steel ground rods should be used instead of bare copper and copper
weld ground rods.
In addition, if an impressed current cathodic protection system is used, the rectifiers need to be
protected from the heavy currents that can result under fault conditions. Alternatively, a
sacrificial anode cathodic protection can be used, where the anodes besides providing cathodic
protection can provide grounding. Another alternative is to provide a means to bypass the fault
currents around the rectifier.
3-12
3.4.6 Other Considerations
In designing cathodic protection systems, consideration must be given to spark hazards created
by the introduction of electric currents into structures situated in a hazardous atmosphere.
Even though cathodic protection can be applied to any metallic structure in contact with soil or
water, it is mainly used to protect steel structures.
3.5 Cathodic Protection System Components
The cathodic protection components that are required for a cathodic protection system are
described below.
3.5.1 Anodes for Sacrificial Anode Systems
The galvanic series (electrochemical activity) for metals commonly used in power plants is given
in Table 2-1. Based on their galvanic activities and other properties and cost, appropriate
material is selected for the two cathodic protection systems, sacrificial anode system and
impressed current system. Anodes for both these systems are discussed below. Active metals
such as zinc, aluminum, and magnesium, are used as sacrificial anodes. These active metals,
when interconnected with iron or steel in an electrochemical cell, provide the required protective
current. The sacrificial anode is consumed at a rate proportional to the current delivered plus any
localized corrosion action.
The chemical makeup of the anode material determines the efficiency of the sacrificial cathodic
protection system. An anode material that is more positive to the structure that requires cathodic
protection will provide a more efficient protection. Table 3-4 provides the properties of
sacrificial anodes.
Table 3-4
Properties of Sacrificial Anodes
Anode Density, lb/in3 *Potential Volts, *Ampere-hrs per lb Typical Anode

Material (g/cm3) Cu/CuSO4 (Ampere-hrs per kg) Current Density,
A/ft2(A/m2)
Zn 0.2565 (7.1) -1.10 335-354 (738-780) 0.04645
(0.5-2)
Al 0.097544 (2.7) -1.10 to -1.15 1040-1290 (2293-2843) 0.05574-0.2323
(0.6-2.5)
Mg 0.061416 (1.7) -1.4 to -1.8 250-580 (551-1279) 0.139-0.52
(1.5-5.6)
*(Reference 19)
3-13
The materials used for sacrificial anodes are either relatively pure active metals such as zinc,
magnesium, or aluminum or their alloys that have been specifically developed for use as
sacrificial anodes. The selection of a particular anode metal largely depends on the required
voltage and resistivity of the electrolytic environment. Figure 3-7 is a typical example of
sacrificial anode installation.
Figure 3-7
Sacrificial Anode Installation
(Source: South Dakota Department of Natural Resources)
3.5.1.1 Zinc
Because of its high density (over four times that of magnesium and 2.6 times that of aluminum),
zinc anodes are much smaller and have higher resistance to electrolyte than magnesium and
aluminum. In addition, they have their lower potentials. Therefore, zinc anodes are better in soils
with lower resistivities, typically soils below 1000 ohm-cm, saltwater, or brackish water, zinc
anodes deliver up to 90% of the current required to electrolyze a given weight of anode. The
remaining 10% is lost due to due to localized anodic action. Zinc anodes are made of pure cast
zinc or some times with a small amount of aluminum and cadmium. Iron in zinc, even in minute
quantities, causes the formation of a dense coating that inhibits current flow. The addition of
aluminum and cadmium counteracts this effect.
Zinc used for soil anodes should be high-purity zinc, which is at least 99.99% pure zinc. Zinc is
not subject to significant anodic polarization when used in suitable backfill. The current
efficiency of zinc is reasonably constant from low to very high current outputs in terms of mA/ft2
of anode surface. Zinc has an open circuit potential to a copper/copper sulfate half cell of –1.1
Volts. If the steel structure is to be protected to –0.85 Volts, the driving potential is only 0.25
3-14
Volts. Due to the net driving potential and high density, zinc anodes in soil should have long
slender shape. Zinc anodes are commonly available in weights from 5 pounds (2.3 kg) to 250
pounds (113.4 kg) in the form of plates, bars, rods, and ribbons. Zinc should not be used in
environments when the pH is over 8 or where the temperature is over 120ºF (49ºC) as zinc
becomes cathodic rather than anodic to the structure being protected. Zinc anodes are available
as bare zinc anodes or packaged in backfill consisting of gypsum and bentonite.
3.5.1.2 Magnesium
Magnesium is the most widely used metal for sacrificial anodes due to cost and effectiveness. It
is particularly excellent in high resistivity soils and in fresh water, brackish water, and sea water
applications. Magnesium is more active than zinc and produces greater potential and therefore, is
subject to more localized anodic action. As a result, the loss due to the localized activity could be
anywhere from one to four times that used for cathodic protection. Magnesium anodes are better
in soils with higher resistivities. The higher potential of magnesium results in a higher maximum
allowable resistance for the ground bed versus when zinc anodes are used.
Magnesium anodes are available as castings and extrusions weighing from 1 (0.45 kg) to 200
pounds (90.7 kg), and in a wide variety of shapes such as bars, rods, and ribbons. Magnesium
anodes may be alloyed with aluminum up to 6%, and zinc up to 3%. Some times the anodes are
coated with polyvinyl chloride or packaged with a specially designed molded plastic box to
improve the current distribution and increase the life of the anode.
Magnesium anodes are also used for the protection of the interiors of water tanks and heaters,
heat exchangers, condensers, and waterfront structures. High potential magnesium alloys are
available that could raise the potential levels with iron or steel structure from 0.7V to 0.9V (a
28% increase).
The life of magnesium anodes is affected by the current density, electrolyte (water) and backfill.
The current output is reduced to less than 300 amp-hr/lb (660 amp-hr/kg) when operating under
low current densities. The relatively high potential of magnesium favors its use in water
applications such as domestic water tanks.
3.5.1.3 Aluminum
Due to aluminum’s lower driving potential and higher current capacity, it is well-suited in
applications with low resistivity applications, such as sea water.
To reduce the passivating effect (oxide film formation on the aluminum surface), aluminum is
typically alloyed with mercury or inidium. The output of aluminum anode ranges from 390 to
1250 ampere-hour per pound depending on the alloying. Aluminum is often alloyed with zinc to
improve its current efficiency and when alloyed with 5% zinc, aluminum anode produces 675A-
hr/lb. Aluminum anodes are used with a lime-salt, salt-calomel, and magnesium oxychloride as
backfill. Aluminum anodes alloyed with mercury can not be used in brackish water or silt/mud.
Mercury also adversely affects the shutdown capability of nuclear reactors. In addition mercury
3-15
alloying is not preferred due to the environmental concerns. In such cases, aluminum anodes
alloyed with indium are used.
3.5.2 Anodes for Impressed Current Systems
Anode selection for impressed current systems depends on factors such as the operating
environment and current density. Inert conducting materials such as high silicon cast iron,
graphite, and scrap steel are used for impressed current anodes; however, other materials such as
magnetite, platinum and platinized materials (e.g., tantalum, niobium, titanium), lead/lead oxide,
lead alloys, and oxide coated ceramic materials have been successfully used. As technology
progresses, new types of materials are being developed. Inert materials provide the electrical
connection in the soil but require outside power source. The anodes in impressed current systems
when operating properly are free from any electrolytic attack.
The properties required for impressed current anodes are as follows:

• Good electrical conductance
• Low rate of corrosion
• Mechanical strength to withstand installation loads
• Ability to withstand high current stresses
• Ease of fabrication
• Low cost
• Capability to not form resistance layers (e.g., oxidation layer)
Few anodes can be used universally for any type of application and still achieves a desirable
design life when installation and operating costs are assessed. In most soils, anodes evolve
oxygen and the anode oxidizes as the current is discharged. In soils or water containing
chlorides, anodes generate chlorine gas, which forms hydrochloric acid, and the anodes break
down chemically. Some anodes perform well in the presence of oxygen and others in the
presence of acids. The properties of the impressed current anodes are given in Table 3-5.
Table 3-5
Properties of Impressed Current Anodes
(Reference: Cathodic Protection by F.E. Francis)
Anode Material Max Volts Typical Anode Current Density A/m2
Platinum/Niobium 100 250-1500
Lead/Silver/Antimony 100 250-1500
High Silicon Iron 100 10-100
Graphite - 200
3-16
For buried anodes, a backfill consisting of carbon-based material is normally used. The special
carbonaceous backfill material surrounding the anode ensures that the anode will produce the
desired current output by providing a uniform, low-resistivity environment that allows for the
venting of gasses produced at the anode surface.
Since the anodes form the corroding part of the system, the best material is one that has a low
rate of weight loss per ampere-year (Table 2-1). Aluminum is sometimes used in water storage
tanks. Platinum-coated titanium or niobium anodes are becoming more prevalent as impressed
current anode material.
3.5.2.1 High-Silicon Cast Iron
High-silicon cast iron provides long-term low-cost anode. When used as anodes, a silicon film
(SiO2) is formed on the high-silicon cast iron anodes, which retards the consumption rate.
Therefore, high-silicon iron can be used at very low rates of loss of metal at ordinary current
densities. The typical loss is 0.17 to 2.1 pounds (0.077 to 0.95 kg) per ampere-year. The anodes
are used in soil, potable water, and river waters.
These anodes are extremely hard and can not be machined. High-silicon cast iron anodes contain
14% to 18% silicon and small amounts of carbon and manganese. In especially dry or well-
drained soils, the silicon dioxide film increases the anode to soil resistance. Some of the alloys
also contain molybdenum or chromium to provide resistance to chlorine in chloride soils and
water. Addition of chromium of approximately 4.5% reduces consumption rate and improves the
performance of the anodes in salt water. Modern casting methods make the silicon dioxide film
porous and the anodes perform well before it becomes a problem. When installed below water
table, due to its porosity, the film does not become a problem. High silicon iron is attacked by
electrolysis if the current density on the anode surface is excessive. The anodes are used with
coke breeze to reduce anode-to-soil resistance. High-silicon cast iron has high tensile strength
but is very brittle. Therefore, it can not withstand shock and also is not suitable in heavy icing.
3.5.2.2 Graphite
Graphite is widely used for many years as an anode material in both water and soil applications
as it can operate efficiently at low current densities (less than 0.25 amps/sq. ft in fresh water and
in soil without backfill and less than 1.0 amps/sq. ft in saltwater and with carbonaceous backfill)
under a range of conditions. Graphite anodes are made from high quality finely ground
petroleum coke. The coke powder is mixed with coal tar as a binder and is extruded into the
required shapes such as rods and then baked at very high temperatures. Graphite is chemically
resistant and has excellent conductivity. Graphite anodes are used for inert anode installations.
Graphite is not electrolytically taken into solution as ions. They are attacked by oxygen released
at the anode but most of the oxygen escapes as gas. The graphite is often protected by the less
expensive coke used for backfill. The graphite anodes are porous, which allow water to penetrate
and corrode the lead wire. The pores also permit the oxidation of the graphite. Often, the graphite
is impregnated with non-conducting material such as linseed oil, wax and resins to fill pores,
which increases its resistance to oxidation. Using coke breeze economizes the use of graphite.
3-17
Untreated graphite anodes should be used in well drained or dry areas with good backfill.
Treated graphite anodes can be used with good backfill in freshwater and saltwater conditions.
Resin treated graphite anodes can be used in free suspension applications such as water tanks and
piers and in deep anode ground beds with high chlorine and acidic environment. A typical
graphite anode installation is shown in Figure 3-8.
Figure 3-8
Graphite Anode Installation
The cathodic protection properties of high-silicon cast iron and graphite are practically identical
in carbonized backfill and selection would depend only on cost. Where a backfill can not be used
(e.g., swamp or quick sand), a high-silicon cast iron anode is used.
Graphite should not be operated at current densities exceeding 10.76 amperes per square meter
(1 ampere per square foot) in soil or 2.70 amperes per square meter (0.25 amperes per square
foot) in water. Unfortunately, graphite is brittle and may be easily damaged during
transportation, either bare or packaged. Special handling and padding is necessary to prevent
cracking and breaking.
3-18
3.5.2.3 Aluminum
When used as an impressed current anode, aluminum is usually in the form of 1/2-in. diameter
rod. Occasionally, aluminum is used as an impressed current anode for protecting the interior of
water tanks. Anodes are provided in approximately 5-inch diameter by 10-foot-long screwed rod
sections for use in tanks where seasonal icing usually destroys the anode lead wire connection,
requiring annual replacement. Aluminum anodes do not contaminate potable water, but the
consumption rate of 4.1 kilograms (9 pounds) per ampere-year limits the cost effectiveness on
the basis of cost per year of service compared to other anode systems.
3.5.2.4 Platinum
Platinum can be used as an anode coating for almost every type of cathodic protection
installation. Structures in a vast array of environments such as underground, offshore, concrete,
power plants, and the internals of piping, tanks, and machinery have used platinum for cathodic
protection systems. Since platinum has such a low consumption rate (80 milligrams) (0.00018
pounds per ampere-year), only a small amount is needed for a twenty-year anode life. Pure
platinum, by itself, would be too expensive and therefore, platinum is normally coated over other
base metals such as titanium, niobium, or copper. Copper has the advantage of better
conductivity over titanium and niobium and is preferred when anodes are in the form of wire and
rods. The passive film on titanium starts to break down at 10 volts anode-to-cathode potential,
and is limited to low-resistance environments such as seawater. Niobium has a breakdown
voltage of 120 volts anode-to-cathode potential and is used in higher resistance electrolytes.
Current densities range from 50 amperes in soils to 500 amperes in seawater, depending on the
anode surface area and thickness of the coating.
Platinum has been coated on base metals using electro-deposition, cladding, and metallurgical
bonding. A consensus of knowledgeable engineers finds that metallurgically bonded anodes
seem to have fewer failures because the metals are compressed together in an oxygen-free
vacuum. This technique provides an oxide-free, low resistance, and complete bond between the
metals, thereby maximizing design life. Cladding involves wrapping a thin sheet of platinum
around a rod and spot-welding the platinum to the base metal at the overlap area. The limited
weld area allows the underlying base metal to oxidize, thus increasing electrical resistance and
resulting in the shortest design life. The smooth surface has little bearing on the life, because the
surface becomes irregular once current is discharged. Electro-deposition techniques plate a film
of platinum on the base metal, but the process results in a porous surface, which is less likely to
achieve full life due to high-resistance oxide film formation.
Key Technical Point

A consensus of knowledgeable engineers finds that metallurgically bonded
anodes seem to have fewer failures because the metals are compressed
together in an oxygen-free vacuum.
3-19
3.5.2.5 Lead Alloy Anodes
Lead alloy anodes are used only in free-flowing seawater applications. The alloying may be
performed with various metals such as antimony lead, tin and 1% or 2% silver. Over time a
black, passive film of lead peroxide forms on the lead alloy, which extends the life of the anode
surface. In silting or low-chloride conditions, this oxide film does not form and the anode is
consumed rapidly. Normal current density ranges from 3 to 25 amperes per square foot. Cable
connections are made by drilling a hole and silver soldering the lead wire at the base of the hole.
The connection cavity is then filled with epoxy to prevent moisture penetration. Installation is
accomplished by hanging the anodes from a structure, dock, or pier, in a perforated fiber-
reinforced plastic (FRP) pipe or by a support device to maintain its position. This support is
important to prevent ice damage and keep the anodes from coming in contact with mud or silt.
3.5.2.6 Mixed Metal Oxide
Titanium or niobium offer good ductility and corrosion resistance. However, they tend to be
covered with insulating oxide layers. Therefore, they are coated with an electrical conducting
film such as platinum layer or electroconductive coating of mixed metal oxide. These anodes
exhibit favorable design life characteristics while providing current at very high-density levels.
The composition of the anode consists of a titanium rod, wire, tube or expanded mesh with the
oxide film baked on the base metal. The oxide film acts as an electrocatalyst in transferring the
current from the titanium rod to the backfill. The oxide film is an excellent electrical conductor
(resistivity is less than 10-5 ohm-cm) and is resistant to rapid deterioration due to acid generation,
rippled direct current, or half-wave rectification, as is common with precious metal anodes. It has
a very low and uniform wear rate.
3.5.3 Interconnecting Cable
Electrical contact between the anodes and the structure being protected is essential for the
protection of the structure. Sacrificial anodes are either mounted directly by welding or bolting
on the structure or located close by and attached to the structure with insulated lead wiring,
which may be attached to the structure by welding or mechanical connections. Where anodes
with cast-in straps are used, the straps should be welded directly to the structure if possible, or, if
welding is not possible, used as locations for attachments using mechanical fasteners. A low-
resistance mechanically adequate attachment is required for good protection and resistance to
mechanical damage. Welded connections are preferred to avoid the increase in resistance that
can occur with mechanical connections. Thermite is widely used in installation and repair of
cathodic protection systems. The welded joints and the exposed conductors should be coated.
Anodes used in impressed current cathodic protection systems are normally supplied with
integral lead wires. For both the sacrificial anode system and impressed current system, the
interconnecting cables should have low resistance and should be insulated to prevent increased
resistance or damage due to corrosion. The cables connecting the rectifier to the anodes and
structure are connected together as the cathodic protection system by welding or mechanical
connections. The interconnecting wires are brought to a junction box where the system
3-20
connections are made as shown in Figure 3-9. These lead cables should have a low resistance
and be well insulated. The insulation is necessary not only for its electrical properties but also to
minimize corrosion of the wire and physical damage to the wire.
Figure 3-9
Junction Box Internal Cabling
(Courtesy of Farwest Corrosion Control)
3.5.4 Power Supplies
Any source of direct current of appropriate voltage and current can be used as a power source for
impressed current cathodic protection systems. The selection of power supply depends upon
local conditions at the site and should be evaluated based upon life cycle cost including
maintenance and availability of ac power or fuel.
For impressed current cathodic protection systems, rectifiers are the most commonly used power
supplies to convert ac current to dc current. Rectifiers are available in a wide variety of types and
capacities. There are rectifiers that are designed and constructed specifically for use in cathodic
protection systems.
Rectifiers have been developed for providing either a constant potential or constant current. In a
constant-current rectifier, a dc current input signal to the power amplifier is supplied from an
3-21
adjustable resistor in the output circuit and this signal provides the feedback to adjust the supply
voltage to the stack and the stack provides a constant output current.
Rectifiers are available with either manual control or automatic control. The manual control is
set on a specific tap and its output is monitored on a routine basis. The automatic system is
connected to a reference voltage and a constant level of protection is automatically maintained.
An automatic potential control unit uses the potential between the structure and a reference
electrode to control the output current of the unit. Multi-circuit constant current rectifiers are
designed to provide a small, constant current in the order of 100 mA to a single anode.
Automatic rectifiers are typically used when the current requirements are constantly changing or
when the cathodic protection circuit resistance changes significantly at a given location. These
units can be potential-controlled or current-controlled.
When the size of the structure changes, the current requirement changes, and therefore, potential-
controlled units are used to maintain a set potential on a permanent reference cell located close to
the structure. The rectifier output changes in the reference potential feedback. These rectifiers are
used on coated structures such as water towers, ships, where water levels or environment
changes require varied current levels but excessive current can not be tolerated due to possible
damage to coatings or where over protection may cause interference with other components.
When the electrolyte resistance (e.g., soil condition) changes, current-controlled units are used to
maintain the correct current applied to the structure being protected. The voltage fluctuates with
ground bed resistance changes. These rectifiers are used with steel pilings and docks where water
quality changes between fresh water and salt water, water levels vary, anode circuit resistance
may vary, overload or short circuits may occur, or where several rectifiers may share common
anode beds. A potential-controlled rectifier can also be used.
Other components include meters and/or shunt located between the stacks and the output lug,
lightning protection on the ac input and the dc output, output filters and/or capacitors to increase
efficiency, and circuit breakers to turn the unit on and off. Some times quick disconnects are
provided to turn power off to the rectifier.
Air-cooled units are low cost and easy to install and repair. Oil-cooled units are typically
specified for dirty environmental conditions or where explosive gasses may be present.
Power supply can be provided with 110V, 230V, or 440V single-phase or three-phase inputs.
Selection between single-phase and three-phase units should be based upon a balance between
first cost and efficiency. Single-phase rectifiers are used up to an output of about 1,000 W. Due
to the reduction in alternating current ripple, three-phase rectifiers are more efficient than the
single-phase types, and the extra initial cost of the unit is often justified by power savings in
units of over 1,000 W. Dc voltage outputs may vary from 8 to 120 V and current outputs range
from 4 to 100A. The rectifiers are available with various types of enclosures for indoor and
outdoor service.
3-22
Most impressed current system rectifiers have an adjustable step-down transformer, rectifying
units (stacks), current and voltage meters, circuit breakers, lightning arresters, current measuring
shunts, and transformer adjusting points (taps), all in one enclosure. A typical pole-mounted
rectifier for cathodic protection service is shown in Figure 3-10.
Figure 3-10
Typical Rectifier Arrangement
Silicon diode units are susceptible to damage by voltage or current spikes and must be protected
from these surges by surge protectors. Rectifiers should also be protected against lightning.
The rectifier selected for a specific impressed current cathodic protection application must be
matched to both the electrical requirements and the environmental conditions at the site.
Rectifiers are available in many electrical types and specifically designed for use in impressed
current cathodic protection systems in many environments. Typical rectifier components are
discussed in the following subsections.
3.5.4.1 Transformer
Typically the transformers are step-down transformers, where the supply voltage is reduced to
the voltage required for the rectifier. In most rectifier transformers, the output voltage can be
adjustable to vary the rectifier output voltage to the required level.
3-23
3.5.4.2 Rectifying Elements
The alternating current from the secondary windings of the transformer element is converted to
direct current by the rectifying elements or “stacks.” The rectifying elements allow current to
flow in one direction only and produce a (pulsating) direct current. The stack is an assembly of
plates or diodes and may be in several configurations. Rectifier stacks are of two general types:
selenium plates or silicon diodes [or silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)]. In high-voltage or high-
current units, silicon diodes should be used, as they are more efficient than selenium elements at
high voltages. Silicon diodes are more susceptible to failure due to voltage overloads or surges.
Selenium plates have a higher voltage drop and are less affected by voltage surges. However,
selenium plates degrade over time and require replacement.
Typical efficiencies of single-phase rectifying elements are in the order of 60% to 75% but can
be increased by filtering the output or by using a three-phase circuit. The inherent losses in the
rectifier result in heating of the stacks.
3.5.4.3 Overload Protection
Circuit breakers and/or fuses are used to protect the circuits from overloads. Typically, circuit
breakers are used on the ac side and fuses on the dc side. The rectifiers are also furnished with
lightning arresters to prevent damage from lightning and power surges. Due to their
susceptibility to damage from voltage surges, silicon diodes are protected by selenium surge cells
or varistors and by current limiting fuses against over-current surges. Typically, a high-speed
fuse is installed in one leg of the ac secondary and one in the dc negative output leg.
3.5.4.4 Meters
The rectifier is typically equipped with ammeter and voltmeter. Some times, the meters may be
frozen and should be checked for proper operation. Output voltage and current can also be
measured by the use of portable meters.
3.5.4.5 Other Power Supplies
Where ac power is not available, solar panels in conjunction with batteries may be used at
remote sites. When current requirements are low, storage batteries can be used but must be
periodically recharged and maintained. Engine driven or wind generators can also be used to
supply power.
3.5.5 Test Stations
Test stations are the locations where the leads are brought so the necessary measurements for
pipe-to-soil or structure-to-soil potentials, current flow, anode outputs and checks for insulated
flanges, resistance bonds can be performed. Test stations are used to monitor the protection
provided to the structure and to adjust the system for proper operation.
3-24
For sacrificial anode systems, test stations are used to measure the potential of the structure
nearest to the anode, the potential of the structure farthest from the anode, the potential of the
anode, and the amount of current being supplied by an anode or group of anodes. A test station
consists of a junction box where leads are brought from the structure and anode and the
potentials between the anode and structure and the structure and soil are measured. For buried
structures, sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems typically include test stations to facilitate
periodic monitoring of the system. The test stations may be located above the surface in
connection boxes or in subsurface test stations mounted flush on grade. Typical test stations are
shown in Figures 3-11 and 3-12.
Figure 3-11
Flush Test Station
Figure 3-12
Above Grade Test Station
For impressed current cathodic protection systems, test stations consist of a junction box, where
leads are brought from the structures and any permanently installed reference cell. Normally, two
wires are brought from each structure. One lead from each structure remains isolated, the second
leads from the structures are jumpered together and are connected to the negative leads, going
3-25
back to the negative terminal of the rectifier. Electrical shunts and resistors are also mounted in
the box to measure the current coming back from each structure and to control the flow of the
current. One lead from each at the test station is provided to permit test lead verification and
redundancy. Figures 3-13 and 3-14 show typical cathodic protection test stations.
Figure 3-13
Typical Impressed Current Test Station
3-26
Figure 3-14
Typical Flush-to-Grade Cathodic Protection Test Stations
(Courtesy of CORRPRO)
If the original system does not include test stations, their installation will require removing the
coating on the structure, cleaning the exposed steel, attaching the specified wires using thermite
welds, patching the coating, securing the wires, and bringing the wires to the surface in a
permanent test station. The lead wire insulation must remain free of all nicks, cuts, or gouges to
prevent erroneous reading.
3.5.6 Anode Junction Box
In sacrificial anode systems, the lead wires from the anodes are brought into test stations. In an
impressed current system, the lead wires from the anodes are brought into anode junction boxes.
The lead wires are jumpered together and are connected to a rectifier positive header cable. The
positive header cable goes back to the positive terminal of the rectifier’s dc output voltage.
Electrical shunts and resistors are also installed in these boxes. The current discharge from each
anode is measured by the use of a shunt. Any adjustment to the current discharge is made
through the use of the resistors (see Figure 3-15).
3-27
Figure 3-15
Junction Box
3.5.7 Reference Electrode
Reference electrodes are used to measure the potentials of submerged and underground
structures. A reference electrode measures the potential difference between a structure and the
electrolyte in contact with the structure. For buried structures, the copper/copper sulfate
reference electrode is the reference electrode most commonly used. For structures submerged in
seawater, the silver/silver chloride reference electrode is commonly used. Zinc and other
reference electrodes can be used when appropriate. In order to ensure that the potential readings
obtained are properly interpreted, the type of reference electrode should always be noted. Figure
3-16 shows a typical copper/copper sulfate reference electrode.
3-28
Figure 3-16
Typical Reference Electrodes
(Source: Office of Pipeline Safety, DOT and [27]))
3.5.8 Connections
Connections of the cables to the structure are one of the major concerns with cathodic protection
systems. Attachment of the cables to the structure by mechanical means is the least desirable
method since such connections may loosen, become highly resistant, or lose electrical continuity
over time. Therefore, most connections are made with thermite welding. Figures 3-17 and 3-18
display typical conductors to pipes weld connections.
Figure 3-17
Typical Connection of Conductor to Pipe by Welding
(Courtesy-Farwest Corrosion Control)
3-29
Key Technical Point

Copper sulfate electrodes are the most commonly used reference electrodes.
Measurements using other types of reference electrodes are often converted
to those of copper sulfate.
Figure 3-18
Connection of Conductor to Cast Iron Anode
(Courtesy of Farwest Corrosion Protection)
Key Technical Point

Connections of the cables to the protected structure are one of the major
concerns with cathodic protection systems. Attachment of the cables to the
structure by mechanical means is the least desirable method; whereas,
welded connections are more desirable.
Figure 3-19 shows typical splicing of conductors with welding.
Figure 3-19
Splicing of Conductors with Thermite Welding
3-30
When a connection is made, it should be tested for mechanical strength and electrical continuity.
All exposed portions of the connection should be thoroughly cleaned of all welding slag, dirt,
oils, etc.; primed, if needed; and coated with materials compatible with the cable insulation, pipe
coating, and the environment. When copper wire or flux is used, care must be taken to seal the
attachment areas against moisture. In the presence of moisture, the connection may disbond and
be damaged by corrosion.
3.6 Anode Beds
The types of impressed current anode beds are dependent on the design of the cathodic
protection system. Anode beds are located either close by or remote and they distribute the
current over the area containing the structures to be protected. Based on the type of installation
of the anode bed, they are classified as follows.
• Local distributed anode bed system
• Vertical distributed anode bed system
• Horizontal distributed anode bed system
• Deep anode bed system
• Remote anode bed system
If the anodes are installed vertically in 10- to 20-feet (3- to 6-meters) deep holes about 15 feet to
20 feet (4.6 to 6 meters) away from the pipes, the system is called a vertical distributed anode
bed system. When the anodes are installed in a cluster, away from the structures that are being
protected, the system is called a remote anode bed system. A deep anode bed system is a
variation of a remote anode bed system in which anodes are located remotely from the structures
being protected in a vertical plane. Depending on the site conditions, the anodes are installed in
100- to 200-feet (30.5- to 61-meters) deep holes.
3.6.1 Local Distributed Anode Bed
Local distributed anode bed systems are the most common types of anode beds. This type of bed
can be installed either vertically or horizontally. When the anodes are installed horizontally
along a length of a pipe, the system is called a local horizontal distributed anode bed system.
Figure 3-20 shows a typical local horizontal distributed anode bed.
Generally, due to their length, vertical bed anodes are brittle and must be carefully handled to
prevent breakage. The anode cable is prone to failure if the insulation is damaged in any way. As
a result, particular care should be exercised in handling the anode leads. As impressed current
cathodic protection anodes are generally longer than sacrificial anodes, excavation of holes for
them is often more difficult. If the hole caves in, use of either a packaged anode complete with
backfill or a thin metal casing may be necessary. If bare anodes are used, the appropriate
chemical backfill should be added as soon as the anodes are placed. The backfill should be well
tamped to ensure good contact with the anode. The backfill should be used to fill the hole to
3-31
within a few inches of grade. This arrangement will allow the gasses generated during system
operation to be properly vented.
Figure 3-20
Local Distributed Horizontal Anode System
Vertical installation is used when there is a need to obtain lower resistivities, when there are
difficulties with trenching for a horizontal bed, or where the physical surface area is limited.
Horizontal installations may be necessary when obstructions or other soil conditions make
digging holes difficult. Horizontal installations are also used where soil resistivities are very low
and the increased resistance of the horizontal installation is not significant. A minimum of 2 feet
(0.6 meters) of burial for all cables and 3 feet (0.9 meters) of burial for the anode is
recommended. Before the anode is placed, the excavation should be partially filled with backfill.
After the anode is placed, the remainder of the backfill should be added and tamped into place. If
special backfill is not required, soil free from stones or debris should be used to fill the
excavation. Figure 3-21 shows a typical local distributed vertical anode system.
3-32
Figure 3-21
Local Distributed Vertical Anode System
(Source: MIL-HDBK-1004/20N)
3.6.2 Deep Anode Beds
In installations where electrical interference problems are severe, anode beds are sometimes
installed deep below the surface. The deep installation causes the current flow to become more
vertical and reduces interference between horizontally displaced structures. Deep anodes are also
used where the resistivity of the soil near the surface is high. Anodes installed deeper than 50
feet (15.2 meters) are called “deep” anodes. Figure 3-22 shows typical deep anode systems.
3-33
Figure 3-22
Typical Deep Anode Bed System
(Courtesy of Farwest Corrosion Corporation)
3.6.3 Remote Anode Bed
In a remote bed anode system, the anode beds are installed remotely from the structures being
protected. Figure 3-23 shows a typical remote anode bed system.
Figure 3-23
Remote Anode System
The location of the anode bed relative to the structure being protected and other structures in the
area is the single most important factor in minimizing shielding issues. In power plants,
generally, the current discharge from remote anode beds is shielded from spreading over a large
area because of the shielding effects of reinforcements in the building foundations, duct runs and
other buried structures. When installing a new cathodic protection system, the influence on
foreign structures should be a primary consideration in the location of remote anode beds.
3-34
3.7 Backfill
Almost always, anodes are buried in backfill beds because the backfill reduces the anode-to-soil
resistance thus increasing the system efficiency and permits higher operating current per anode.
The backfill also extends the life of the anode as well as that of the anode ground bed. Backfill
helps distribute the current uniformly and prevents gas blocks. The types of back fill are
metallurgical coke breeze, lime salt, salt-calomel, and magnesium oxychloride.
Chemical backfill material is used around sacrificial anodes in soil. The backfill may be dry, a
slurry, or a package with the anode. The backfill maintains moisture and lowers resistance
between the anode and the earth. This backfill is typically made of 75% gypsum, 20% bentonite,
and 5% sodium sulfate. Figure 3-24 shows an anode immersed in a bag of backfill. The backfill
increases effective surface area of the anode thus lowering the anode-to-soil resistance. The
gypsum provides a low-resistance conducting path. The bentonite clay retains moisture and the
sodium sulfate minimizes pitting and oxide film formation on the anode.
Aluminum anodes are used with a lime-salt, salt-calomel, and magnesium oxychloride as
backfill.
Figure 3-24
Anode Immersed in Bag of Backfill
3-35
3.8 Other Accessories
Anode centralizers are used to locate the anodes that are in rod or tubular form in the center of
the ground bed hole to ensure a low resistivity between the anode and the soil.
Anode vent systems are used to vent the gases generated at the anodes and in the soil to prevent
the gases forming an insulating layer around the anode. The vent system could be a plastic pipe
with holes placed around the anode and brought to the surface.
Anode holes are plugged with naturally occurring materials such as of bentonite.
3.9 Design Considerations
The technical and economic benefits should be considered in designing an appropriate cathodic
protection system for a given structure or a group of structures. Before preparing the design,
basic information is obtained regarding the structure and its external environment by conducting
selected field tests and considering the corrosion-control experience of other operations in the
general area. In addition to field measurements, historical data such as soil resistivity
measurements, plans, and drawings, concerning the site and other structures located at or near
the site of the system to be designed should be reviewed. In general, specific field determinations
of several parameters need to be determined in order to design an effective cathodic protection
system.
The objective of the predesign phase is to determine the viability of cathodic protection as an
effective means of corrosion control. Once the tentative system components are selected,
technical and economical life cycle costs are calculated. After the design is completed, plans and
specifications are developed and the system is installed.
Figure 3-25 shows typical power plant layout of a cathodic protection system. This type drawing
is essential for design, maintenance, and troubleshooting of a cathodic protection system.
3-36
Figure 3-25
Typical Power Plant Layout of a Cathodic Protection System
(Courtesy of V. C. Summer Nuclear Power Plant)
3-37
Any new or supplemental cathodic protection system should be compatible with existing
system(s).
3.9.1 Electrical Isolation
Sometimes, it may be desirable to electrically isolate a cathodically protected structure from a

grounding system and other metallic structures, such as connecting lines, pump stations, and
terminals. If the protected structure is not isolated, these connections will also be cathodically
protected and current requirements from the CP system will be excessive. However, the
interference corrosion problem on the unprotected structure must be investigated. Electrical
isolation of pipelines from other structures is accomplished by dielectric insulation. Small lines
may be isolated by insulating couplings or unions. If feasible, insulated flanges should be
assembled and electrically tested with an ohmmeter before being connected into a line. Isolator
surge protector should be used.
Figure 3-26
Electrical Isolation
Copper and brass valves should be electrically isolated from steel and iron structures or covered
with protective coatings. When a steel or iron pipe is passing through concrete, it should be
either be electrically isolated from the concrete or cathodically protected. Lightning and fault
current protection should be provided at each isolating device (e.g., flange).
3-38
3.9.2 Soil Resistance
Soil resistivity at the specific plant location is used in designing the cathodic protection system.
The soil’s corrosiveness is classified on the basis of resistivity. When soils have resistivities
greater than approximately 50,000 ohm-centimeter, corrosion is negligible and cathodic
protection is not needed. When soils have resistivities below approximately 10,000 ohm-
centimeter and when other soil data indicate that the soil may be corrosive, cathodic protection is
needed. If the soil resistivity is between 10,000 and 50,000 ohm-centimeter or is not uniform,
further investigations are required to establish whether cathodic protection is necessary and, if it
is, what the protection requirements at various locations are. These measures include using test
coupons to determine actual corrosion rates and installing test stations on the underground
structure to facilitate the taking of potential measurements. Soil resistivity and potential
measurements can be evaluated together to determine corrosion rates.
Soil resistivity testing can be done in the area of a proposed anode bed to locate an area of low
resistance to place the anodes. Care must be taken to ensure that the low resistance area is not
continuous to the protected structure. Poor current distribution may occur if this condition
occurs. In some cases, the best location for an anode bed may be in higher resistivity earth. The
resistance of the anode bed can be lowered by adding additional anodes, using longer anodes, or
increasing the spacing of the anodes. The anodes may have individual leads connected to a
header cable or they may be installed on a continuous cable.
3.9.3 Power Supply Requirement
The power supply requirement, namely current and voltage are determined by Ohm’s Law from
the required current for protection of the structure and the calculated or measured total circuit
resistance. The actual power supply requirement should allow for future loads and rectifier
aging. Generally, a factor of 1.5 over calculated output is used.
3.9.4 Chloride Removal
The chloride ion acts as a catalyst to corrosion. As it is negatively charged, an electrochemical

process can be used to repel the chloride ion from the steel surface and move it towards an
external anode.
The usual electrolyte is calcium hydroxide to stop chlorine, which has the advantage over water
by being alkaline although additional chemicals such as lithium salts may be added to increase
alkalinity.
3.9.5 Basic Design Procedure for Sacrificial Anode Systems
For sacrificial anode systems, the total current required needs to be determined either from actual
current requirement measurements or by multiplying a typical current requirement by the surface
area of the structure. Then the output of the sacrificial anodes to be used is determined. Soil
resistivity is an important factor in the design of a cathodic protection system.
3-39
The number of anodes is then determined by dividing the total current required by the output per
anode. The expected anode life is estimated based upon the practical deterioration rate for the
selected anode material. Magnesium is consumed at a typical rate of 17 pounds (7.7 kg) per
ampere year (lb/A-yr.), zinc at 26 lb/A-yr. (11.8 kg/A-yr), and typical aluminum alloy anodes at
11 lb/A-yr (5 kg/A-yr). As the actual design is an iterative process, such factors as anode size or
material may be adjusted in order to optimize the system being designed.
3.9.6 Basic Design Procedure for Impressed Current System
For the design of impressed current systems, three steps are taken:
• Total current determination
• Total resistance determination
• Voltage and rectifier determination
3.9.6.1 Total Current Determination
The first design consideration for an impressed current system is the same as for sacrificial-
anode system namely the determination of the total current required either from actual current
requirement measurements or by multiplying a typical current requirement by the surface area of
the structure to be protected.
3.9.6.2 Total Resistance Determination
The next step in the design of impressed current systems is the determination of the total circuit
resistance. This value depends on many factors. In most systems, the resistance of a group of
anodes (anode bed) is the controlling factor in the total circuit resistance and is the factor most
easily controlled by increasing the number of anodes used. The anode bed resistance is primarily
a function of soil resistivity. The total number of anodes to be used is balanced against the power
required and the rectifier rating, which is determined by the current and voltage requirements of
the system. An anode bed resistance of less than 2 ohms is highly desirable. Also, high voltages
can result in premature failure of system components such as anode lead wires and should be
avoided where possible.
When more than one anode is used in parallel to reduce circuit resistance, the adjusting factor
must be used to determine the total anode bed resistance:
3-40
3.9.6.3 Rectifier Size Determination
Using the total circuit resistance and the output current required for the circuit, the appropriate
voltage for the rectifier is then calculated using Ohm’s law:
V= I R
where:
V = required voltage
I = required current of the circuit
R = total circuit resistance
In practice, the current and voltage required may be higher than those anticipated values due to
the deterioration of coatings on the system, additions to the system, aging of the power supplies,
and inaccuracies in the system design. Therefore, ac power supplies and rectifiers are normally
selected with a capacity in excess of the required rating in order to have additional margins. The
margin on the voltage is up to 100% with the maximum output voltage rating of the rectifiers
limited to 120V. The margin used on the current rating is up to 100%. Usually, rectifiers are
limited in their ratings to 60A. If necessary, additional rectifiers are used rather than larger
capacity rectifiers.
3.9.7 Analysis of Design Factors
The following factors should always be analyzed when designing either type of cathodic
protection system:
• Anode-to-electrolyte resistance. This includes a determination of electrolyte resistivity,
resistance (output) of a single anode, the effects of anode configuration and spacing, the
effects of anode orientation, and the location of the anodes with respect to both the structure
being protected and other metallic structures in the area.
• Weight of anode to give the required anode life. This is most important for both types of
systems. One lb/A-yr. for high silicon cast iron anodes and 2.5lb/A-yr (1.1kg/A-yr) for
graphite are typical consumption rates for impressed current anodes.
• The use of special backfill surrounding the anodes. This is usually justified by increased
anode efficiency and should be used unless it is shown not to be economically justified.
Backfill is not required when anodes are hung in water or installed at the bottom of bodies of
water.
• Seasonal variations. The effect of seasonal variations in electrolyte resistivity from
variations in soil conductivity due to moisture or in seawater due to runoff needs to be
considered.
• Cable resistance. In impressed current systems, the cable used should be determined based
upon the economic analysis of cable size.
3-41
3.9.8 Vulnerability to Physical Damage
Location of structure-to-structure bonds and insulating joints should be located where they are
not likely to be damaged from routine plant activities. Adequate number of test stations should
be provided for initial adjustment and periodic inspections for maintenance. Their locations
should be selected for easy inspection and maintenance.
3-42
4
INDUSTRY EXPERIENCE
The INPO EPIX, NRC, and NERC/GADS databases were searched for applicable cathodic
protection failure data. In addition, an industry survey was performed. This section summarizes
the information obtained from the electronic database searches and industry survey.
4.1 INPO EPIX Database
The INPO EPIX database was searched for “cathodic”, “cathodic protection”, “corrosion”, and
“galvanic” for the period 1997 to 2005 for two types of findings. The first type of finding was for
plant equipment that had corrosion failures due to the lack of or failure of cathodic protection;
the second type of finding was failures of the cathodic protection system equipment. The plant
equipment failures are described in Section 4.1.1, and the cathodic protection system equipment
failures are described in Section 4.1.2.
4.1.1 Failures Due to Lack of Adequate Cathodic Protection
Table 4-1 lists the eight plant equipment records in the INPO EPIX database with corrosion
failures due the lack of or failure of the equipment’s cathodic protection. Three of the records
address corrosion failures of traveling or fixed screens. The failures involved corrosion of the
chain and other components. For each of these screen failures, installation of cathodic protection
was included as part of the corrective actions. The other corrective actions included the use of
coatings, material changes, inspection frequency, and design changes. Two other failures
involved internally installed sacrificial anodes that became loose and jammed equipment. One
case was a service water pump impeller jamming when the anode mounted on the pump casing
behind the impeller fell off. The second case was when a section of a sacrificial anode was
caught between a valve disk and the seating surface preventing valve closure. In the first case,
the inspection frequency of the sacrificial anode was increased. In the second case, a periodic
task for the inspection of the sacrificial anode was initiated.
The remaining three records addressed rapid corrosion damage caused as a result of changes to
the equipment without adequate cathodic protection. The first record was a leak detected in the
outlet of a waterbox. Upon investigation two holes were found in the waterbox outlet. Internal
and external inspection of the waterbox discovered local corrosion that occurred at defects in the
rubber liner. The limited area of the corrosion (i.e., through the full wall thickness immediately
adjacent to the defect) indicates a rapid rate of corrosion. This failure mode is indicative of a lack
of cathodic protection. Cathodic protection on this waterbox was removed from service due to
ground faults approximately one year before the leak occurred. Without cathodic protection, the
carbon steel waterbox typically fails because of preferential attack of the most anodic element.
4-1
Industry Experience
The tubesheets are made of aluminum-bronze and the condenser tubes are made of titanium, both
of which are much less active than the carbon steel. Most likely, the relatively small area of
exposed carbon steel at liner defects accelerated this preferential material attack.
The second record is a rupture of an underground fire-protection (FP) water main releasing
278,000 gallons (4556 liters) of water and created a hole in the ground of approximately 12ft (3.7
meters) long, 8 (2.4 meters) ft wide, and 4 ft (1.2 meters) deep due to erosion. The plant’s
investigation revealed that the recently replaced valve bonnet-to-body bolts had severe metal loss
as a result of corrosion and that the bonnet separated from the body, causing the leak. The root
causes of the bolt failures were identified to be inadequate coating and inadequate cathodic
protection. The FP system piping and post indicating valves (PIVs) are buried underground in
direct contact with the soil. The primary protective measure to prevent corrosion of these
components is the external coating applied on the pipe and PIVs. The lack of adequate coating
applied to the flange bolts of the valve and the lack of any coating to the valve bolting material
allowed excessive corrosion to occur. The secondary protective measure to protect the FP system
piping and PIVs is the cathodic protection system. The lack of electrical continuity between the
connecting pipe and PIVs resulted in the accelerated corrosion of unprotected bolts and nuts.
Actions to prevent reoccurrence included adding details to drawings showing the mechanical
bonding connection and correct installation of the insulating kit. They also established PM tasks
to verify continuity at the mechanical bonding connection and the pipe/valve interface.
The third record was for a circulating water pump that failed, was repaired, and failed a second
time within three weeks when the bolts failed again. While the second failure was primarily the
results of vibration and poor installation, the initial failure was the result of long-term pump
casing degradation and deterioration due to corrosion. The final corrective actions included
investigating the installation of cathodic protection to the pump casings.
4-2
Industry Experience
Table 4-1
EPIX Plant Equipment that had Corrosion Failures due the Lack of or Failure of Cathodic Protection
Doc Megawatts Failure

Type No. Date lost Equipment Failure Mode Mechanism Failure Cause Corrective Action
EPIX 115 4/20/99 0 Traveling Water Did not travel Chain broken Corrosion - inadequate Repaired device -
Screen preventive maintenance installed cathodic
protection
EPIX 232 5/31/00 0 Intake cooling Failed to close Sacrificial anode Normal wastage of the Replaced Anode -
water system caught between anode revised inspection
valve the disc and the procedures to include the
seating surface inspection of the anodes
EPIX 178 2/14/01 0 Traveling Water Inspection Severe Corrosion Equipment Age Repaired equipment
Screens Identified Severe
Corrosion
EPIX 372 6/12/01 0 Service Water Pump Stopped Cathodic protection Corrosion - inadequate Repaired device -
Screens & anode jammed preventive maintenance preventive maintenance
Backwash pumps impeller program revised
EPIX 819 12/15/01 949 Condenser Did not maintain Two holes in Rapid corrosion after Repaired waterbox
Waterbox pressure waterbox removal of cathodic
boundary protection
EPIX 183 9/20/02 33,715 Cooling basin Foreign Material Screen bending Screen weaken due to Replace Screens -
screens pasted screens corrosion – Cathodic Evaluate cathodic
protection depleted protection for adequacy
4-3
Industry Experience
Table 4-1 (cont.)

EPIX Plant Equipment that had Corrosion Failures due the Lack of or Failure of Cathodic Protection
Doc Megawatts Failure

Type No. Date lost Equipment Failure Mode Mechanism Failure Cause Corrective Action
EPIX 576 12/24/03 19,415 Circulating Water Pump Stopped Flange bolts failed General inadequacy Design changes
Pump in fatigue and nuts design, improper material implemented, operating
loosened selection, inadequate experience reviewed and
preventive maintenance applied, preventive
maintenance interval
changed
EPIX 700 4/19/04 0 Fire Protection Fire line rupture Excessive Inadequate coating and Repaired device -
valve corrosion lack of cathodic protection preventive maintenance
continuity cause procedures or tasks
accelerated corrosion revised
4-4
Industry Experience
4.1.2 Failures of the Cathodic Protection System Equipment
A total of 32 records were identified in the INPO-EPIX database that involved the failure of
cathodic protection system components. Table 4-2 lists these failures. These records have been
categorized as follows:
• 11–aging (rectifier, transformer, wiring)
• 8–anode depletion
• 4–design
• 3–road related
• 3–spurious
• 2–inadequate procedure
• 1–system drift
The cathodic protection equipment with aging concerns was generally with equipment that had
been in service for over 20 years. The aging conditions found included a failed output
transformer, shorted rectifier stacks, long term overheating of wiring, and broken wire strands
due to wire flexing at a lug crimp over a long period of time.
The anode-depletion items were found when the cathodic protection rectifier no longer was able
to maintain the ampere setting at its maximum voltage level. The anodes were replaced, and the
system was placed back into service without additional problems.
One of the design issues was a case of under-sizing a fuse for the maximum current value the
rectifier could operate at in conjunction with its anode bed. The original fuse had been in service
over 20 years. As conditions changed, the cathodic protection system design caused the rectifier
to increase its output above the value at which the fuse could continue to operate. Dry conditions
through much of the summer followed by a heavy rainstorm in August likely caused significant
changes in the characteristics of the anode bed. These changes might have allowed the rectifier
output current to rise, thereby causing the failure of the output fuse, which was marginally sized
for this application (10A fuse, 12A rectifier output).
Two of the three road related incidents were the result of new roads being installed, cutting the
buried cathodic protection leads. The third incident involved leads going under a road with
insufficient protection and being crushed by heavy equipment on the road, which caused the
cable to short together. In each of these cases, the cable was repaired and the cathodic protection
system returned to service.
The record classified as system drift was because the appropriate voltages and currents could be
re-established by adjusting the cathodic protection controls without making any physical changes
to the cathodic protection equipment.
4-5
Industry Experience
Table 4-2
Cathodic Protection Equipment Failures
Doc MW
No. Date Equipment Failure Mode Failure Mechanism Failure Cause Corrective Action
Type lost
EPIX 124 9/5/97 0 Anode Low voltage Depletion of anode Age Replace anode
Depletion of Anode
EPIX 172 6/28/99 0 Anode Low voltage Age Replace anode
Wells
Depletion of Anode
EPIX 461 3/6/98 0 Anode Low voltage Age Replace anode
Wells
EPIX 121 5/21/96 0 Anode Open circuit Depletion of anode Age Replace anode
Outside normal
EPIX 465 9/5/97 0 Anode acceptance Depletion of anode Age Replace anode
values
Outside normal
Voltage high, amps
EPIX 564 4/25/00 0 Anode acceptance Age Replace anode
low
values
Outside normal
Voltage high, amps
low
values
Outside normal
Voltage high, amps
low
values
Cables cut during

EPIX 2165 7/25/01 0 Cable No voltage improper construction Repaired cable
construction
Cables cut during

Improper area
EPIX 864 7/21/04 0 Cable No voltage construction of new Repaired cable
scanning
road
4-6
Industry Experience
Table 4-2 (cont.)

Doc MW
Type lost
Cable not buried deep

EPIX 462 10/4/99 0 Cable No voltage Shorted enough - run over Repaired cable
heavy equipment
EPIX 456 6/1/98 0 Cable No voltage Wire open Overheating Replace wire
EPIX 457 6/3/98 0 Cable No voltage Wire open Overheating Brittle Replace wire
EPIX 459 6/3/98 0 Cable No voltage Wire open Overheating Replace wire
Cable equipment aging –

EPIX 484 8/22/98 0 No power Broken connection Repaired connection
Connection metallic parts, fatigue
Age - Thermal Replace broken wire

EPIX 49 1/17/97 0 Device No voltage Broken wire
movement and revise PM program
Replaced fuses and

EPIX 196 9/15/97 0 Panel No voltage Blown fuses Undetermined
cleaned equipment
Work practices,
Safety switch left
EPIX 241 9/4/97 0 Panel No voltage inadequate work Restored normal lineup
open
practices
Outside normal
Calibration/setpoint Recalibrated/adjusted
EPIX 562 4/26/00 0 Panel acceptance DC voltage low
drift device
values
Outside normal
Voltage high, amps Design, general
EPIX 460 10/19/99 0 Panel acceptance Repaired device
low design inadequacy
values
4-7
Industry Experience
Table 4-2 (cont.)

Doc MW
Type lost
Equipment age &

Replaced fuse with
EPIX 30 8/10/98 0 Rectifier No output Low side fuse blown marginal design
larger size fuse
margin
No power to CP
EPIX 558 1/23/99 0 Rectifier Supply breaker open Undetermined Closed breaker
rectifier
Procedures, Closed breaker -

No power to CP
EPIX 839 4/11/02 0 Rectifier Supply breaker open omission of relevant applied administrative
rectifier
information controls
Design, improper
No power to CP
EPIX 258 11/25/98 0 Rectifier Supply breaker open component or Replaced device
rectifier
material selection
Spurious, non-
No power to CP
EPIX 504 8/29/98 0 Rectifier Supply breaker open repeatable operation Restored normal lineup
rectifier
of this device
EPIX 123 1/30/97 0 Rectifier No voltage Rectifier shorted Age Replaced rectifier
Outside normal
Design, general
EPIX 463 10/19/99 0 Rectifier acceptance Low amps Repaired device
design inadequacy
values
Outside normal
Design, general
EPIX 464 10/19/99 0 Rectifier acceptance Low amps Repaired device
design inadequacy
values
Smoke and
EPIX 472 5/29/03 0 Rectifier Overheated Undetermined Replaced parts
sparks
4-8
Industry Experience
Table 4-2 (cont.)

Doc MW
Type lost
Repair and replace

Rectifier and
EPIX 458 10/17/99 0 No voltage Open circuit Lightning components as
panel
necessary
Supply No power to CP Age/service related

EPIX 527 4/25/00 14080 Breaker failed open Replaced breaker
Breaker panel wear
EPIX 363 4/25/97 0 Transformers No voltage Shorted secondary Age Replaced transformer
4-9
Industry Experience
4.1.3 INPO Operating Experience
The INPO Operating Experience database was queried and reviewed for cathodic protection and
corrosion experience. Table 4-3 is a summary of the relevant INPO operating experience data.
Impressed current systems were the subject of nine of the Operating Experience reports. Three of
the reports dealt with personnel safety issues. Improper operation of the cathodic protection
system was the subject of four additional reports. The remaining reports address stray current
and a short circuit.
4.1.3.1 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems
Two of the personnel safety issues were the results of leaving the cathodic protection system
turned on when workmen were working on the protected equipment. One of the reports
concerned a diver inspecting the intake structure and receiving an electrical shock that was traced
back to the impressed current cathodic protection system for the intake structure. When this
diving inspection had been made previously, the diver always wore a wet suit, which was not
done this time due to water temperature. The corrective action was to change the out-of-service
procedure to turn the cathodic protection system off before inspection work is performed.

A diver inspecting the intake structure and receiving an electrical shock that
was traced back to the impressed current cathodic protection system for the
intake structure.
The second case of leaving the cathodic protection system on was the result of a new cathodic
protection system being installed on a condenser waterbox and not recognizing the potential for a
shock hazard to working craft personnel. The corrective action was to change the procedure for
taking the condenser waterbox out of service.

The second case of leaving the cathodic protection system on was the
result of a new cathodic protection system being installed on a condenser
waterbox and not recognizing the potential for a shock hazard to working
craft personnel
The final personnel safety issue involved the ionic material that moves from the anode to the
cathode. While a condenser waterbox was being cleaned, a workman scrapping off foreign
material inside the condenser waterbox material developed a severe rash. Work was
discontinued, and an investigation revealed that the material being scrapped off had a pH of
around 12, which is indicative of a strong base. The investigation revealed that this material was
from the impressed current cathodic protection anode. The corrective action was to change the
procedure for the personnel, requiring them to use protective equipment.
4-10
Industry Experience

A workman scrapping off foreign material inside the condenser waterbox
material developed a severe rash. Material being scrapped off had a pH of
around 12, which required the personnel to use protective equipment.
A lack of sufficient cathodic protection current resulted in an Operating Experience report that
concerned a leak due to excessive corrosion, after the impressed current system had not
functioned properly for several years. Once the leak was discovered, the line was repaired, a new
comprehensive leak detection and abatement program was established and a new deep well
cathodic protection system installed. However, another Operating Experience report addressed a
case of too much cathodic protection current being used. In this report, the impressed current
cathodic protection system operation was set too high, which led to damage of the titanium
condenser tube ends. The corrective action was to reduce the current setting for the cathodic
protection system.
A degraded condenser caused a forced power reduction. The resulting investigation revealed that
a cooling tower screen had degraded due to corrosion and buckled, allowing debris to enter the
cooling tower and the condenser. The corrective actions included (1) determining whether the
cathodic protection system was sufficient to protect the carbon steel frames and (2) evaluating
existing design of the flume screens to determine whether heavier structural shapes and/or
additional structural members could be used to prolong the frames’ service life.
The final impressed current cathodic protection systems report deals with an issue of stray
currents in protected equipment. The service water pump design included a cathodic protection
system. After the pump shaft failed, tests performed on the remaining pumps confirmed that
when the pumps were running, there was an electrical path for stray currents to flow from the
pump shaft to the pump case through the lower set of motor bearings. When the pumps were not
running, the stray current was not present. The corrective action was to install a shaft grounding
system to control the stray current flow.
4.1.3.2 Anodes
Impressed current anodes were addressed in two reports and a sacrificial anode in one report.
The first impressed current anode issue was a design issue of improper design for replacement
anode that did not place them in intimate contact with the soil, thereby causing lower-than-
expected currents due to the higher contact resistance. The second issue was electrical noise
caused by a bad connection to an anode, which fed back into the plant’s electrical system,
causing operation problems for a digital regulator. The anode was repaired, and the noise issue
was resolved.
4-11
Industry Experience
The sacrificial anode issue was the result of chemistry changes in the cooling water supply that
allowed for a zinc carbonate bloom around the sacrificial anode. The zinc carbonate bloom
caused a blockage, creating a high flow velocity and excessive local turbulence leading to
erosion-corrosion at the inlet ends of the cooler tubes. As a potential corrective action, the plant
was investigating the use of impressed cathodic protection versus the current sacrificial anode
system.
4.1.3.3 Coatings
Coating issues were addressed by three Operating Experience reports. The first coating issue was
a containment drywell where breaks in the coating led to through-wall pitting corrosion. The
corrective action was to repair the drywell and to change the coating inspection procedures. The
same Operating Experience report also had a general corrosion issue resulting in a through-
drywell corrosion. A glove was lost in the concrete behind the drywell liner during plant
construction. The glove was in contact with the back of the drywell liner, causing general
corrosion to occur. The corrective action was to repair the drywell liner.
The subject of the second OE coating record was a damaged condenser waterbox coating. The
damaged coatings led to accelerated galvanic corrosion of the condenser waterbox by through-
wall leaks due to the limited anodic area compared to the large cathodic area. The corrective
action was to implement a better coating inspection and to investigate the use of a cathodic
protection system. The final coating record involved vendor-supplied pipe that was coated on the
inside to prevent corrosion. The coating started to come off the pipe and could have potentially
plugged the coolers. The corrective actions that were investigated included the use of a different
corrosion resistant material for the pipe and the use of a cathodic protection system.
4.1.3.4 Other Corrosion Issues
Four records were put into this category. They address general or galvanic corrosion issues. The
first was a case where a cutlass sleeve bearing was changed to a Thordon sleeve bearing and was
not analyzed for corrosion. The Thordon bearing shell is nickel-aluminum bronze instead of
naval brass. This change increased the potential difference between other parts on the circulating
water pump, causing an electrochemical cell to develop that attacked the diffuser plate female
threads, which eventually caused the loss of the bolted connection. The corrective actions
included (1) revising the design control manual to add questions determining whether a design
change requires a materials engineering discipline review, (2) evaluating the pump material
configuration to determine how the galvanic protection of the pump can be improved, and (3)
checking for potential sources that may be caused by dc leaks and checking the cathodic
protection system.
A coated and wrapped carbon steel pipeline, which was direct-buried, developed a leak that was
determined to be caused by a defect in the external coating, leading to localized corrosion and
loss of pressure boundary integrity. Salt-water permeation of the soil and lack of cathodic
protection may have accelerated the corrosion process. The corrective action was to repair the
line and add the line to the underground piping integrity program.
4-12
Industry Experience
Spalling started to occur on the wall and floors inside an intake structure. The cause of the
spalling was chloride-induced rebar corrosion. The chloride source in the concrete was the result
of the concrete not being coated for the first 20 years of service. The corrective actions included
(1) removing the corroded rebar and surrounding concrete and replacing it, (2) installing a
cathodic protection system, and (3) performing a corrosion potential survey to determine other
suspect areas.
A manhole had a potential buildup of hydrogen gas. The gas was the result of the galvanic
corrosion cell created by the zinc-coated metals with the water in the manhole. The inflow of
water to the manholes brought soil (contaminants) that caused the galvanic attack. No corrective
action was required because the appropriate procedures were followed in identifying the hostile
environment.
4-13
Industry Experience
Table 4-3
INPO Operating Experience Summary
OE MW Failure
No. Equipment/Issue Failure Mode Failure Cause Corrective Action
Date lost Mechanism
New anodes of a Added old anodes in

canister design, parallel and achieved
Anode-cathodic which needs Improper design for proper readings. New
OE11812 8/24/00 No Low current flow
protection intimate contact replacement anodes canisters will corrode
with ground to be and come into intimate
effective contact with the soil.
Created
electrical noise
Anode impressed
OE18632 6/25/04 No that interfered Bad connection Repaired
current
with digital
voltage regulator
Pitting or corrosion. Due Temporary air

Underground
Buried station air Bubbles coming to age, cathodic compressor Line to be
OE14585 7/30/02 No station air piping
piping from ground protection may not be repaired or modified as
leak
adequate required
Circulating water Pump Trip on Galvanic corrosion of

OE19243 6/10/04 No Missing Bolts Revised Materials
pump high current bolts
(1) Looking for

Anode bloom in alternative means of
gearbox causing providing cathodic
12/20/03 Condensate pump Water leaked high velocities and protection
0E17664 No Erosion and corrosion
12/23/03 gearbox oil coolers into gearbox turbulence leading (2) Establish PM
to erosion- activity to periodically
corrosion replace gearbox oil
coolers
Cathodic New cathodic protection

Condenser Mechanic Protection live system. Did not
OE10988 5/16/00 No Procedure Change
waterbox shocked while workmen recognize need to turned
working CP system off
4-14
Industry Experience
Table 4-3 (cont.)

OE MW Failure
Date lost Mechanism
Ionic material from ionic

cathodic protection Changed procedure for
Condenser
OE15985 4/16/03 No Personnel injury High pH material anode deposited on personnel protective
waterbox
condenser wall had a equipment
high pH value
(1) Implement
inspection plan for
Condenser Through-wall Accelerated coatings and (2)
OE10238 9/10/99 No Coating damaged
waterbox leaks galvanic corrosion Investigate use of a
cathodic protection
system
Pitting corrosion caused

by breaks in protective
Pitting corrosion coating. The general Drywell liner repaired.
Through-wall
OE10179 8/19/99 No Containment drywell and general corrosion cause by cloth Revised coating
leaks
corrosion debris on backside of inspection procedure.
liner from original
construction
Fill material Panel bending due to Cathodic protection

Degraded panel
OE14826 9/20/02 Yes Cooling tower restricting circ. corrosion of the carbon system being
screen
water flow steel screen evaluated
Replaced wire,
Cabinet wire Vibration caused wire to checked other CP
OE14918 10/31/02 No CP rectifier cabinet Fire shorted to ground rub on sharp metal edge cabinets for similar
inside cabinet inside cabinet. configurations and
repaired as needed.
4-15
Industry Experience
Table 4-3 (cont.)

OE MW Failure
Date lost Mechanism
(1) Surface too smooth

for adequate adhesion of Corrosion resistant
Possible Plasite (2) Presence of material Cathodic
Essential cooling Pipe Plasite
SER68- clogging of cutting oils on surface protection as
9/25/84 No water system pipe coating coming off
83 coolers on DG during application of alternative to epoxy
lining failures pipe surface
engines Plasite, (3) Devices coatings Periodic
sealed before complete inspections
curing of plastic
Adding to underground
Hole in welded
OE16189 4/3/03 No Fuel oil line Leak Corrosion piping integrity
piping
program
Concrete Repairing structure,

Saltwater intrusion before
OE18658 6/21/04 No Intake structure spalling – floor Rebar corrosion Installed cathodic
concrete was coated
and walls protection system
Live anodes in Cathodic protection not

OE16717 8/12/03 No Intake structure Diver shocked Procedure Change
water with diver turned off
Galvanic corrosion None personnel

between zinc coated correctly used
Potential Galvanic
metal and soil monitoring equipment
OE16589 7/18/03 No Manhole hydrogen gas corrosion of the
contaminants contained to detect hazardous
buildup zinc coated metal
in the water in the atmosphere as require
manhole by plant procedure
Corrosion fatigue
Service water cracking and Installation of shaft
OE10198 9/27/99 No Shaft sheared Stray current corrosion
pumps resulting torsional grounding system
overload
4-16
Industry Experience
Table 4-3 (cont.)

OE MW Failure
Date lost Mechanism
Deep well cathodic

protection system
Leak - Tritium Cathodic protection not installed.
Tanks and Excessive
OE7067 10/19/94 No released to functioning properly for Comprehensive
underground piping corrosion
ground several years program for leak
detection and
abatement established.
Cracked and Cathodic protection

Titanium condenser Cathodic protection
OE2843 8/29/88 No Chipped tube Hydride Corrosion operating levels were
tubing current too high
ends reduced
4-17
Industry Experience
4.1.4 NERC/GADS Database
The NERC/GADS database was searched for failures related to the cathodic protection system.
Between 1950 and 2002, there were 142 instances of such failures, which caused a loss of 31,000
MW due to derating. A more detailed failure history and an itemization of any loss of output due
to the failures of cathodic protection systems on other components are not available.
4.2 NRC Regulatory Guides
Regulatory 1.137, Fuel Oil Systems for Standby Diesel Generators addresses the requirements
for installing cathodic protection in the fuel oil system. Regulatory Guide 1.137 recommends that
Section 7.5 of ANSI N195-1976 be followed which requires that protection against external and
internal corrosion be provided for the fuel oil system. This standard requires that for buried oil
supply tanks and other buried portions of the system, a protective coating and an impressed
current cathodic protection should be provided in accordance with NACE Standard RP-01-69
(1972 Revision, “Recommended practice-Control of External Corrosion on Underground or
Submerged Metallic Piping Systems.” The standard also requires that the system should be
designed to prevent the ignition of combustible vapors or fuel oil.
Regulatory Guide 1.137 requires that for those fuel oil systems that have an impressed current
cathodic protection systems, surveillance of the cathodic protection system should be conducted
as follows:
At intervals not exceeding 12 months, tests should be conducted on each underground system to
determine whether the protection is adequate.
1. The test leads should be maintained in such a condition that electrical measurements can be
obtained to ensure the system is adequately protected.
2. At intervals not exceeding two months, each of the cathodic protection rectifiers should be
inspected.
3. Records of each inspection and test be maintained over the life of the facility to assist in
evaluating the extent of degradation of the corrosion protection systems.
4.3 NRC Summary for IE Notices
The NRC has issued five information notices concerning aspects of corrosion. Three notices
address galvanic corrosion, one addresses microbiological corrosion and one addresses graphitic
corrosion. Table 4-4 provides a summary of these notices. The NRC has not issued any generic
communication that specifically addresses cathodic protection concerns or lessons learned.
The three notices that addressed galvanic corrosion address both short-term and long-term
galvanic corrosion issues. IN 94-66 addresses a case where a valve had maintenance performed
to replace a stem and washers months before it failed due to galvanic corrosion. The new parts
formed a galvanic cell that corroded the stem and spacers together sufficiently to prevent the
4-18
Industry Experience
valve from stroking on demand during its first quarterly surveillance test after the parts had been
replaced. The information notice cites several other similar examples and provides reasons for
the quick degradation. The corrective action was to replace the stem and spacer materials with
materials that would not form a galvanic corrosion cell. IN 94-61 is another example of galvanic
corrosion when the proper conditions are present. Some power plants thought they had all
stainless steel valves; however, in some cases, the disk holder was made with carbon steel. The
disk holder was mounted between the stainless steel stem and disk, thereby setting up a galvanic
cell. The corrosion caused the disk to separate from the stem, thus not allowing the valve to
open. This corrosion was not visible, nor detectable by valve performance before the valve disk
separated from the stem. The plants were not able to inspect for the corrosion without taking the
valve apart. These examples of galvanic corrosion demonstrate that one needs to be careful in
material selection, because they are examples of situations that cathodic protection could not
readily guard against.
IN 86-99 discusses degradation of steel containment caused by a water environment on the

external side. The containment had a sand layer, which acts as a cushion and allows expansion of
the drywell during operation. Water from the reactor cavity leaked down and around the outside
of the drywell through the insulation in the air gap and into the sand bed and due to drain pipe
issues, the sand remained moist. Corrosion was found in the steel containment (drywell shell)
that was in contact with sand in those areas where corrosion has been detected. The containment
material is carbon steel plate. The outside surface was protected with a red lead coating from
above the drywell down to about the 10-ft level, which means that the interface between the lead
paint and the unprotected steel was in contact with wet sand. Red lead protects steel by providing
a stable and impenetrable surface, but the steel is sacrificial with respect to the lead in dilute,
acidic water conditions, setting up a local galvanic corrosion cell. The corrective actions were
continued monitoring, drying out the external sand and adding additional coatings. Also,
sacrificial anodic cathodic protection was installed in the bays with the greatest wall thinning.
Subsequent UT thickness measurements in these bays indicated that the cathodic protection was
ineffective due to drying out of the sand around the anodes. As a corrective measure it was
recommended to flood the sand bed and install cathodic protection on all bays for the cathodic
protection to be effective. The plant decided that large amount of water in the sand would be
counter productive and instead instituted a periodic monitoring program wherein the leak paths
into the drywell gap would be identified and these paths and correct them. Subsequently, the
drywell shell was cleaned and coated with a two-part epoxy coating. The drainage issue was
resolved and the sand bed was removed. A monitoring program was instituted with the following
activities:
• Periodic visual examination of the epoxy paint
• UT measurements of the drywell shell above the sand bed
• Inspections for leakage from the reactor cavity.
4-19
Industry Experience
Table 4-4
NRC Generic Communications
NRC Failure Failure

Document Title Equipment Failure Cause Corrective Action
Number Mode Mechanism
Overspeed of Turbine-Driven Valve Galvanic corrosion

Stuck valve
94-66 Pumps Caused by Governor Turbine-driven pumps would not between valve Replaced materials
stem
Valve Stem Binding stroke stem and spacers
Valve Stem became

Corrosion of William Powell William Powell gate Galvanic corrosion
94-61 would not detached from Replaced materials
Gate Valve Disc Holders valves of the disc holder
open the disc
Numerous actions to
Thinning of the Galvanic corrosion
Degradation of Steel Not track corrosion
86-99 Steel containments steel of the steel to the
Containments Applicable progress and to dry
containment red lead paint
area of concern
Coatings in
conjunction with
Microbiologically Induced Pressure Pinhole leaks in Cathodic protection,
Microbiologically
85-30 Corrosion of Containment Piping systems boundary heat affected Water treatment,
induced corrosion
Service Water System leaks zones of welds Water movement,
Cleaning and dry lay
up
Replaced parts,
addition of "sacrificial"
Graphitic Corrosion of Cast Waterbox for heat Through-
84-71 Leakage Graphitic corrosion zinc plates, apply
Iron in Salt Water exchanger wall holes
coating to cast iron,
cathodic protection
4-20
Industry Experience
4.4 Survey Data and Summary
A survey was sent to the power industry to determine what the experience has been with the
application cathodic protection in power plants.
4.4.1 Plant Equipment Protected by CP System
A survey of cathodic protection systems of selected power plants was performed for a few key
aspects of cathodic protection equipment maintenance activities. Table 4-5 provides for each
equipment type the percentages of plants by cathodic protection system, no cathodic protection
or no reported information, and Table 4-6 provides the data collected via the survey. Over 50%
of the reporting plants have cathodic protection systems on their condenser waterboxes, intake
structures, underground pipes, and other submerged equipment.
Table 4-5
Percentage of Plant Equipment Protected by CP System
Impressed Sacrificial
No Cathodic No Reported
Current Anode
Protection Information
System System
Condenser Waterboxes 22% 33% 33% 11%
Traveling Screens 22% 17% 28% 33%
Intake Structures 39% 17% 22% 22%
Piles 22% 0% 17% 61%
Underground Pipes1 67% 11% 6% 6%
Inside Surface of Pipes 6% 0% 61% 33%
Heat Exchangers 6% 28% 44% 22%
Other Submerged Equipment 33% 28% 11% 28%
Switchyard—Grounding Grid 28% 0% 33% 39%
Note 1: Two plants (11%) use both impressed current and sacrificial anode systems to protect their underground
piping systems.
4.4.2 Design Life
From the survey, the reported average design life of cathodic protection systems was 31.7 years
with the shortest being 1 year and the longest 40 years. The 1-year life was for planned
replacement of sacrificial anodes. The average time the systems have been in service is 29.3
years with the shortest being 2 years and the longest being 50 years.
4-21
Industry Experience
4.4.3 Equipment Failures
Approximately one third of the plants responding to the survey reported that they have had
equipment failures that were attributed to lack of, or inadequate, cathodic protection. The failures
included the following:
Pinhole leaks in essential service water piping

• Underground water pipe corrosion when the cathodic protection panels that were not in-
service
• Auxiliary salt water embedded piping failed before cathodic protection (CP) was installed
• Degraded anode beds and incorrectly installed cathodic protection system (CPS) for certain
equipment/components
• Complete replacement of 4 condenser waterboxes due to poor cathodic protection
• Condenser waterbox corrosion due to failed epoxy coating.
4.4.4 Cathodic Protection Component Replacements
Approximately 89% of the plants responding to the survey indicated that they have replaced
cathodic protection system components. The most frequently replaced item is the sacrificial
anode because it was expended over its design life or because something caused it to break off
from the equipment it was protecting. Several plants have replaced deep well anode beds. In one
case, the deep well anode system was replaced with a distributed anode bed system; in other
cases, new deep wells were installed.
The rectifiers are the next most common item to be replaced. The reported life of a rectifier is 20
to 30 years, at which point the selenium stacks or transformers need to be replaced.
4-22
Industry Experience
Table 4-6
Consolidated Plant Data for Cathodic Protection System
Plant No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
13
11-IC rectifiers
Types of CP
8 - IC various
Systems 8-SA sized
anodes
Have Layout Not Many

Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes No No Yes
Drawings? Dwgs
Protected
Equipment:
Condenser
Sacrificial Impressed None Impressed Impressed Impressed None Sacrificial Sacrificial None
Waterboxes
Traveling
Impressed None Impressed Sacrificial Sacrificial Impressed Sacrificial None
Screens
Intake
Sacrificial Impressed Impressed Sacrificial Impressed Impressed Sacrificial None None
Structures
Piles None None Impressed Impressed None
Underground
Impressed Impressed Impressed Impressed Impressed Impressed Impressed Sacrificial Impressed
Pipes
Inside
surface of None None None None None None None
pipes
Heat
Sacrificial Impressed None Sacrificial None None Sacrificial Sacrificial None
Exchangers
Other
Submerged Impressed Sacrificial Impressed Sacrificial Sacrificial Sacrificial Impressed Sacrificial None
Equipment
4-23
Industry Experience
Table 4-6 (cont.)

Plant No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Switchyard
– Grounding Impressed None Impressed Impressed Impressed None None
Grid
Assume
Design Life
design Life
of CP Design
of 20
System/ Life is 40
years; no
Years in years
info in Tech
Service
Manuals
Sacrificial 12-18 Approx

Anode 1-2/Varies 40/20 months / 40/20 5 yr / 15/20
System 18-30 yr Various
Local
Distributed 20/9 40/20 25/30 yr 40/20 40/35
Anode Bed
Remote
40/20 n/a
Anode Bed
Deep Well
Anode Bed
?/25 40/20 n/a 40/10
100 feet or
less deep
Deep Well
Anode Bed
greater than 40/20 n/a
100 feet
deep
Rectifiers 35/30 20/2 40/20 25/30 yr 40/20 40/35
4-24
Industry Experience
Table 4-6 (cont.)

Plant No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Reference
40/20 25/30 yr 40/20 40/35 15/20
Cells
Auxiliary Pinhole Incorrectly

Salt Water leaks in installed
Equipment embedded essential CPS
None None None None None None None
Failures piping service Degraded
before CP water anode
installed piping. beds
Deep well
Anodes
anode CP
were
system
replaced
replaced
on one
with
Circ Water rectifier Sacrificial
distributed
pump some anodes,
anode
anodes Rectifiers, Condense years ago. regular
system.
due to anodes r anodes When replaceme
Replaced Sacrificial Replaced Rectifiers & Anodes
breakage. for and current nt (6
CP Systems anodes 1- selenium reference most, 3-4 No
Waterbox condenser electrodes sys fails to monthly to
Components 2 cycles stacks in all cells years
reference waterboxe , various pass yearly) at
rectifiers;
electrodes s each cycle routine the end of
originally
due to inspection the design
installed in
wear / tests, life.
1979. They
anodes
lasted
are
approximat
disconnec
ely 25
ted.
years.
Monitoring
Maintenance Maintenan
Program for ce Rule
CP
4-25
Industry Experience
Table 4-6 (cont.)

Plant No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Circ Water
Sacrificial
Visual Rebar -
Systems
Refueling
Impressed
No Formal Annual
Current 6 mthly
Program visual
Systems
Water
Rectifier Quarterly Bi-weekly Ops – M
Systems -
Panel Weekly Ops I&C – 2M
W Monthly Annual
Inspection walk Check 18 For DG
Embedde
Frequency downs M PM Fuel Tank
d Sys - M
Structure-
Soil
Quarterly Annual 5 yrs
Potential
Survey
Test Station
Other
Historical None Note 1 Note 2 Note 3 Note 4 Note 5
Information
Plant Name 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Types of CP
Impressed
Systems
Have Layout
No Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No Yes
Drawings?
4-26
Industry Experience
Table 4-6 (cont.)

Plant No. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Protected
Equipment:
Condenser
Sacrificial None Sacrificial None Sacrificial None
Waterboxes
Traveling
None Impressed None None
Screens
Intake
None Impressed Impressed None Impressed Impressed
Structures
Piles Impressed Impressed
Undergroun Sacrificial/ Sacrificial/

Sacrificial Impressed Impressed Impressed Impressed None Impressed
d Pipes Impressed Impressed
Inside
surface of None None Impressed None None
pipes
Heat
None None None Sacrificial None
exchangers
Other
submerged Impressed Impressed Impressed None Impressed
Equipment
Switchyard –
Grounding None Impressed None None
Grid
4-27
Industry Experience
Table 4-6 (cont.)

Plant No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
No
Some deep
specific
wells
Design Life design life
designed
of CP -
for 20 yrs. Don't
System/ Determine N/A
Sacrificial Know
Years in d by
Anodes
Service yearly
designed
potential
for 1 yr
surveys
Sacrificial
Anode _/2 N/A 1 to 20/27 <15/19 _/10
System
Local
Distributed _/2 18 1 to 20/27 Unknown 20/11
Anode Bed
Remote
N/A 1 to 20/27 Unknown
Anode Bed
Deep Well
Anode Bed
N/A 1 to 20/27 Unknown 30/50
100 feet or
less deep
Deep Well
Anode Bed
greater than 18 20/27 _/19 20/20 20/15
100 feet
deep
20/21 &
Rectifiers _/2 18 1 to 20/27 Unknown/0 20/20 20/20
15
4-28
Industry Experience
Table 4-6 (cont.)

Plant No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Reference
_/2 N/A 1 to 20/27 _/19 20 ?/15
Cells
Condens
Underground er
water pipe waterbox
4
Equipment corrosion corrosion
condenser None None None None None
Failures due to CP due to
waterboxes
panels not in failed
service epoxy
coating
Two deep
well anode
beds due to
Anodes on anodes
Replaced
condenser being
internals of
waterboxes expended
cathodic
frequently or damaged The Rectifier,
protection Distributed
replaced cabling in Electrolyte rectifiers transform
panels, anode bed
using the well. in and the er & fuse.
Replaced transformers, 400 ft. systems
impressed Several polarization anode Compone
CP systems rectifiers, etc. horizontal replaced
current rectifiers cells, once beds have nt failure
components Install three bed with deep
system. based on in station been are rare
new 250-ft anode bed
Entire CP the inability lifetime. replaced and
deep anode systems
system for to produce once. infrequent
wells. Wells
well water output.
have lasted
tower was Generally,
25 years.
replaced the
selenium
stacks had
degraded.
4-29
Industry Experience
Table 4-6 (cont.)

Plant No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Monitoring
Developi
maintenance Developing
ng
Program for Program
Program
CP
Sacrificial
Systems
Impressed
Current
Systems
Annual
Rectifier
Ops - except for
Panel
Daily for circulating Quarterly Monthly Quarterly Monthly Monthly
Inspection
operation water on
Frequency
refuel
Structure-
Soil
Annual Annual Annual Annual
Potential
Survey
Not
Test Station
Monitored
Other
historical Note 6 Note 7 Note 8 Note 9
information
4-30
Industry Experience
Notes
Note 1 Rectifiers are mostly Goodall and they are out of date. Recent rectifiers are from Universal.
Note 2 HARCO Test-Maintenance Manual 1999.
Note 4 Have manual, original installation test data, soil resistivity readings. Original resistivity readings at 10-ft depth ranged from 24,000 to
210,000 ohms. Need to look into whether a system can operate effectively in such soil. System is in need of attention. Action item to
assess general system condition, assess risk to plant, and recommend plan to repair/test/etc.
Note 5 Soil resistivity issues in dry weather on sandy soils when using sacrificial anodes.
Note 6 Operations manual on new system installed on wellwater tower.
Note 7 Other data include protection of concrete pressure piping that looked at reducing potential coverage to avoid impressing too much
current that would affect the high tensile strength reinforcing wiring. The station now ensures that the potentials are < -1.00 for
coverage. In June 2005 [?], the station conducted eddy current testing of the concrete pressure piping in the circulating water system
and was awaiting its results to determine the condition of the station’s piping integrity (i.e., high tensile strength wire condition). This
test was recommended by the station’s recent life cycle management study.
The cathodic protection system is looked at as a low-priority system at the station and does not receive a lot of attention. As a result,
some work orders are over 1,800 days old. The current cathodic work has been assigned to maintenance contractor to repair and/or
replace as required. The funding is extremely limited each year to correct the system deficiencies.
Note 8 Other information includes OPEX and station condition records from other OPG stations, and manufacturer's manuals for reference
cells. 2002/2004 SG Fuel Oil Study reports found piping to be in good condition, but reference potentials are far too low. This is
considered inadequate to provide the necessary protection. No spare parts (rectifiers, anodes, etc) exist. Magnesium anodes have
been dug up and found to be completely spent.
Note 9 Cathodic Protection Maintenance Manual and Good All Rectifiers Instruction Manual.
4-31
5
FAILURE MODES AND MECHANISMS
The relevant industry failure data and survey results contained in section 4 are analyzed and the
cathodic protection system component failure modes, failure mechanisms, and relevant
corrective measures are identified in this section.
A typical sacrificial anode system consists of the following components:

• Test station
A typical impressed system consists of the following components:

• Relatively Inert anode
• Transformer (where needed)
• dc power source (rectifier, batteries, etc.)
• Inter connecting cables
• Control panel
• Circuit breaker
• Fuses
• Meters (current, voltage)
• Test station
• Anode junction box
The failure modes of the above components are discussed in this section.
5-1
Failure Modes and Mechanisms
5.1 Anodes
Sacrificial anodes are typically mounted on the structure. Over time, these anodes can break off
from the structure and if the structure is rotating or moving equipment (e.g. pump impeller or a
valve disc), the anodes can jam the equipment. The anodes may also clog filters, pipes, or tubing.
The corrective measure to prevent such an event is to initiate or increase the frequency of
inspections. Any anodes that are found to likely break off can be replaced or the mounting can be
strengthened.
The sacrificial anode is made of highly pH material and if proper precautions are not taken, it
may cause adverse reactions to the personnel that come in contact with it. If the anode depletes,
the rectifier may not be able to put out sufficient current to maintain the cathodic protection. If
the anode is not in intimate contact with the soil, lower than expected currents are carried due to
the higher contact resistance.
Also, if there is a bad connection between the conductor and anode, the electrical noise may
affect the plant’s electrical system and especially electronics.
5.2 Anode Beds
Anode beds affect the effectiveness of the cathodic protection system. If there is not sufficient
moisture in the soil, the soil electrical resistance increases which would require higher voltages
to provide the same cathodic protection. Any soil movement may cause breakage of the
connections between the conductors and the anodes.
5.3 Fuse
If conditions change such as increased cathodic protection requirements due to new structures,
interference, or geological changes, the cathodic protection system components maybe
undersized for the increased load. The increased load would require increased current. The fuses
may be undersized for the increased load.
5.4 Coating and Liner
Defects in the external coating applied on pipe and other components could have accelerated
corrosion at the location of a defect. If the component is in contact with soil or other conducting
medium this corrosion is accelerated. Breaks in the coating may lead to through wall pitting
corrosion. Increased coating inspection may prevent this. Damaged coating may lead to galvanic
corrosion due to the limited anodic area compared to the large cathodic area. The corrective
action is to implement a better coating inspection and to investigate the use of a cathodic
protection system.
5-2
Coatings inside pipes may come lose and plug coolers, heat exchangers, filters, and other
appurtenances. The corrective action is to change to a different coating material and/or coating
application methods or use a cathodic protection system.
Defects on the external coating of a direct-buried pipe may cause localized corrosion. The
corrective action was to repair the line and install cathodic protection system.
If certain portions of the material is coated and some not, the coating such as lead on steel, steel
becomes sacrificial with respect to lead in water conditions, setting up a local galvanic corrosion
cell.
If a liner is used and if the liner is defective, local corrosion can occur at the location of the
defect and this corrosion can be very rapid. This failure mode is indicative of a lack of cathodic
protection.
5.5 Continuity
Even though cathodic protection is implemented, if the contact between the elements of the
protected equipment is broken, the cathodic protection capability is lost. Similarly, the electrical
bonding of the conductor and the protecting equipment may be lost resulting in loss of cathodic
protection. Buried cables without sufficient protection may be cut or short-circuited due to
construction activities or due to heavy loads.
5.6 Aging
The cathodic protection components especially the electronics and conductor insulation lose their
properties with age. This aging is prevalent at elevated temperatures and humidity. As cathodic
protection equipment is typically in service for more than 20 years, aging is expected to be
prevalent. The aging affects mainly transformers, rectifiers, and wiring.
5.7 Personnel Safety
When personnel are working on the protected equipment, they are likely get electrical shocks if
they do not use protective equipment or protective clothing.
5.8 Under Protection
If the measured potentials of the structure are not as negative as required by one or more of the
applicable criteria for cathodic protection, some corrosion of the structure may occur. However,
the corrosion of the structure will be reduced in proportion to amount of current supplied. When
protective currents are totally interrupted, corrosion will usually return to a normal rate after a
short period of time.
5-3
5.9 Excessive Cathodic Protection
In addition to being wasteful of anode material or electrical power, excess potentials can cause
disbondment of protective coatings and can cause hydrogen embrittlement of certain types of
steels, especially high strength steels. In addition to the chemical corrosion damage that can
occur on aluminum and lead structures if limiting potentials are exceeded in the negative
direction, excessive negative potentials can also damage other metals.
Excess cathodic protection potentials can also result in the generation of hydrogen gas. When the
cathodic protection potential reaches the polarized potential of -1.12 V (instant off), with respect
to a copper/copper sulfate reference electrode, the generation of hydrogen gas will occur. When
hydrogen gas is generated, it is often trapped between the coating and the surface and causes
blisters and disbonding of the coating.
Electrolyte can subsequently fill the gap between the coating and the metal and as the coating is
an electrical insulator, sufficient current for effective cathodic protection cannot reach the
affected area and corrosion will occur. Coating disbondment is a particular problem in water
tanks. In soil environments when high-quality coatings are used, disbondment is seldom
encountered at potentials less than -1.6 V (current on) or -1.12 polarized potential (instant off).
5.10 Hydrogen Generation
Enclosed or confined areas such as manholes have the potential buildup of hydrogen gas due to
galvanic corrosion cell created by the zinc-coated metals with water. These areas should always
be surveyed prior to people entering and should be periodically aired to prevent the buildup of
explosive gases.
5.11 Hydrogen Embrittlement
The hydrogen produced when cathodic protection currents are excessive can also result in the
reduction of the ductility of steel. This is particularly true for high strength steels (in excess of
130,000 pounds per square inch (896 Bar) yield strength).
5.12 Stray Currents
If rotating equipment is not grounded such as motors, stray currents may be generated, which
may counteract cathodic protection.
5.13 Water Chemistry
Changes in the chemistry may cause formation of obstructions (e.g., zinc carbonate bloom)
around the sacrificial anodes that may cause changes in the flow pattern. These formations in
turn cause high flow velocity and excessive local turbulence leading to erosion-corrosion. In
such cases impressed current system cathodic protection may be used.
5-4
5.14 Galvanic Corrosion
Use of different materials in contact may cause increased galvanic corrosion, such as nickel-
aluminum bronze versus naval brass. Incorrect selection of materials that come in contact with
each other may lead to the formation of galvanic cells. This is especially true with the
replacement components that are not thoroughly investigated. Some examples are the spacer
materials, valve stems, bolts, valves and valve internals. To prevent such problems, the materials
should be carefully selected. Installation of a cathodic protection may not be able to prevent such
failures.
5.15 Spalling Rebars
Concrete spalling may be caused by chloride induced rebar corrosion. To prevent spalling, the
rebars should be coated. The corrective actions may include replacing corroded rebars and
concrete and installing a cathodic protection system.
Table 5-1
Failure Modes, Mechanisms, Causes and Corrective actions
Aging
Failure Corrective
Component Mechanis Failure Mechanism Failure Cause
Mode Action
m
Sacrificial anode
Lack of Perform periodic
caught between the Normal wastage
Anode Age required inspection of the
valve disc and the of the anode
movement anodes
seating surface
Severe
Anode Age Severe Corrosion Equipment Age Repair equipment
Corrosion
Cathodic protection Inadequate Revise preventive

Pump
Anode Age anode jammed preventive maintenance
Stopped
impeller maintenance program
Anode Age Depletion Depletion of anode Age Replace anode
Voltage high, amps

Anode Age Degradation Age Replace anode
low
Low High resistance Improper design

Improper Use better
Anode current between the anode of canisters for
design canisters
flow and soil anodes
Electrical Interference with Repair

Anode Random Bad connection
noise digital devices connection
Loss of Supply breaker

Breaker Overload Undetermined Close breaker
power open
Failure to Replace
Breaker Age Breaker failed open Wear
open component
5-5
Table 5-1 (cont.)

Aging
Failure Corrective
Mode Action
m
Replace
Vibration caused damaged
wire to rub on components and
Cabinet Bad design Fire Electrical short cables and test
sharp metal edge
inside cabinet. Modify to
eliminate rubbing.
Improper area
scanning -Cables
Human Open
Cable Cable damage cut during Repair cable
error circuit
construction of
new road
Cable not buried

Short deep enough -
Cable Damage Cable damage Repair cable
circuit run over by
heavy equipment
Replace broken
Open Age - Thermal
Cable Temperature Broken wire wire and revise
circuit movement
PM program
Open
Cable Heat Wire open Overheating Replace wire
circuit
equipment aging
Cable Open Repair
Fatigue Broken connection fatigue failure of
Connection circuit connection
connection
Use of corrosion
resistant material
Better curing
Possible
Inadequate
Coating/ clogging Coating coming off Surface
Age adhesion of
lining due to structure surface preparation
coating
disbonding Install cathodic
protection
Periodic
inspections
Traveling Inadequate
Install cathodic
CP System Corrosion Screen did Chain broken preventive
protection
not travel maintenance
Inadequate
coating Revise preventive
Fire line Excessive/accelerat
CP System Corrosion lack of cathodic maintenance
rupture ed corrosion
protection tasks
continuity
5-6
Table 5-1 (cont.)

Aging
Failure Corrective
Mode Action
m
Inadequacy of Check design

CP, Improper
Pump materials, Check materials
CP System Corrosion Flange bolts failed
Stopped Inadequate
preventive Revise preventive
maintenance maintenance
Screen weaken
Foreign
due to corrosion Evaluate cathodic
Material
CP System Corrosion Screen bending – Cathodic protection for
pasted
protection adequacy
screens
depleted
Corrosion
Removal of
and holes Reinstall cathodic
CP System Corrosion Rapid corrosion cathodic
in protection
protection
waterbox
Check for
hazards
Age, Hydrogen Galvanic corrosion Reaction
Enclosed
chemical gas of the zinc coated between water Remove moisture
space
reaction buildup metal and zinc
Ensure adequacy
of procedure
Equipment age &

Loss of Replace fuse with
Fuse Age Blown fuse marginal design
power larger size
margin
Replaced fuses
Panel Age Over load Blown fuses Undetermined and cleaned
equipment
Work practices,
Human Open Safety switch left Restored normal
Panel inadequate work
error circuit open lineup
practices
Low Calibration/setpoi Recalibrate

Panel Age DC voltage low
voltage nt drift device
Cathodic protection
Personal Human Electrical New cathodic Procedure
left live while
Injury error shock protection system Change
working
5-7
Table 5-1 (cont.)

Aging
Failure Corrective
Mode Action
m
Ionic material
from ionic
Change
cathodic
procedure for
Personal Human protection anode
Injury High pH material personnel
injury error deposited on
protective
condenser wall
equipment
had a high pH
value
Cathodic
Personal Human Electric Live anodes in Procedure
Protection not
Injury error shock water with diver Change
turned off
Galvanic
Valve corrosion
Replaced
Pumps Age would not Stuck valve stem between valve
materials
stroke stem and
spacers
Repair
Design, general
Inadequate Voltage high, amps Replace with
Rectifier Age design
protection low higher capacity
inadequacy
rectifier
Loss of Degradation-Age
Rectifier Age Rectifier shorted Replaced rectifier
power related
Repair device
Design, general
Low power Replace with
Rectifier Age Low amps design
output higher capacity
inadequacy
device
Age related
Rectifier Age Degradation Overheated Replace parts
degradation
Inadequate Repair piping

Underground piping
Structure Corrosion Leakage cathodic Increase cathodic
leak
protection protection
Implement
inspection plan
Through Accelerated Coating for coatings.
Structure Age
wall leaks galvanic corrosion damaged Use of a cathodic
protection
system.
5-8
Table 5-1 (cont.)

Aging
Failure Corrective
Mode Action
m
Pitting corrosion
Revise coating
Through Pitting corrosion and due to breaks in
Structure Age inspection
wall leaks general corrosion protective
procedure.
coating.
Fill Panel bending

Cathodic
material Degraded panel due to corrosion
Structure Age protection system
restricting screen of the carbon
being evaluated
circulating steel screen
Cracks Cathodic
Age,
Structure and chip in Hydride Corrosion Protection Reduce current
current
tube ends current too high
Remove moisture
from surrounding
Incompatibility to area-keep area
Wall
Structure Age Galvanic corrosion coating (e.g. lead dry
thinning
based paint)
Use a compatible
coating
Apply coatings
Age, Pressure Leaks in heat Microbiologically Install cathodic
Structure temperature, boundary affected zones of induced protection
chemicals leaks welds corrosion
Apply corrosion
inhibitors to water
Apply coating
Age, Through- Graphitic
Structure Leakage Install cathodic
material wall holes Corrosion
protection
Structure Replace with

Galvanic
(Circulating Corrosion Pump Trip Dissimilar metals- compatible
corrosion of bolts
water pump) materials
Remove
Structure
Anode bloom in protrusion
(Condensate
Erosion- gearbox causing Water leak into Provide cathodic
pump Leakage
corrosion high velocities and gearbox protection by
gearbox oil
turbulence alternative
coolers)
means.
5-9
Table 5-1 (cont.)

Aging
Failure Corrective
Mode Action
m
Coat concrete to
prevent salt water
Structure intrusion
Chemical Concrete Saltwater
(Intake Rebar corrosion
reaction spalling intrusion Repair structure
structure)
Install cathodic
protection system
Structure Broken Stray current

Fatigue Torsional overload Install grounding
(pump) structure corrosion
Loss of Age related Preventive/predic

Transformers Age Shorted secondary
power degradation tive maintenance
Valve Stem became Galvanic

Age, Periodic
Structure would not detached from the corrosion of the
material inspection
open disc disc holder
5-10
6
TESTING AND MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
Developing a performance-monitoring program for the cathodic protection systems starts before
the facility breaks ground with a good survey of the corrosive environment of the soils where the
structure is going to be located. The initial site survey and preliminary engineering lead to a
conceptual cathodic protection design. This design is used to develop the specifications for a
detailed design, procurement, and installation of the cathodic protection system. Once the system
is installed, the startup inspections and tests are performed to assure the system is functioning per
design. Finally, the test results from the initial commissioning should be maintained for
comparison against future tests. If the results from the initial commissioning test are no longer
available, then new tests should be performed and evaluated against the design requirements to
assure that the system is functioning as expected. These new tests should serve as the baseline
for future trending and comparisons.
A variety of methods exist for determining whether a structure is being effectively protected by a
cathodic protection system. Since corrosion and cathodic protection are electrochemical based,
the test practices are also electrochemical based. The performance of a cathodic protection
system can be monitored by measuring the potential of the structure or current input or both. The
potentials of the surfaces of a structure with respect to a reference electrode are the most widely
used criteria for determining whether or not a structure is being effectively protected by a
cathodic protection system.
In addition to the potential survey methods, physical and visual inspections are used to determine
the actual condition of the structure being protected. If the surfaces of the structure are
accessible, inspection of the structure can be used to determine whether or not it has had
effective protection in the past. If an inspection of the structure shows no evidence of corrosion
in an aggressive environment, then it can be inferred that the cathodic protection system has been
functioning adequately over the long period. For buried or submerged systems where physical
access is restricted, the polarized potential survey criteria are most widely applied.
All the plants responding to this project’s survey indicated that they have some form of
monitoring or maintenance program for their cathodic protection systems. However, there was a
wide variation for monitoring impressed current cathodic protection systems as shown in Table
4-6. One plant reported that the impressed current panels are on the operator’s daily rounds to be
checked for proper operation. Other plants reported that the impressed current panels are checked
annually. The structure-to-soil potential survey was listed as being performed by seven of the
responding plants. Structure-to-soil potential measurements are typically taken and recorded
either quarterly or annually. For some equipment at nuclear plants, the structure-to-soil potential
measurements are taken during a refueling outage to get measurements when the water is not
flowing. Only a few plants mentioned that they trend the information.
6-1
Testing and Maintenance Practices
As indicated in Section 4of this report, Regulatory Guide 1.137 requires that the cathodic
protection system for fuel oil systems should be tested at 12-month intervals to determine
whether the protection is adequate and at two-month intervals, the cathodic protection system
rectifiers should be inspected.
This section discusses the electrochemical test practices to determine the effectiveness of
cathodic protection.
6.1 Coating Inspection Criteria
One of the important aspects in cathodic protection is the performance and maintenance of
coatings. Table 6-1 identifies the recommended evaluation methods for coatings.
Table 6-1
Methods for Evaluating In-service Field Performance of Coating
(Reproduced from NACE RP0169-2002)
Title or Subject of Method Reference Basis for Rating

(1) Rate of Change in Current - Comparison of initial current
Required for Cathodic Protection requirement with subsequent
periodic determination of current
requirement
(2) Inspection of Pipeline Coating NACE Standard RP0274 a) With cathodic protection: no
active corrosion found
b) Without cathodic protection:
no new holidays showing
active corrosion
(3) Cathodic Disbondment ASTM G 8 Purpose is to obtain data relative
ASTM G 19 to specific conditions for
ASTM G42 comparison with laboratory data
ASTM G 95
6.2 Cathodic Protection Criteria
Cathodic protection can be confirmed by measuring structure-to electrolyte potential, visual

observation, by measurements of pipe wall thickness, or by use of internal inspection devices.
However, all these methods are not always practical. Engineering judgment should be used to
determine which methods and at what frequency of testing are required to satisfy the criteria.
Situations occur when single criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of cathodic protection is
not satisfactory for the conditions that exist. Often a combination of criteria is needed for a single
structure.
6-2
Table 6-2
Criteria for Cathodic Protection
Structure Structure to Cathodic Polarization Reference

copper/copper sulfate Between Structure and
reference electrode Stable Reference
Electrode
Underground or >-0.850V 0.1 V NACE RP0169-2002
Submerged Steel and
Cast Iron Pipe
Underground or >-0.850V 0.1 V NACE RP0285-95
Submerged Steel
Structures
Underground or >-0.1 V and <-1.2 V 0.1 V NACE RP0169-2002
Submerged Aluminum (Note 1)
Piping
Underground or >0.1 V 0.1 V NACE RP0169-2002
Submerged Copper Piping
Underground or Note 2 NACE RP0169-2002
Submerged Dissimilar
Metal Piping
Metallic Storage tank NACE RP0193-
Bottoms
Note 1: Aluminum piping may suffer corrosion due to the buildup of alkali on the metal surface as a result of
excessive voltages. If aluminum is cathodically protected at voltages more negative than -1.2V measured between
the pipe surface and a saturated copper/copper sulfate reference electrode contacting the electrolyte and
compensation is made for the voltage drops other than those across the structure electrolyte boundary. A polarized
potential more negative than -1.2V should not be used, unless previous test results indicate that no appreciable
corrosion will occur in the particular environment.
Note 2: A negative voltage between all pipe surfaces and a stable reference electrode contacting the electrolyte
equal to that required for the protection of the most anodic metal should be maintained.
The required negative potential between the pipe to the reference copper/copper sulfate reference
electrode varies for steel and cast iron piping, aluminum piping, copper piping, and dissimilar
metal piping. The criteria in Table 6-2 are one of the criteria that can be used to determine the
adequacy of cathodic protection. However, the requirement to use sound engineering practices
with the following consideration in addition to the criteria the table remains. Below is a summary
of the additional considerations in NACE standards:
• Voltage drops across the structure-to-electrolyte must be considered
• Sound engineering practices should be used for determining voltage drop(s).
• Comparing the actual voltage drop to the calculated value using the physical and electrical
characteristics and the actual environment
• Determining if there is physical evidence of corrosion
6-3
• Considering the historical performance of the cathodic protection system

• The presence of sulfides, bacteria, elevated temperatures, acid environments, and dissimilar
metals may require special considerations
• When a pipe is encased in concrete or buried in dry or aerated high-resistivity soil, values
less negative than the criteria listed in Table 6-2 may be sufficient
• The use of excessive polarized potentials on externally coated pipes should be avoided to
minimize cathodic disbondment of the coating
• Aluminum may suffer from corrosion under high-pH conditions. Application of cathodic
protection tends to increase the pH at the metal surface. In environments with a natural pH in
excess of 8.0, structures should require a through investigation to be performed to assure
applying cathodic protection will not cause a pitting attack on the aluminum.
• Amphoteric materials that could be damaged by high alkalinity created by cathodic
protection should be electrically isolated and separately protected
Any other criteria used should achieve similar corrosion control as attained with the criteria in
NACE standards.
6.3 Test Station
It is important that the connections in the test stations be maintained in their original condition
after use or when damaged. If the identity of the test station leads are unknown, the leads can be
disconnected and the potential of each lead to a copper/copper sulfate reference electrode taken.
Using the galvanic series, the leads may be easily identified using the potentials given in Table
6-3.
Table 6-3
Anode Voltages with respect to Cu/CuSO4 Reference Cell
Potential with Copper/Copper

Anode
Sulfate Reference Cell
High Purity Magnesium 1.75
Standard Magnesium 1.55
Zinc 1.2
Aluminum 1.1
0.2 to 0.8 or slightly higher if other

Structure Leads
anodes are still attached
6-4
6.4 Close-Interval Corrosion Survey
Typically the test stations are located at convenient locations (e.g., one at every mile along a pipe
run). When a potential of the pipe is measured the rule of thumb is that the reading represents
approximately twice the depth of the pipe (i.e., if the pipe is buried 5 feet (1.5 meters) deep), the
measurement represents the condition of approximately 10 feet (3 meters) length of pipe.
Therefore, the corrosion surveys represent checking only a small portion of the pipe or structure.
The Close Interval (continuous) Corrosion Survey is conducted to ensure that the entire structure
has adequate cathodic protection. It is a thorough and comprehensive test to identify any
deficiencies with the cathodic protection of the protected structure, or any interference problems
on all foreign structures. The close interval survey is conducted initially to confirm the validity
of the measurements taken at the test stations and at any time the corrosion survey indicates an
anomoly.
The close-interval corrosion survey is an interrupted potential survey on impressed current

systems. In a sacrificial anode system, the survey is usually non-interrupted, however, if test
stations are installed at each anode, this also can be an interrupted potential survey.
Per Draft UFC 3-570-06, dated July 2001, a closed interval survey must be conducted at the
following intervals:
1. Thirty days after cathodic protection is installed and properly adjusted
2. Five years from the last close-interval corrosion survey
The survey should systematically cover the entire structure. The potential measurements must be
taken at intervals not to exceed the depth of the pipeline or structure being tested. Normally, the
interval used is kept uniform over the entire structure. Care must be used to take readings
directly over the buried structure. If there are obstructions such as paved areas, roads, sidewalks,
or other structures, they should be noted.
6-5
Table 6-4
Close Interval Survey Potential Measurement Requirements
(Reference: Draft UFC-3-570-06, Dated July 2001)
Structure Type Potential Measurement Locations

(Location of Reference Cell)
Pipelines At intervals not to exceed the depth of the pipeline, normally

every 3 to 5 feet (1 to 5 Meters)
On Grade Storage Tanks Next to the tank every 6 feet (1.8 meters) around the tank
circumference.
At a distance one tank radius away from the tank, at 8

equally spaced locations around the tank circumference
Underground Storage Tanks With the reference cell located: Every 3 feet (1 meter) over
the tank
At least every 3 feet (1 meter) over feed and return piping.
Over the manhole, fill pipe, and vent pipe
Over all metallic structures in the area if readings indicate

an isolated system is shorted to a foreign structure.
Isolated Structures One structure-to-electrolyte potential measurement on each

side of all dielectric couplings without moving the electrode.
Note: If the potential difference between measurements on
each side of a dielectric coupling is less than 10 millvolts,
verify its integrity using an isolation tester.
All Structures With Foreign Line Over the foreign line at all points where it crosses the
Crossings protected structure.
Over the foreign line where it passes near by the anode bed
All Structures With Cased Crossings Over each end of the casing on all casings. Note: if the
casing is shorted or partially shorted to the pipeline, and the
potentials over the pipeline are acceptable levels, take
immediate action to clear the short.
All Structures In Soil Annotate the soil condition for past and future potential and
current measurements.
The initial close-interval Cathodic Protection survey should be performed in a manner to assure
future cathodic protection surveys collect data for the most corrosive areas. The initial data
collection should be done in a systemic manner in accordance with Tables 6-5 and 6-6. An initial
survey should be taken within 30 days after the system is installed and fully adjusted for proper
operation. The tests included in Table 6-5 assures the anodes are performing as designed and
Table 6-6 confirms the cathodic protection level of the structures and provides the data needed to
plan future cathodic protection surveys.
6-6
Table 6-5
Initial Cathodic Protection System Test Requirements
Cathodic Protection System Type Test Measurements

Sacrificial System One anode-to- soil potential measurement with the reference
electrode place over the anode with the anode lead
disconnected
Anode-to-structure current using a clamp-on milliammeter if
possible. If not possible then use a multimeter measuring
across a calibrated shunt or a multimeter connected in series
measuring milliamperes
Impressed Current Systems Perform the rectifier operational inspection
Calculate the rectifier efficiency by dividing the calculated

output dc power by the input ac power
Perform the impressed current anode bed survey
The surveys measure anode-to-soil potential and anode-to-structure current. The equipment
required are high resistance voltmeters, data loggers, current interrupters, a reference probe, and
cables. It should be ensured that only calibrated equipment is used to collect data.
A plan should be developed for taking potential readings prior to the surveys to ensure that the
complete structure is covered and that the effort required to perform the survey is optimized.
Underground structures should be located accurately using appropriate instrumentation and the
readings should be taken directly above the structures. If the contact between the earth and the
reference cell is not good or if the referenced cell is lifted too early or pressing the recording
trigger too early, readings could be erroneous. If a reading can not be taken due to an obstruction,
the exact location of the obstruction should be recorded. The locations where potential readings
are taken along with the locations of major structures such as roads, sidewalks, buildings, walls,
test stations or other significant locations should be identified.

If the contact between the earth and the reference cell is not good or if the
referenced cell is lifted too early or pressing the recording trigger too early,
readings could be erroneous.
There are commercially available database programs that can graph the data for analysis, which
allows for easy identification of areas that do not meet the protection criteria. The potential
readings should be trended to identify locations where the cathodic protection may be degrading.
In such locations, additional testing and/or troubleshooting may be required.
6-7
6.5 Corrosion Survey (Cathodic Protection Survey)
The corrosion survey is performed to make sure that a structure is being adequately protected to
prevent corrosion using cathodic protection. Corrosion survey is recommended whenever a
major modification is done to a structure or once a year. A corrosion survey is also performed as
part of root cause investigation whenever a structural leak occurs. The data gathered during the
close-interval survey is used to identify the locations for corrosion protection surveys. The
locations with low and high potential readings are selected for the cathodic protection surveys to
ensure that a particular location of the structure is not subject to low potential indicating
inadequate cathodic protection or a particular location is not subject to high potential which may
cause problems such as disbonding. If a close-interval survey was not previously conducted, the
number of test locations should be increased to ensure that the entire structure is cathodically
protected.
Cathodic Protection surveys should be performed in accordance with Table 6-6.
Table 6-6
Corrosion Survey Requirements
Structure Type Potential Measurement Location

Buried Pipes Over the pipe at least every 50 feet (15.2 meters) on industrial plant
site
Over pipe at all test stations and all point where structure can be
contacted
Over pipe at least every 200 feet (61 meters) for pipes off the industry
plant site
On-Grade Storage Tanks Next to tank wall at 4 equally spaced (90°) locations around the tank
At 8 equally spaced (every 45°) locations around the tank at a

distance of one tank radius from the tank wall
Underground Storage Tanks Over the center and each end of the tank
Over each end of the feed and return line
Over the manhole, fill pipe and vent pipe

Isolated Structures One structure-to-electrolyte potential measurement on each side of all
dielectric couplings without moving the reference electrode. Note: If
the potential difference between measurements on each side of a
dielectric coupling is less than 10 millivolts, verify its integrity.
All Structures with Foreign Line Connect structure to foreign line at all points where it crosses the
Crossings protected structure.
Measure over the foreign line where it passes near the anode bed
The locations with high potential and low potential areas should be reviewed and troubleshooting
should be performed if necessary.
6-8
6.6 Impressed Current Anode Bed Survey
The impressed current anode bed survey is a non-interrupted survey of the ground bed to
determine the condition of the anodes and is performed to ensure that all anodes are fully
operational. The equipment that would be needed are data logger, cables, dc voltmeter, and data
probe with reference electrode. The recommended methods are identified in Table 6-7.
Table 6-7
Test Locations for the Impressed Current Anode Bed Survey
CP System Type Test Measurement
Remote Shallow Anode With negative rectifier terminal lead connected to structure check:
Ground Bed
Anode-to-soil potentials at 2 foot (0.61 meters) intervals along length of the
anode bed, beginning 10 feet (3.05 meters) before the first anode, and 10
feet (3.05 meters) past the last anode in the ground bed
Plot test results on graph paper to give visual indication of anode bed
condition
Measure each anode current if separate leads are available
Distributed Shallow With reference cell located directly over anode, obtain one anode-to-soil
Anode Ground Bed potential for each anode
One anode-to-soil potential for each anode with the reference cell located 10
feet (3.05 meters) either side of the anode
Deep Anode Ground Bed Measure anode circuit current in lieu of anode potential measurements
6.7 Sacrificial Anode System Survey
Sacrificial anodes that become periodically visible should be inspected. In case of buried or
otherwise inaccessible anodes, they should be inspected whenever work is being performed in
the surrounding area. Anode should be inspected to identify pitting, cracking, wall thinning, etc.
Anode connections to the structure should also be inspected to ensure continuity. The sacrificial
anode potential check is performed to determine anode’s operational status for buried structures.
It is normally conducted as part of the initial cathodic protection survey. The potential of the
structure with the reference electrode located directly over the structure, adjacent to an anode to
obtain a structure-to-soil potential reading. The data should be compared with previous readings.
Loss of anode-to-soil potential indicates failed anode. Loss of anode output current indicates that
the anode is being consumed and failure may occur. Loss of structure-to-soil potential with
stable anode-to-soil potential and anode output current indicates loss of isolation.
6-9
6.8 Use of Coupons
Coupons can be used as a variation of visual inspection for areas that are difficult to inspect
because of accessibility issues. Coupons are small metal samples similar to the metal being
protected, or coupons, electrically connected to the structure at critical points. These samples are
periodically removed and evaluated to determine the effectiveness of the cathodic portion
system. The coupon is sized to simulate a large coating defect, or holiday, that needs protecting.
If the coupon is protected by the cathodic protection system current, then there is assurance that
the structure is also being protected. This assumes that the coupon has a similar potential as that
of the structure’s “holiday” or coating defect. This theory assumes that a large coating defect
represents a conservative potential (more positive) as compared to smaller defects. It also
assumes that uniform cathodic protection exists around the structure.
6.9 Leak Survey
Typically, leak surveys are performed after a leak has occurred. Leak survey identifies the cause
of the leak and the corrective actions required to prevent future leaks. Leak surveys should be
conducted after excavation but before backfilling on any pipe or tank. The soil pH where it
contacts the pipe or tank should be measured. The “as found” structure-to-soil potential of the
pipe or tank where it contacts the soil should be measured. The cause of the leak should be
determined before any repair is made. Once the cause of leak has been found, the overall
condition of the structure should be determined and appropriate repair or replacement performed
to the structure and/or coating system. After the repairs have been completed, the structure-to-
soil potential of the structure where it contacts the soil should be measured. Table 6-9 provides a
summary of actions to prevent future leaks.
Table 6-8
Recommended Corrective Actions for Preventing Leaks
Cathodic Protection Test Measurement

Structure Not Cathodically Based on the type of corrosion found, take appropriate action to
Protected reduce the probability of future leaks
Determine if interference currents were present, if found, take
actions to mitigate
Install isolation couplings, electrical continuity bonds or cathodic
protection as appropriate.
Structure Cathodically Protected Troubleshoot, repair or adjust existing cathodic protection system
If necessary, supplement the existing cathodic protection system
until appropriate protection levels are achieved
Conduct a cathodic protection survey of the system 30 days after
the system has been repaired and adjusted.
6-10
6.10 Data Collection (Parameter Monitoring)
Records should be kept on file for all structures with cathodic protection systems. Each cathodic
protection system should have its own file where all the data for the system is maintained. A
properly designed data history file will aid future operations, testing, and maintenance of the
cathodic protection system. Historical data expedites troubleshooting if there are problems with
the protected equipment or the cathodic protection system. Also, historical data can be used to
maintain the infrastructure at its lowest life cycle cost and to plan installation of new or
replacement structures or cathodic protection system components. For some underground
installations, public law requires records be maintained for specific intervals.
For each survey location test point, the following data is collected as applicable:
• Description of Location
• Structure-to-Electrolyte Potential (millivolts)
• For a shunt location, the millivoltage reading, shunt resistance and milliampere reading
should be recorded.
For impressed current systems, the rectifier information should also be recorded. The
information to be recorded includes rectifier ac settings, dc output volts and amps, and any
remarks concerning the condition of the rectifier.
Changes to the system, such as rectifier adjustment, should be recorded when the change is
made. Routine potential readings taken during periodic monitoring should be permanently
recorded in the same log as the original reading in order to detect trends in the readings. Changes
in potential readings are often more important than the actual values themselves in determining
the cause of improper system operation or predicting when the system will not be able to meet its
design objectives. Table 6-10 provides a sample data collection sheet.
Table 6-9
Initial Survey Data Collection
a Type of Cathodic protection system – Sacrificial (Galvanic) or Impressed Current
b Date System Installed
c Facility Name
d Address: City State ZIP Code
E Responsible Installer’s/Tester’s Name
F Installer’s/Tester’s Qualifications
G Cathodic Protection System name or number
Design Data Required for System Maintenance – For a cathodic protection system to be effectively
H monitored and maintained the parameters used in the design of the system and the “as built”
configuration of the system must be known.
6-11
Table 4-9 (cont.)

Reference Drawing Number(s) – Drawings of the cathodic protection system and the structure being
protected should be available as well as drawings of other structures in the area, which might be
subject to interference problems. The cathodic protection system “As built” drawings should include,
I the location and configuration of all test stations, the location and type of all anodes and rectifiers,
and the location of all connections and insulating joints. These drawings should be kept up to date
showing all changes made to the cathodic protection system, the structure being protected, or
nearby structures.
System Data – System design parameters should be recorded and kept with the cathodic protection
J
system drawings in order to properly monitor and maintain the system.
Design potentials – The cathodic protection design potentials for the system should be maintained
K for future comparisons with actual field conditions. The design may call for different potential criteria
to be used to establish minimum protection at different locations of the same structure.
Commissioning Test Conditions:

L
Temperature Soil/Backfill Conditions: moist dry sand gravel soil
Commissioning Test Report to include at a minimum:

1) Current and Voltage Output – During initial system commissioning, the rectifier output currents
should be recorded and compared to the design output current and voltage. Discrepancies should
be resolved and the data retained for future use. The commissioning data should be kept and used
to evaluate future discrepancies in structure-to-electrolyte potential readings.
M 2) System Settings – Initial system settings should be recorded to serve as a baseline for future
trending
3) Potential Readings – Initial structure-to-soil (electrolyte) potential readings should be recorded to
serve as a baseline for future trending
4) Anode Outputs – Initial current output of each anode should be measured and recorded if the
lead wires are available.
N For Impressed Current Systems
O Location of Rectifier
P Rectifier Equipment Number
Q Structure(s) Protected
Anode Description:
R
Type Quantity Size: dia. X Long Expected Design Life .
S Rectifier Manufacture
T Rectifier Model Number
U Rectifier Serial Number
V Rectifier Owner’s Manual
W Rectifier Rated Capacity
6-12
Table 4-9 (cont.)

Ac Input: Amps, Volts, Phases, Cycles, hz

X
Dc Output Amps, Volts,
Y Date Rectifier Turned on
Z Number of Test Stations
Aa System maintained by:
For Sacrificial Systems
Location of Sacrificial Anode
Structure(s) Protected
Reference Drawing Number(s)
Anode Description Type, Quantity, Weight, Size, and Expected Design Life
Date Installed
Number of Test Stations
System maintained by
6-13
7
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE
Even though cathodic protection systems typically have a design life of over 20 years, they
should be maintained periodically to ensure their effectiveness.
Key O&M Cost Point

If the cathodic protection system is properly installed and maintained the life
cycle cost of a structure is extensively reduced.
The premature failures of a structure such as pipes leaking or rupturing causing foreign substance
spills or in the case of nuclear plants, radioactive leaks and the potential damage liabilities are
also reduced. Environmental cleanup, transportation, and disposing of contaminated soil and
other costs connected to a “reportable” leak can cost substantial dollars. In addition, some of the
structures may be required to be maintained per government regulations. Environmental
violations can carry fines, penalties and additional oversight. Cathodic protection is essential to
maintaining any metallic structure in a corrosive environment at the lowest life cycle cost.
Over time, the consumption of the anodes, changes to the plant configuration, or changes in the
geological properties such as moisture can result in inadequate protection. Also the changes in
the cathodic protection system can also result in decreased current output thus reducing the
effectiveness of the system. Construction of additional structures in the vicinity of existing ones
may interfere with the protective current reaching the protected structure and thus reducing the
effectiveness of cathodic protection.
Maintenance of the cathodic protection system may include scheduled maintenance periodic
inspection and replacement and/or adjustment of components. Unscheduled maintenance may
include troubleshooting and repair of defective items.
The development of an effective cathodic protection (CP) maintenance program for an impressed
current system requires an understanding of the system and its design features.
National Association of Corrosion Engineering (NACE) has been actively involved in issuing
recommended practices (RP) for the maintenance of a cathodic protection system and its
components for various applications.
EPRI has developed various maintenance guides on components such as rectifiers, circuit
breakers etc. These should be used as applicable in developing a preventive and predictive
maintenance program for cathodic protection system.
7-1
Preventive Maintenance
7.1 Required Data
The following information is typically required to perform various maintenance activities on the
cathodic protection system components. The system layout drawings, the equipment, and
structures being protected are needed. The system drawings should include the system test data.
Also the drawings of any other structures that may cause interference are also needed.
• System data—Cathodic protection design documents and data
• System drawings—as built drawings showing the cathodic protection system layout: location
and configuration of the anodes, locations of insulating flanges, location and configuration of
the test stations, anode junction boxes, the structure being protected, and the drawings of
other structures in the vicinity that may shield the spread of protection current
• Cathodic protection equipment specifications
• Previous test data—the initial and periodic readings taken over time on equipment as
indicated in Section 6 and Appendix C and potential settings should be obtained to record
any trends. The trends may indicate potential problem areas.
• Types of coating materials
7.2 Sacrificial Anode System
The sacrificial anode system takes advantage of the natural potential difference between
dissimilar metals. In this system, the anode material is consumed, or sacrificed in the process,
and the anodes must be periodically replaced to maintain continuous protection.
The sacrificial anode system consists of the following components:

• Test station
7-2
7.2.1 Requirements from NACE Standards
The following inspection and preventive maintenance requirements are extracted from various
NACE standards:
• Effectiveness of cathodic protection system should be monitored annually.
• When practicable and determined necessary by sound engineering practice, a detailed (close
interval) potential survey should be conducted to:
– Assess the effectiveness of cathodic protection system
– Provide baseline operating data
– Locate areas of inadequate protection levels
– dentify locations likely to be adversely affected by construction, stray currents, or
other unusual environmental conditions
– Select areas to be monitored periodically. Whenever the underground storage tank or
piping system is uncovered, visual inspection should be made for evidence of corrosion
or coating deterioration.
• Isolating fittings, continuity bonds, and casing isolation should be periodically checked. This
may be performed during periodic surveys.
• Test instruments and reference electrodes should be in good operating condition and should
be checked periodically for accuracy.
7.2.2 Industry Best Practices
7.2.2.1 Visual Inspection
Visual inspections should be performed on protected structures as well as the anodes. Inspection
of the protected structure may indicate if the cathodic protection system being used is effective in
protecting the structure. Indication of rust or corrosion on the structure is an indication that the
cathodic protection may not be effective. On the other hand, coating blistering may be an
indication of too much current. Inspection of the cathodic protection system should include the
condition of the lead wire and its connection to the structure as well as the condition of the
anode. For above ground structures and interiors of the structures (such as water tanks), visual
inspection should be considered. Buried structures should be inspected whenever possible, i.e.,
when the structure is being repaired or modified.
7-3
The visual inspection should include the following:

• The inspection should look for the type and extent of corrosion. The inspection should note
any pitting or groves or rust and the extent of it. For coated structure, the inspection should
include inspecting the coating also. If the coating needs to be removed for inspection, the
coating should be reapplied.
• For cast iron structures, the inspection should include
– Graphitization
– Breaks—Origin of break, porosity, wall thinning
– Other defects
– Load concentration
– Corrosion
• Anodes that are feasible to be visually inspected (e.g. those inside water tanks) whenever the
equipment is down for inspection or repair.
7.2.2.2 Electrical Measurements
Electrical measurements should be made if it is not feasible to inspect the equipment visually.
The electrical measurements include structure-to-soil potential, anode-to-soil potential, and
structure-to-anode current. The electrical measurements should be performed at the time of
installation and after 6 months of operation. Subsequently, the measurements should be made
annually unless a more frequent inspection is warranted.
Electrical measurements should be made as described in Section 6. For consistent interpretation

of data, permanent-type reference electrodes should be used when ever practical. When portable
reference electrodes are used, they should be placed in the same locations as in previous tests.
Anode current measurements can be made either by inserting an ammeter in the anode-structure
circuit or by measuring the millivolt drop across a low-resistance shunt that is installed in the
anode-structure circuit.
Fluctuation in the periodic anode output values can be expected due to seasonal temperature
variations; however, with consistent data taking, these fluctuations can be predicted. If the
current value should decrease suddenly or should it be zero, then it is indicated that the anode
either is totally consumed or has become disconnected from the circuit.
A typical data sheet for a sacrificial anode maintenance program is shown in Table 7-1. The
frequency of the testing is typically yearly, although more frequent measurements provide a
better database for trending purposes.
7-4
Table 7-1
Recommended Maintenance Program for Sacrificial Anode System
Task Interval
Close-Interval Corrosion Survey Thirty days after initial installation
At 5-year intervals
Corrosion Survey -30 days after a major modification to the protected structure
or to the cathodic protection system.
-After one-year from last close interval survey or corrosion
survey
-After a leak
-After any inspection or survey that necessitates a survey
Resistance Bond Check At 60-day intervals or less
Leak survey Whenever a leak is observed
7.3 Impressed Current System
Impressed current cathodic protection (CP) systems have many more components and require a
higher level of maintenance than sacrificial (galvanic) CP systems. As more active components
such as rectifiers and breakers are involved, more things can and do go wrong.
7.3.1 Requirements from NACE Standards
The following maintenance criteria were extracted from various NACE Standards:
1. All impressed current sources should be checked once every two months. Check for current
output, normal power consumption, or signal indicating normal operation
2. Reverse current switches, diodes, interference bonds, and other protective devices, should be
inspected at least every two months
3. Effectiveness of cathodic protection system should be monitored annually.
4. When practical and determined necessary by sound engineering practice, a detailed (close
interval) potential survey should be conducted to
a. Assess the effectiveness of cathodic protection system
b. Provide baseline operating data
c. Locate areas of inadequate protection levels
d. Identify locations likely to be adversely affected construction, stray currents, or other
unusual environmental conditions
e. Select areas to be monitored periodically
7-5
5. All impressed current cathodic protection facilities shall be inspected annually. Inspection
should include check for electrical shorts and malfunctions, safety ground connections, meter
accuracy, efficiency, and electrical resistance. The effectiveness of isolating devices,
continuity bonds, and insulators should be evaluated
6. Whenever the UST or underground piping system is uncovered, visual inspection should be
made for evidence of corrosion or coating deterioration.
7. Isolating fittings, continuity bonds, and casing isolation should be should be periodically
evaluated. This may be performed during periodic surveys.
8. Test instruments, reference electrodes should be in good operating condition and should be
checked periodically for accuracy.
9. Resistance of ground beds to earth should be calculated and if it has significantly changed,
the individual anode outputs should be adjusted for optimum ground bed performance.
7.3.2 Industry Best Practices
7.3.2.1 Visual Inspection
The visual inspection of the protected structure should include tasks similar to those identified
for sacrificial anode systems.
Impressed current systems require more extensive maintenance testing at shorter intervals than
sacrificial anode systems to ensure optimum operation and performance.
A close-interval survey should be conducted at the following intervals:

• Thirty days after cathodic protection system is installed and properly adjusted.
• Five years from the last close-interval corrosion survey.
A corrosion survey should be conducted at the following intervals:

• Biannual
• Thirty days after major modification to the cathodic protection system or the protected
structure.
• After any corrosion leak on the protected structure.
• After any inspection or survey which indicates that the current requirement of the last
corrosion survey are not valid (low or high potential measurements at the proper current
output level)
The following are the recommended maintenance intervals:
7-6
Table 7-2
Recommended Maintenance Program for Impressed Current System
Task Frequency
Close-Interval Corrosion Survey Thirty days after initial installation
At 5-year intervals
Corrosion Survey -30 days after a major modification to the protected

structure or to the cathodic protection system.
-Once every six months-preferably once in spring and
once in the fall. This allows accounting for changes in
the soil conditions and adjusting the rectifier current
output levels to the required levels
-After a leak
-After any inspection or survey that necessitates a
survey
Impressed Current System Check At 30-day intervals or less
Resistance Bond Check At 60-day intervals or less
Leak survey Whenever a leak is observed
The inspection and testing is generally centered around the rectifier and normally includes the
following:
• Recording rectifier output, both voltage and current, by reading rectifier meters
• Verifying rectifier meters by measuring the output with portable test instrumentation and
recalibrating rectifier meters as required
• Recording input current voltage and rectifier tap settings
• Recording structure-to-reference potential at the rectifier (should appropriate instrumentation
exist) or measuring the potential with portable test instruments and a reference electrode;
tester should interrupt rectifier output and note structure potential shift with the rectifier on
and off
• Comparing data with expected values to determine if corrective measures are necessary
• Conducting standard dc power supply maintenance
As with any other electrical system, impressed current cathodic protection systems require
periodic inspection, maintenance, and adjustment for satisfactory operation. Typical testing
includes biannual cathodic protection surveys to determine the effectiveness of the installed
cathodic protection systems and whether the effectiveness is decreasing at an accelerated rate.
The rectifiers’ voltage output, current discharge from anodes, and pipe-to-soil potentials (with
respect to the reference cells) are measured during the survey while the voltage output and
current discharge are recorded between the annual surveys.
7-7
7.3.3 Rectifier Inspection
The purpose of the rectifier operational inspection is to determine the serviceability of all
components required to supply current to the anodes of the impressed current system. The
inspection should be thorough to ensure dependable current until the next inspection. The
rectifier inspection should be accomplished together with the close-interval corrosion survey, the
corrosion survey, or when any inspection or survey indicates that problems with the rectifier may
exist.
On air-cooled units, air screens should be cleaned of dust, dirt, and insects.

Older oil cooled units may contain polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), which
require special handling per EPA regulations.
The rectifier should be inspected to determine that all the components required to supply current
to the anodes of the impressed current system are functioning correctly and will be dependable to
the next inspection. The inspection should include:
• Inspection of all the rectifier components, shunt box components, safety switches, circuit
breakers, and other power components.
• Checking and tightening of all accessible connections
• Checking of all the components for excessive temperature rise
• Measuring output voltage and current. If there is more than one circuit on a rectifier panel,
each circuit’s voltage and current should be measured.
• Checking and calibrating the rectifier panel’s voltage and current meters
• Measuring the potential differences between the protected structure and the installed
permanent reference electrode using a known good reference electrode
• Calculating the efficiency of the rectifier by calculating the resistance of each circuit by
dividing the rectifier dc voltage output of each circuit by the rectifier dc ampere output for
that circuit.
Additional structure-to-reference electrode measurements should be taken throughout the system

to ensure that the protective potentials are at their desired limits. As required, the rectifier output
should be either increased or decreased by changing tap settings to achieve the desired value.
If provisions are available for measuring individual anode currents, such measurements should
be made at the time the rectifier output is measured. The sum of the individual anode currents
should be approximately equal to the total rectifier output current.
7-8
7.3.4 Panel Inspection
The purpose of the panel inspection is to determine the functionality of other components
required to apply voltage to the anodes of the impressed current system such as meters, switches
and circuit breakers. The inspection should identify components that are questionable and may
fail before the next scheduled inspection. The inspection should include a visually check of all
the components in the rectifier panel, such as safety switches, circuit breakers, and other power
system components. All accessible connections should be checked for tightness and a
temperature check of all energized components using an infrared camera should be made.
The “as-found” and “as-left” panel meter readings should be recorded. The panel voltage and
ampere meters should be checked by using portable calibrated meters. The panel meters should
be adjusted as necessary for accuracy. If the rectifier has more than one circuit, the output
voltage and current for each circuit should be measured using a calibrated meter. All meters
should be adjusted for accuracy as necessary. All meters should be calibrated. Using a known
good reference electrode, the permanent reference electrode should be checked. If the difference
is more than 10 mV, the permanent reference electrode should be replaced. Oil immersed
rectifiers require additional inspection on an annual basis. The additional inspection points
should be performed on a clear dry day to minimize environment contamination are as follows:
• Shut off the rectifier.
• Open the drain cock located at the bottom of the rectifier tank and slowly drain oil into a
clean clear glass beaker. If water is visible in the beaker, continue to slowly drain the liquid
until the water is extracted from the oil reservoir.
• Inspect the oil for clarity, If the oil is cloudy, or has debris in it, it should be removed.
• Check oil level, fill as necessary using clean dry proper grade transformer oil from a sealed
container.
• Check gaskets on the rectifier case on a monthly basis. Replace as necessary to avoid
contamination of the oil with dust or moisture.
7.3.5 Stacks
After turning off the ac power to the rectifier panel, the stacks should be checked by hand to
determine if they were operating properly. Operating stacks should be warm to the touch. Cold
stacks indicate they are not operating. If half the stacks are warm and half are cold this indicates
a failure in part of the full-wave bridge rectifier circuit.
The life of the stack is highly dependent on its operating temperature. Proper cooling is essential
to obtain an optimal life from the stacks. Accumulation of dust, dirt, insect, bird nests, etc., in the
unit interferes with proper stack cooling and thus reduces the expected stack life. Most units are
ventilated via natural circulation through screened holes, which are frequently blocked by debris.
The debris should be removed to allow for the necessary airflow. Stacks should be kept clean by
the use of a soft cloth or brush being careful not to scratch or bend the rectifier plates.
7-9
7.3.6 Contacts
Immediately after turning off the ac power to the rectifier panel, the electrical connections should
be checked for warm or hot joints, which is an indication of high contact resistance. Mechanical
connections in the rectifier can become loose and cause a high resistance connection. A high
resistance connection will heat up causing oxidation, which will result in more heating and more
oxidation until the connection eventually fails. The contacts may also be inspected while the
power is on with infrared cameras.
7.3.7 Filter
Some rectifiers have electrical filters in the dc circuits to smooth out the rectifier current. These
filters generally include inductors and capacitors. The inductors and capacitors should be
visually inspected. If they are cold, they may not be operating, and if overheating may be
reaching an end of life (or approaching) failure. The capacitor fuses should be checked.
7.3.8 Arc Paths
The panel should be inspected for burn marks or arc paths caused by an electric arcs jumping
from one component to another. These arcs can be caused by lightning surges, water entering the
panel, age related insulation breakdown, or physical damage.
7.3.9 Automatic Control Circuits
Many rectifiers have automatic controls that malfunction periodically. If the automatic function
of the controller is not operating normally, the first step is to place the controller in “manual” and
check the voltage and current outputs. The control unit should be inspected for damage such as
blown fuses, overheated, or failed components. Defective parts should be replaced and the unit
restored to service per the manufacturer’s recommendations for restoration and re-adjustment of
the unit. If the rectifier is to be operated in the “manual” mode for an extended period of time,
the current should be adjusted for optimum output. The unit should not be left in “manual”
operation for extended periods of time since this could lead to excessive current applied to the
structure and result in coating damage.
7.4 Coupons
A variation of visual inspection is the installation of small metal samples, or coupons, electrically
connected to the structure at various critical points on the structure. Periodic removal and
evaluation of these samples including visual observation and weight loss can be used to infer the
corrosion activity of the structure being monitored.
7-10
8
TROUBLESHOOTING
Cathodic protection systems are static systems. If they stop working, the failure may not be
noticed unless routine surveillance of a structure or component notes a potential problem or until
the protected structure fails. A periodic survey is essential to identify problems with cathodic
protection systems so corrective actions are taken before a structure is damaged. The impressed
current system has more components than the sacrificial anode system and these components can
and do fail. The major components in an impressed current system are the rectifier, anode bed,
structure lead, anode lead (header cable) and the structure. The major components in a sacrificial
system are the anode and the structure lead. If a routine cathodic protection survey determines
adequate cathodic protection does not exist on a protected structure, then troubleshooting must
be performed to determine the cause of this lack of protection.
8.1 Sacrificial Cathodic Protection Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting of sacrificial cathodic protection systems is a matter of determining if the

sacrificial anode has been consumed or a lead wire connecting the anode to the structure has
been broken. The starting point of the troubleshooting is with the anode (or anode connection).
Sacrificial anodes are consumed at a relatively constant rate. As a result, failure of the anode can
be predicted by the current measurement versus time when trended.
8.1.1 Common Problems
Common problems with sacrificial anode cathodic protection systems are shorts or failure of
dielectrics on isolated protected structures. Sacrificial anodes have a limited ability to supply
current due to their limited voltage. When a protected isolated structure is shorted to another
structure, the protective current demanded by the combined structures may be much more than
the existing anodes can supply. For sacrificial cathodic protection systems maintaining the
dielectrics of the structures is essential to the long-term performance of the system. Well-coated
structures maintain a high contact resistance with the soil and as a result, require a very low
current flow. Metals that are not well coated and have a low contact resistance with the soil will
require more protective current and deplete the anode on an accelerated basis.
8-1
Troubleshooting
8.1.2 Lead Wire
A sudden zero reading for the anode output lead current indicates that the lead wires may have
failed. However, anode lead wire failure is uncommon because the anodes cathodically protect
the conductor even if it is exposed by nicks or defects in the insulation. Anode leads are often cut
by excavations if they are not properly identified before digging begins. This can be controlled
by carefully surveying the areas and locating the lead wires be located before digging begins. If
the wires are cut during digging, they should be repaired before the excavation is backfilled.
Key O&M Cost Point

Troubleshooting to find the anode lead wire to repair after the excavation has
been backfilled is usually not successful and replacement of the failed anode
is generally the most economical option.
8.1.3 Anode Consumption
As sacrificial anode systems approach the end of useful life, the measured potentials and currents
begin to change. When the anode current shows a large decline in a routine cathodic protection
survey, it is an indication that the anode is reaching its end of life and that failure is imminent.
Potential measurements over the protected structure will begin to show reduced potential in the
areas of the failed anodes. A failed anode will also show up as a significant potential drop.
Key Technical Point

After the anode failure current can reverse because of the copper center tap
of the anode which will become cathodic to the protected structure.
When potential drops of a protected structure are noted, a closer inspection should be performed
to determine the extent of the damage to the anode.
8.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Troubleshooting
There are two basic reasons for troubleshooting of impressed current cathodic protection
systems. The first reason is when the routine cathodic protection survey indicates that an
impressed current cathodically protected structure does not have sufficient protection and the
second reason is when there is an abrupt change in rectifier readings. Either of these changes
should initiate troubleshooting of the system to determine the cause of the lack of protective
current. Generally, low or zero output is most often caused by failure of the power supply to the
rectifier or failure of the rectifier. Output that tails off steadily over time indicates anode bed
issues. High current output may indicate a reduction in the electrolyte resistance or a change to
the protected structure. Whenever there are sudden or substantial changes to the rectifier output,
further investigation is usually required to determine the cause of the change. The first step in
troubleshooting and repairing the system is to determine which component is faulty.
8-2
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting for impressed current systems starts at the rectifier panel. Often the problem can
be spotted at this location and then verified by additional testing. To start troubleshooting, a
rectifier panel one should study the circuit diagram furnished with the manufacturer’s
instructions that are mounted in the rectifier cabinet. If there is no circuit diagram, it is usually
worthwhile to trace out the circuit and develop a diagram as an aid in the troubleshooting.
8.2.1 Initial Inspection
Troubleshooting impressed current cathodic protection systems starts with the rectifier, if there is
no output. First, visually check the rectifier for abnormal conditions such as burn marks, heat
damaged components, open connections, etc. Next, check the dc output voltage (negative to
positive terminals) and the dc current using a clamp-on milliammeter. If a milliammeter can not
be used and if the circuit has a calibrated shunt, then voltage should be measured across an
output circuit calibrated shunt with a multimeter set on the mV scale. The current is then
determined by use of the following equation:
(I current output = V voltage drop (Current shunt rating ÷ Voltage shunt rating))
where,
V voltage drop is the voltage measured across the shunt.
Compare the output current and voltage measurements to previous readings. The readings should
be categorized as high, normal, half of normal, low or at zero. Table 8-1 can be used to
determine a possible problem and take the necessary actions required to isolate the problem.
8.2.2 Structure Isolation
The loss of structure isolation is the most common reason for low structure-to-soil readings with
normal or high rectifier output. The structure should be isolated by coatings and dielectrics
installed on metallic attachments to the structure such as pipes, conduit, and tanks. If these
coatings or dielectrics breakdown, isolation may be lost and the rectifier will be required to
provide additional current. The potentials on both sides of the dielectric should be measured and
compared to previous readings. If the potential readings are higher than normal on the structure
side of the dielectrics, this indicates that a short is somewhere on the system. As a result, all the
installed dielectrics need to be checked. If the dielectrics all are confirmed as being good, then
one should check for new attachments to the structure, shorts around dielectrics, current pickup
on foreign structures, and/or underground shorts. This check may be performed over the
protected structure using an audio frequency locator.
8-3
Troubleshooting
8.2.3 Non-Isolated Structure
The most common reason for low structure-to-soil readings with normal rectifier output for non-
isolated systems is an increase in the amount of structure protected. Checks should be performed
to identify changes to the structure such as new construction or changes to the utilities connected
to the structure and new projects that may have impacted the structure such as new utilities that
may have been shorted to the structure.
8.2.4 Coatings
Failure of a coating will cause the current requirements to increase. Whenever the current
requirements increase considerably, checks should be performed for construction or digging near
the protected structure that may have damaged the structure’s coating. If no construction or
digging was found, the rectifier output should be raised and verification should be performed to
determine if proper structure-to-soil potentials can be obtained.
8.2.5 Outputs (Meters)
Meter error may cause a low output to appear normal or high. It can also cause a normal output
to appear low. As a result, the rectifier output should be checked using calibrated meters. If the
installed panel meters are out of adjustment, adjust to obtain proper readings. If the panel meters
can not be adjusted to operate correctly, they should be replaced.
8.2.6 Dry Anode Bed
Long periods without rain can cause anode beds to dry out. The dry soil has a higher resistance
and thus for a given dc voltage, a lower current will flow resulting in less protection for the
structure. To check to see if this is the problem, current soil resistance should be measured and
compared to the design basis soil readings. If the soil has dried out, this may be causing the
potential readings not to meet the protection criteria. However, current may not have to be
increased, i.e. the rectifier may not have to be adjusted to increase current as the anodes are
generally buried deeper than the structure. If the anodes are dried out, then so is the structure.
Thus the structure will see a lower rate of corrosion.
Key Technical Point

If the rectifier is adjusted to increase output and structure protection and
subsequently the soil gets wet (for example, due to rain), the rectifier output
could increase excessively, damaging the cathodic protection system as well
as the coatings on the structure.
8-4
Troubleshooting
8.2.7 Anode Bed Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting an anode bed can take a substantial amount of resources. Therefore, the system
records should be reviewed to determine if sufficient anode material is expected to remain before
attempting to locate and repair the anode bed. If troubleshooting is warranted and the failure is
gradual, deterioration of one or more anodes is expected. See Section 8.2.7.1 for troubleshooting
guidance. If a cable was broken, then the deterioration should be seen as sudden change in the
structure-to-soil potential readings. See Section 8.2.7.2 for troubleshooting guidance.
8.2.7.1 Gradual Deterioration
If there is sufficient anode material in the anode bed, the first check should be to measure the
current of the individual anodes if the system is designed to permit it. Then an anode bed plot
should be performed. The data for the plot is collected by connecting the rectifier negative
terminal to the positive meter lead and the reference cell to the negative meter lead and taking a
reading every 2 feet (0.61 meters) over the entire length of the anode bed. The results should be
plotted on a graph to visualize the gradients. The gradient graph should be examined and specific
problem(s) should be identified. Failed anodes should be replaced as required. If the graph
indicates that an anode lead is broken, excavations may have occurred in the area of anode cable
lead. A fault detector and a cable locator can be used to locate the break in the cable and the
anode lead cable should be repaired as required.
8.2.7.2 Sudden Deterioration
If there is sufficient anode material in the anode bed and it appears the anodes are not
operational, in the area of anode cable lead look for excavations that have occurred. If none are
found, cable fault detector and cable locator can be used to find the location of the break. The
signal generator should be connected to the anode lead cable at the rectifier. A low resistance
isolated ground should be used for the signal generator. The signal generator is switched on and
the anode lead is traced from the rectifier towards the anode bed. Once the anode lead cable fault
is found, the fault is repaired.
An alternative method for finding the fault location would be to locate the first anode and
excavate to the anode and attached anode lead wire. Using the excavated anode lead wire, the
continuity of the circuit can be checked back to the rectifier. Once the anode lead cable fault is
found, repair the fault.
8.2.8 Polarization
This is a shift in structure-to-soil potential due to current flow. It is a reaction to resistance

effects (e.g. formation of a gas film, changes in the soil at the metal surface, or other factors).
Polarization of the anode bed will result is the gradual decrease in current due to the increase in
resistance of the cathodic protection circuit. The steps in Section 8.2.7.1 should be followed.
8-5
Troubleshooting
8.2.9 Header Cable
Troubleshooting of faults with header cable should be performed similar to the methods for
detecting faults with anode bed troubleshooting under sudden deterioration (see Section 8.2.7.2).
If this method is unsuccessful in finding the fault, the anode lead header cable should be replaced
between the rectifier and the first anode.
8.2.10 Structure Lead
The structure lead runs from the rectifier negative terminal to the structure. To determine if the
structure lead is faulted, with the rectifier ac power turned off, the cables to the anode bed and
structure should be disconnected and a temporary anode bed should be connected to the positive
terminal of the rectifier. The negative terminal of the rectifier should be connected via an
insulated cable to a structure isolated from the structure being tested. The rectifier AC power
should be turned on for a short period of time. Once the rectifier is turned on, the current meter
will indicate that current is flowing or that there is no current. If current is present, go to Section
8.2.10.1, if not go to Section 8.2.10.2.
8.2.10.1 Current Flow
The presence of current for this test configuration is an indication that the permanent structure
lead has an open connection. A fault detector signal generator should be connected directly to the
structure lead that was connected to the negative lead of the rectifier. A low resistance isolated
ground should be used for the signal generator. The signal generator should be turned on and the
structure lead should be traced from the rectifier towards the structure. Once the structure lead
cable fault is found, the fault should be repaired.
An alternative method for finding the fault location would be to locate the first connection to the
structure and excavate it. Using a continuity check circuit, the continuity should be checked back
to the rectifier. If a break is not found, a fault detector signal generator should be connected
directly to the structure lead that was connected to the structure. A low resistance isolated ground
should be used for the signal generator. The signal generator should be turned on and the
structure lead should be traced from the structure towards the rectifier. Once the structure lead
cable fault is found, the fault can be repaired.
If the fault is not found, the structure cable lead should be replaced
8.2.10.2 No Current Flow
If there is no current, the temporary anode bed is insufficient for the test and the anode bed needs
to be increased in size. Repeat the test in Section 8.2.10.
8-6
Troubleshooting
8.2.11 Loss of Rectifier Diode
Half the normal voltage indicates a problem with the loss of a diode/selenium plate or a problem
with the ac input. If the problem is with ac input, Section 8.2.12 should be used for
troubleshooting. If the problem is with the stacks (diode/selenium plate), troubleshooting may be
performed using the following steps.
Half the normal current output indicates a problem with loss of a diode/selenium plate or a break
in the header cable between anodes. Also, it could mean there is a problem with the lead(s) to the
anode beds or with the anode beds themselves. To determine if the problem is with the
diodes/selenium plate or the anode bed, the voltage across the rectifier output terminals should
be measured with a handheld multimeter on the dc Volt scale. If the voltage is normal,
troubleshooting should be performed on the anode bed in accordance with Section 8.2.7. If the
voltage is half-normal, this indicates a problem with the diodes/selenium plates or a bad
connection inside the rectifier panel.
With the ac power off, all connections should be checked. The anode and structure leads should
be disconnected and the tap bars or shorting wires should be removed. The diodes/selenium
plates of the rectifier should be checked with a handheld multimeter on the diode check scale.
The resistance between the rectifier negative terminal and both center taps should be checked
and the checking should be checked again with leads reversed. The resistance between the
rectifier positive terminal and both center taps and leads should be reversed and check should be
repeated. Any defective diodes/selenium plates should be replaced.
A good diode has very high resistance in one direction and low resistance in the other direction.
If the rectifier does not have taps, proceed to Section 8.2.12. If that test is normal, the rectifier
must be removed from the cabinet for checkout. Refer to rectifier’s vendor manual to
troubleshoot the diodes/selenium plates and the transformer.
8.2.12 Loss of AC Power
For impressed current systems, the loss of ac feed to the rectifier is a common problem.
Troubleshooting should be started by checking the power supply. If the power supply was in the
“ON” position, circuit breakers and/or blown fuses should be checked. With the ac power
switched “OFF”, the rectifier fuses and any fusible disconnect should be removed and inspected.
Corrosion on fuse caps or fuse holders may interfere with the connection contact and may cause
loss of voltage. Using a handheld multimeter with the scale set to ohms, the resistance of each
fuse should be measured and any fuse with a measurable resistance should be replaced. Clean the
fuse holders and fuses of all corrosion and the fuses should be reinstalled.
With the ac switched ‘on’ the voltage should be checked with a handheld multimeter on the ac
volts scale on both sides of the circuit breaker. If a disconnect exists, the voltage should be
measured on the rectifier side of the disconnect. The voltage from the rectifier circuit breaker
should be checked using a multimeter. If voltage is not present, this indicates loss of ac power
8-7
Troubleshooting
supply to the rectifier; the supply circuit breaker or fuse should be replaced. If voltage is present,
the rectifier transformer, connections, breaker, or fuse inside the rectifier panel are faulty.
There are a number of reasons a circuit breaker or a fuse will open in a spurious manner (see
Section 8.2.13).
The rectifier transformer windings should be checked by isolating the transformer and checking
the dc resistance of the windings with an ohmmeter. The primary winding should have a dc
resistance of one to ten ohms and the secondary winding resistance should be less than one ohm.
If the transformer doesn’t meet these resistance criteria, it should be considered for replacement.
8.2.13 Spurious Circuit Breaker or Fuse Operation
There are a number of reasons a circuit breaker will trip or a fuse will open in what appear to be
a spurious manner. If the condition happens occasionally without an obvious reason, non-
equipment items that should be considered are:
• Temporary overload due to soil moisture changes,
• Line voltage surges or wrong line voltage connections,
• Intermittent short circuits that can be checked for by meggering and
• Over heating as a result of local environmental conditions
A defective breaker should also be considered as a possible cause. This can be checked by
looking at the breaker contacts after it has been reset and confirming that they are closed. The
breaker should also be checked to assure that the trip value is not too low. If the breaker is
defective, it should be replaced.
8.2.14 Voltage Transients
One of the reasons a circuit breaker will trip or a fuse will open in a spurious manner is a line
voltage surge. A line voltage surge can be the results of line switching, plant equipment
starting/stopping, or lightning strikes. Voltage-recording devices maybe used to capture
variations in voltage (surges, swells, or sags). If the recording device shows the ac voltage is out
of range, the rectifier transformer tap settings should e adjusted. If voltage surges are causing the
breaker to trip or fuses to blow, surge suppression may be installed on the input to the cathodic
protection equipment.
8.2.15 Excessive Heat
Some heat is normal and expected because rectifiers, SCRs, Thyristors, etc. are not 100%
efficient in converting alternating current to direct current. This is due to the inherent losses in all
electrical elements, which result in heating. Excessive operating temperatures can reduce the
expected life of a rectifier. Maintaining proper operating temperatures is essential to achieving
satisfactory stack life. With the unit ON, the rectifier panel should be inspected for blocked
8-8
Troubleshooting
cooling vents. Most electrical panels are ventilated through screens shielded from direct impact
by rain. These screen locations often accumulate dust, dirt, insects or bird nests blocking the flow
of cooling air to the panel. With the ac power to the panel off, accumulations that interfere with
cooling of the panel or any of its components should be removed. If it is necessary to clean the
stacks, a soft brush or cloth should be used, while being careful not to bend or scratch the
rectifier stack plates.
If the visual inspection did not determine the cause for the heating, an infrared (IR) inspection of
the panel should be performed looking for excessively hot connections or components. Hot
connections besides adding heat to the panel generally get hotter and eventually fail. Hot
connections should be repaired as soon a practical. Hot stacks could be an indication that they
are reaching the end of their life or that they need cleaning. Paragraph 8.2.11 provides direction
for determining if the stacks are going bad and need to be replaced.
Key Technical Point

Excessive coating on the cabinet may cause excessive heating in very hot
environments.
8.2.16 Temporary Overload
One of the reasons for a temporary overload is due to soil moisture changes. The variation of
moisture will impact the resistively of the soil. As the soil dries out, resistively increases,
likewise, as the soil gets wetter, resistively decreases.
Key Technical Point

If the rectifier is set to maintain a constant potential on the anode bed as the
resistively decreases the current will increase causing a potential overload
condition on the rectifier.
This can be corrected by reducing the potential applied to the anode bed to bring the impressed
current back to design values.
8.2.17 Structure Isolation
Loss of isolation of the structure causes high rectifier current output and this high current can
cause the circuit breaker to open or a fuse to blow. Testing installed dielectrics is difficult
because the typical installation includes many parallel circuits. One dielectric failure may
effectively short out the entire system. A single short can cause indications of faults at multiple
locations or at a single location, making finding the real fault difficult. There are several methods
to find the shorted dielectric including the potential testing method, the pipe locator method and
the radio frequency tester method.
8-9
Troubleshooting
Start troubleshooting by checking the potentials on both sides of the dielectrics. When taking the
potential measurement, do not move the reference electrode, only change the structure
connection from one side of the dielectric to the other side. Higher than normal potentials on the
unprotected side of the dielectric indicates a short somewhere on the system. The protected side
of the dielectric should be more negative than –0.85 volts dc and the unprotected side should be
between approximately –0.15V and –0.55V dc. If all the dielectrics met their acceptance criteria,
checks should be performed for new services that may have been attached to the structure, shorts
around dielectrics or pickup current from foreign structures. If the fault was not found, the pipe
locator or the radio frequency tester method should be used.
The pipe locator test method uses a short wave length signal generator connected directly to the
system through a solid metallic connection. To assure a good clear signal, the signal generator
should have a good battery installed and should be grounded by a low resistant ground. If the
dielectric is shorted, and the signal is sufficient, using the pipe locator, the signal should be
followed. If the signal can be followed across a dielectric, the dielectric is shorted and should be
repaired. If the signal can not be followed, the radio frequency tester method should be used.
The radio frequency tester method gives a accurate indication for the specific dielectric being
tested because its wave length, signal strength and use of “skin effect” does not permit the
reading through parallel paths, even if the paths are in the immediate vicinity. This method
should be used when other methods are not conclusive. The radio frequency tester is also
referred to as an insulated flange tester. One must make good contact with the metal on both
sides of the dielectric being tested when using the tester. There is a second type of insulated
flange tester without the control knob usually used for testing underground dielectrics. This tester
also requires a good contact with the metal on either side of the dielectric. The tester is held
against the metal for at least 20 seconds while it automatically runs the test. Once the test is
complete, an audible signal will sound.
8.2.18 Shorts or Failed Lightning Arrestor
When the rectifier blows a fuse when being energized, troubleshooting starts by looking at the
items that could cause a short circuit connected to the cathodic protection system. This includes
the lightning arrestor, anode and structure leads and anodes. To troubleshoot the lightning
arrestor start by disconnecting it from the circuit. An ohmmeter may be used to check the
lightning arrestor for continuity. If continuity exists, the arrestor should be replaced. To
troubleshoot for shorts on the anode leads, the continuity of the anode lead should be checked
between rectifier negative terminal and the structure to the grounded rectifier case. If continuity
is found, visual inspection of the wiring for crossed connections should be performed.
To troubleshoot for shorts on the structure lead, the continuity of the structure lead between
rectifier positive terminal and the anodes to the grounded rectifier case should be checked. If
continuity is found, visual inspection of the wring should be performed for crossed connections.
The design and “as-built” installation drawings should be checked to see if any of the anodes
could be physically touching the structure. If it is possible for the anodes to touch the structure,
visual inspection should be performed to ascertain if they are shorted to the structure.
8-10
Troubleshooting
8.2.19 Improperly Sized Fuse
If a fuse blows because it is suspected as being improperly sized, the first step in troubleshooting
is to review the records to determine the original fuse design size and the original expected
design currents. Also, the rectifier’s rated output should be checked to determine the actual
current output and that it has been operating at before the fuse blew. Based on these records, the
appropriate fuse size should be determined. If fuse still blows, this indicates there is a short on
the system and that the steps in Section 8.2.18 need to be repeated.
Table 8-1
Troubleshooting Impressed Current Cathodic Protection Systems
Rectifier DC Possible Cause Corrective Action Paragraph

Output Condition
Voltage Current
Normal Normal Loss of structure Isolation Repair dielectric or isolation 8.2.2
(or high) device
Change in amount of structure Check for changes to structure, 8.2.3
protected connection of new utilities
Failure of structure coating Check for new construction that 8.2.4
may have caused damaged
Error of installed meters Check meters against 8.2.5
calibrated meters and adjust as
necessary
Normal Low Rise in circuit resistance Compare soil conditions to 8.2.6

previous readings
Failed header cable between Review records to determine if 8.2.7
anodes or deterioration of sufficient anode material to
anodes (one or more) attempt locating and repairing
Polarization of anode bed Review records to determine if 8.2.8
sufficient anode material to
attempt locating and repairing
Normal At or Failed header cable Use fault detector and cable 8.2.9
near zero locator to find fault
Loss or deterioration of anodes Review records to determine if 8.2.7
sufficient anode material to
attempt locating and repairing 8.2.7.1
Failure of structure lead Find and repair lead break 8.2.10
8-11
Troubleshooting
Table 8-1 (cont.)


Output Condition
Voltage Current
Half of Half of Loss of rectifier diode Determine cause via 8.2.11
Normal Normal troubleshooting – repair
Loss of connection in rectifier Determine cause via 8.2.11
diode circuit troubleshooting – repair
Low AC input Check source of AC input 8.2.12
At or At or Loss of rectifier AC input Check source of AC input 8.2.12

near near zero
zero Blown fuse or tripped circuit Check for shorts and overload 8.2.13
breaker conditions
Loss of connection in rectifier Check continuity of circuits 8.2.12
repair as necessary
Rectifier transformer failure Replace transformer 8.2.12
Failure of rectifier stacks Replace stacks 8.2.11
Fuse blows or circuit Voltage surges on line Install AC input surge 8.2.14
breaker trips during suppression
normal operation
Temporary overload condition Reduce rectifier output slightly 8.2.16
Fuse blows or circuit Loss of structure isolation Check isolation repair as 8.2.17
breaker trips when necessary
unit is energized
Short in rectifier wiring or Check for shorts or failed 8.2.18
lightning Arrestor lightning Arrestor and repair as
necessary
Anode lead shorted to structure, Check for shorts and repair as 8.2.18
negative terminal, or grounded necessary
rectifier case
Anodes shorted to structure Check for shorts and repair as 8.2.18
necessary
Improperly sized fuse Determine correct size and 8.2.19
replace if necessary
8-12
Troubleshooting
Table 8-1 (cont.)


Output Condition
Voltage Current
Excessive heat Stacks deteriorated Check stacks for performance 8.2.15
produced in rectifier clean or replace if necessary
panel
High resistance connection Check connections repair if 8.2.15
necessary
Cabinet air flow restricted Visual check Clean as 8.2.15
required
Heat transfer of cabinet too low Determine cause of low heat 8.2.15
transfer
Sun heat load too high Install sun shield or if oil filled 8.2.15
check oil level
8-13
9
REFERENCES
9.1 Standards
1. The use of Coupons for Cathodic Protection Monitoring applications, NACE Standard
RP104-2004
2. Control of External Corrosion on Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems,
NACE Standard RP0169-2002
3. External Cathodic Protection of On-Grade Metallic Storage Tank Bottoms, NACE Standard
RP0193-2001
4. Corrosion Control of Underground Storage Tank Systems by Cathodic Protection, NACE
Standard RP0285-2002
5. Pipeline External Corrosion Direct Assessment Methodology, NACE Standard RP0502-2002
6. Design, Installation, Operation, and Maintenance of Impressed Current Deep Ground Beds,
NACE Standard RP0572-95
7. Measurement Techniques related to criteria for Cathodic Protection on Underground or
Submerged Metallic Piping Systems, TM0497-2002
8. Standard Specification for Magnesium Alloy Anodes for Cathodic Protection, ASTM
Standard B843-93-2003
9. Standard Specification for Cast and Wrought Galvanic Zinc Anodes, ASTM Standard B418-
01-2005
10. Standard Specification for Automatically Controlled, Impressed Current Cathodic Protection
for the Interior of Steel Water Tanks, ANSI/AWWA Standard D104
9.2 Technical References

11. Design: Electrical Engineering Cathodic Protection, UFC 3-570-02N, January 16, 2004
12. Operations and Maintenance: Cathodic Protection Systems, UFC 3-570-06, July 1, 2001
13. Military Handbook Electrical Engineering Cathodic Protection, MIL-HDBK-1004/10,
January 31, 1990
14. Power Plant Electrical Reference Series, Volume 11: Cathodic Protection, EL-5036-A -
05/01/1988
15. Summary of Diagnostic Evaluation for Submarine Cable Cathodic Protection System
Performance: Feasibility Assessment of Technologies, 1001931 - 07/20/2001 - 03T036.0
9-1
References
16. Corrosion Prevention for Practicing Engineers by Joseph F. Bosich, 1970

17. Cathodic Protection Field Testing, MIL-HDBK-1136/1
18. Corrosion Prevention and Control Planning Guidebook (Spiral No. 1—December 2003)
Issued by the Department of Defense
19. Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in the United States Publication No. FHWA-RC-
01-156
20. Operation and Maintenance of Cathodic Protection Systems, Public Works Technical
Bulletin 420-49-29, U. S. Army Corps of Engineers, December 2, 1999
21. Cost of Corrosion in the Electric Power Industry, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA:2001, 1004662
22. Guideline on Nuclear Safety-Related Coatings, EPRI, Report TR-109937
23. Galvanic Corrosion, Stephen C. Dexter, MAS Note, University of Delaware Sea Grant
Marine Advisory Service
24. Office of Pipeline Safety, DOT
25. Regulatory Guide 1.137
26. ANSI N195-1976
27. Cathodic Protection, Applegate, Lindsay, McGraw-Hill. 1960
9.3 Websites
28. http://www.nrc.gov
29. http://www.usace.army.mil/inet/usace-docs/eng-manuals
30. http://www.corrosion-doctors.org
31. http://www.dodcorrosionexchange.org
9-2
A
GLOSSARY
Activation The changing of a passive surface of a metal to a chemically active state

Active A state in which a metal tends to corrode with respect to standard hydrogen electrode
potential.
Adsorption The surface retention of liquid, gas molecules, atoms, or ions by a solid.
Aeration Cell An electrolytic cell resulting from differences in dissolved oxygen at two points.
Amphoteric Material An amphoteric (or amphinprotic) material is one that can display both
acidic and baisc properities. The term is most commonly applied to the oxides and hydroxides of
metals that can form both cations and complex anions. For example, zinc oxide dissolves in acids
to form zinc salts and also dissolves in alkalis to form zincates, [Zn(OH)4]2-.
Anion An ion or radical, which is attracted to the anode because of the negative charge.
Anode An electrode from which, ions and/or electrons migrate towards cathode through the
electrolyte and to which, electrons flow through an external conductor.
Anode corrosion efficiency Ratio of actual to theoretical corrosion based on the total current
flow calculated by Faraday’s law from the quantity of electricity that has passed.
Anode effect The effect produced by polarization of the anode in electrolysis e.g, by a gas film.
Anode The electrode at which oxidation or corrosion occurs. Electrons flow away from the
anode in the external circuit.
Anodic inhibitor A chemical substance that prevents or reduces the rate of the anodic or
oxidation reaction by a physical or chemical action.
Anodic reaction Electrode reaction to produce electrons.
Atmospheric corrosion The gradual degradation of a material by contact with the contents of
the of the atmosphere, such as oxygen, water vapor, and salts.
Backfill Material placed in the space around anodes.
Bimetallic corrosion (Galvanic Corrosion) Corrosion resulting by contact from dissimilar metal
contact.
Biological corrosion Deterioration of metals as a result of the metabolic activity of
microorganisms.
Bituminous coating Coal tar or asphalt-based coating.
Blister A raised area on the surface of the structure resulting from the loss of adhesion between a
coating and the base metal.
A-1
Glossary
Calcareous coating or deposit A layer consisting of a mixture of calcium carbonate and

magnesium hydroxide deposited on surfaces being cathodically protected because of the
increased pH adjacent to the protected surface.
Calomel electrode A reference electrode used in the measurement of the potentials of other
electrodes.
Cathode efficiency Current efficiency at the cathode.
Cathode The electrode of an electrolytic cell at which reduction is the principal reaction.
Electrons flow toward the cathode in the external circuit.
Cathodic corrosion Corrosion resulting from a cathodic condition of a structure usually caused
by the reaction of an amphoteric metal with the alkaline products of electrolysis.
Cathodic disbondment The destruction of adhesion between a coating and its substrate by
products of a cathodic reaction.
Cathodic inhibitor A chemical substance or mixture that prevents or reduces the rate of the
cathodic or reduction reaction by physical, physico-chemical or chemical action.
Cathodic polarization Change of the electrode potential in the active (negative) direction due to
current flow.
Cathodic protection Reduction of corrosion rate by shifting the corrosion potential of the
electrode toward a less oxidizing potential by applying an external electromotive force.
Cathodic reaction Electrode reaction equivalent to a transfer of negative charge from the
electronic to the ionic conductor. A cathodic reaction is a reduction process.
Cation A positively charged ion that migrates through the electrolyte toward the cathode under
the influence of a potential gradient.
Cell See electrochemical cell.
Concentration cell An electrolytic cell, the electromotive force of which is caused by a
difference in concentration of some component in the electrolyte. This difference leads to the
formation of discrete cathode and anode regions.
Concentration polarization That portion of the polarization of a cell produced by concentration
changes resulting from passage of' current through the electrolyte.
Conductivity The ratio of the electric current density to the electric field in a material. Also
called electrical conductivity or specific conductance.
Contact corrosion A term primarily used in Europe to describe galvanic corrosion between
dissimilar metals.
Contact potential The potential difference at the junction of two dissimilar substances.
Continuity bond A metallic connection that provides electrical continuity between metal
structures.
Corrosion The deterioration of a material, usually a metal, due reaction (oxidation) with its
environment.
Corrosion rate Corrosion effect on a metal per unit of time.
A-2
Glossary
Covalent The ability to form a bond in which two atoms share electrons.
Current density The current per unit area.
Deep groundbed One or more anodes installed vertically at a nominal depth of 15 m (50 ft) or
more below the earth's surface in a drilled hole for the purpose of supplying cathodic protection
for an underground or submerged metallic structure.
Depolarization A decrease in the polarization of an electrode; the elimination or reduction of
polarization by physical or chemical means; depolarization results in increased corrosion.
Dielectric shield In a cathodic protection system, an electrically nonconductive material, such as
a coating, plastic sheet or pipe that is placed between the protected structure and an adjacent
unprotected structure to avoid current wastage and to improve current distribution.
Differential aeration cell An electrolytic cell in which the electromotive force is caused the
difference in oxygen concentration at one electrode compared with that at another electrode of
the same material.
Disbandment The destruction of adhesion between a coating and the surface coated.
Electrical isolation The condition of being electrically separated from other metallic structures.
Electrochemical cell An electrochemical system consisting of an anode and a cathode in
metallic contact and immersed in an electrolyte.
Electrochemical corrosion Corrosion accompanied by a flow of electrons between cathodic and
anodic areas on metallic surfaces.
Electrochemical potential The potential of an electrode in an electrolyte relative to a reference
electrode measured under open circuit conditions.
Electrode polarization Change of electrode potential with respect to a reference value.
Electrode potential The potential of an electrode as measured against a reference electrode.
Electrode A conductor used to establish electrical contact with an electrolytic part of an
electrochemical cell
Electrolysis Production of chemical changes of the electrolyte by the passage of current through
an electrochemical cell.
Electrolyte A chemical substance or mixture, usually liquid, containing ions that migrate in an
electric field.
Environment The surroundings or conditions (physical, chemical, mechanical) in which a
material exists.
Faraday's law (1) The amount of any substance dissolved or deposited in electrolysis is
proportional to the total electric charge passed. (2) The amounts of different substances dissolved
or deposited by the passage of the same electric charge are proportional to their equivalent
weights.
Foreign structure Any metallic structure that is not an intended part of a cathodic protection
system.
Galvanic anode A metal that, because of its relative position in the galvanic series, provides
A-3
Glossary
sacrificial protection to the structure when it is coupled in an electrolyte.

Galvanic cell A cell in which chemical change is the source of electrical energy.
Galvanic corrosion Corrosion of a metal because of an electrical contact with a more noble
metal or nonmetallic conductor in a corrosive electrolyte.
Galvanic current The electric current that flows between metals or conductive nonmetal in a
galvanic couple.
Galvanic series A list of metals and alloys arranged according to their relative potentials in a
given environment.
General corrosion A form of deterioration that is distributed more or less uniformly over a
surface.
Groundbed A buried anode in the cathodic protection of pipelines or other buried structures.
Half cell See Reference Electrode.
Holiday A discontinuity of coating that exposes the metal surface to the environment.
Impressed current dc supplied by a device employing a power source external to the electrodes
of a cathodic protection system.
Industrial atmosphere An atmosphere in an area of heavy industry with soot, fly ash, and sulfur
compounds as the principal constituents.
Inert anode An anode that is insoluble in the electrolyte under the conditions prevailing in the
electrolysis.
Inhibitor A chemical substance, when present in the environment, prevents or reduces
corrosion.
Ion An atom, or group of atoms, that has gained or lost one or more outer electrons and thus
carries an electric charge. Positive ions, or cations, are deficient in outer electrons. Negative ions,
or anions, have an excess of outer electrons.
Isolation See Electrical Isolation.
Limiting current density The maximum current density that can be used to obtain a desired
electrode reaction without undue interference such as from polarization.
Line current The direct current flowing on a pipeline.
Local action Corrosion due to the action of "local cells," that is, galvanic cells resulting from
adjacent non-homogeneous areas on a metal surface exposed to an electrolyte.
Local cell A galvanic cell resulting from adjacent non-homogeneous areas on a metal surface in
an electrolyte.
Metal ion concentration cell A galvanic cell caused by a difference in metal ion concentration
at two locations on the same metal surface.
Noble metal A metal whose potential is highly positive relative to the hydrogen electrode.
Open-circuit potential The potential of an electrode measured with respect to a reference
electrode or another electrode when no current flows to or from it.
A-4
Glossary
Oxidation Change in the state of the atoms or ions of an element to a higher positive state by the
loss of electrons. An oxidizing agent is an element that can remove electrons to another element.
Oxidation A corrosion reaction in which the corroded metal forms an oxide
Passivation The process in metal corrosion by which metals become passive.
Polarization Polarization is the change of potential of a metal surface resulting from the passage
of current directly to or from an electrolyte.
Potential Voltage difference between two materials. Potential is the driving influence of an
electrochemical reaction.
Reduction A reaction in which there is a decrease in valence resulting from a gain in electrons.
Contrast with oxidation.
Reference electrode A nonpolarizable electrode with a known and highly reproducible potential
used for potentiometric and voltammetric analyses.
Sacrificial protection The reduction or prevention of corrosion of a metal in an electrolyte by
galvanically coupling it to a more anodic metal.
Standard electrode potential The reversible potential for an electrode process when all
products and reactions are at unit activity on a scale in which the potential for the standard
hydrogen half-cell is zero.
Stray current The current flowing through paths other than the intended circuit.
Stray current corrosion The corrosion resulting from direct-current flow through paths other
than the intended circuit.
Thermogalvanic corrosion Corrosion resulting from an electrochemical cell caused by a
thermal gradient.
Voids A term generally applied to paints to describe holidays, holes, and skips in a film. Also
used to describe shrinkage in castings and weld.
A-5
B
INDUSTRY STANDARDS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND
GUIDELINES
This appendix describes various standards, recommendations, and guidelines that may be used to
design the cathodic protection systems in power plants.
B.1 American Petroleum Institute (API)

• RP 1632, Cathodic Protection of Underground Petroleum Storage Tanks and Piping Systems,
1996
This recommended practice (RP) covers the two methods of providing cathodic protection for
buried steel petroleum storage and dispensing systems such as fuel storage tanks, fuel piping, oil
tanks at gas stations.
• RP 651, Cathodic Protection of Aboveground Petroleum Storage Tanks, 1997
This RP addresses the protection of aboveground oil and gasoline storage tank bottoms using
cathodic protection. The recommendations in this RP may also be applicable to tanks in other
services.
B.2 American Society of Testing Materials (ASTM)

• B 418, Standard Specification for Cast and Wrought Galvanic Zinc Anodes, 2001
This specification covers cast and wrought galvanic zinc anodes for the cathodic protection in
seawater and brackish water. Zinc anodes meeting this specification may be used in other types
of waters, backfills, and soils.
• B 843, Standard Specification for Magnesium Alloy Anodes for Cathodic Protection, 1993
This specification covers magnesium alloy anodes in the form of cast and extruded shapes.
• D 6676, Standard Test Method for Cathodic Disbonding of Exterior Pipeline Coatings at
Elevated Temperatures Using Interior Heating, 2001
B-1
Industry Standards, Recommendations, and Guidelines
This test method is used when external coatings are exposed to high temperature inside the pipe
and to an ambient temperature outside, and thus are subjected to temperature gradient. This test
method describes a procedure for determining comparative characteristics of coating systems
using accelerated aging at elevated temperatures. This test method uses samples of coated pipe.
• F 1182, Standard Specification for Anodes, Sacrificial Zinc Alloy, 1990
This specification covers the requirements for zinc anodes in the form of slabs, plates, discs, and
rods for corrosion protection (cathodic protection) of metals and alloys.
The anodes are used primarily to reduce corrosion of surface ships, submarine hulls, steel and
aluminum equipment and structures, sea chests, sonar domes, and the seawater side of
condensers and other heat exchangers.
• G 158, Standard Guide for Three Methods of Assessing Buried Steel Tanks, 1998
This guide covers procedures to be implemented prior to the application of cathodic protection
for evaluating the suitability of a tank for upgrading by cathodic protection alone.
Method A - Noninvasive with primary emphasis on statistical and electrochemical analysis of

external site environment corrosion data.
Method B - Invasive ultrasonic thickness testing with external corrosion evaluation.
Method C - Invasive permanently recorded visual inspection and evaluation including external
corrosion assessment.
• G 19, Standard Test Method for Disbonding Characteristics of Pipeline Coatings by Direct
Soil Burial, 2004
This test method describes the determination of the relative disbonding characteristics of
damaged coatings on steel pipe by cathodic protection potentials in direct soil burial. This
method is used to test all types of nonmetallic coatings and tapes including thermoplastics,
thermoset, and bituminous materials. This test method is not applicable to conducting materials
such as zinc coatings on steel pipe.
• G 42, Standard Test Method for Cathodic Disbonding of Pipeline Coatings Subjected to
Elevated Temperatures, 1996
This test method describes an accelerated procedure for determining comparative characteristics
of insulating coating systems applied to steel pipe exterior where the pipe will be exposed to high
temperatures and is under cathodic protection. This test method is intended for use with samples
of coated pipe taken from commercial production. This test method tests coatings submerged in
the test solution at elevated temperature.
B-2
• G 8, Standard Test Methods for Cathodic Disbonding of Pipeline Coatings, 1996
These test methods cover accelerated procedures for simultaneously determining comparative
characteristics of insulating coating systems applied to steel pipe exterior where the pipe may or
may not receive cathodic protection. This test method is intended for testing coatings submerged
or immersed in the test solution at room temperature.
• G 80, Standard Test Method for Specific Cathodic Disbonding of Pipeline Coatings, 1988
This test method covers an accelerated procedure for simultaneously determining comparative
characteristics of insulating coating systems applied to steel pipe exterior where the pipe may or
may not receive cathodic protection.
• G 95, Standard Test Method for Cathodic Disbondment Test of Pipeline Coatings (Attached
Cell Method), /25/1987
This test method covers accelerated procedures for simultaneously determining comparative
characteristics of coating systems applied to steep pipe where the pipe will be in contact with
natural soils and will receive cathodic protection. This test method is intended to facilitate testing
of coatings where the test cell is cemented to the surface of the coated pipe specimen.
B.3 American Water Works Association (AWWA)

• D104, Automatically Controlled, Impressed Current Cathodic Protection for the Interior of
Steel Water Tanks, 2004
This document provides guidelines for protecting water tank interiors in contact with water using
impressed current cathodic protection system.
B.4 National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE)

• RP0100, Cathodic Protection of Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Pipelines, 2004
The recommended practice (RP) identifies guidelines that provide the design engineer with
information on cathodic protection.
• RP0186, Application of Cathodic Protection for External Surfaces of Steel Well Casings,
2001
This RP presents procedures for cathodic protection of steel well casings by applying coatings.
This standard is intended to be a guide for establishing minimum requirements for corrosion
control when cathodic protection is practical and cost-effective.
B-3
• RP0193, External Cathodic Protection of On-Grade Carbon Steel Storage Tank Bottoms,
2001
Recommendations for both galvanic anode systems and impressed current systems are included
in this RP. This standard is intended for use by personnel planning to install new on-grade
carbon steel storage tanks, upgrade cathodic protection on existing storage tanks, or install new
cathodic protection on existing storage tanks. This standard is applicable to welded, bolted, and
riveted carbon steel tanks that are either field or shop-fabricated.
• RP0196, Galvanic Anode Cathodic Protection of Internal Submerged Surfaces of Steel Water
Storage Tanks, 2004
This RP presents procedures used in providing cathodic protection to the normally submerged
steel surfaces inside water storage tanks used for municipal water supply and fire protection.
Includes guidelines for the design, installation, methods for determining the effectiveness, and
recommendations for the operation and maintenance of these systems.
• RP0285, Corrosion Control of Underground Storage Tank Systems by Cathodic Protection,
2002
This RP provides recommendations for cathodic protection of underground storage tanks. Bare
and coated mild steel tanks; new coated mild steel tanks; metallic piping and flexible connectors;
and other metallic components are addressed. Recommendations on cathodic protection criteria,
design, installation, and operation and maintenance are included.
• RP0290, Impressed Current Cathodic Protection of Reinforcing Steel in Atmospherically
Exposed Concrete Structures, 2000
This RP presents guidelines protection of reinforcing steel in concrete structures using impressed
current cathodic protection systems atmospherically exposed reinforced concrete and are not
intended for application to prestressed concrete. This RP includes sections that address criteria
for achieving cathodic protection, design, installation practices, energizing and system
adjustment, and operation and maintenance of cathodic protection systems, and records.
• RP0388, Impressed Current Cathodic Protection of Internal Submerged Surfaces of Carbon
Steel Water Storage Tanks, 2001
The RP presents procedures and practices for providing cathodic protection to the normally
submerged steel surfaces inside water storage tanks. Recommendations for the design and
installation of cathodic protection systems and methods for determining the effectiveness of
these systems are also given.
• TM0101, Measurement Techniques Related to Criteria for Cathodic Protection on
Underground or Submerged Metallic Tank Systems, 2001
This document provides measurement techniques most commonly used on underground tanks.
This standard includes only those field measurement techniques that address the criteria
contained in RP0285. This document gives the user latitude to make testing decisions in the field
based on the technical facts available.
B-4
• TM0497, Measurement Techniques Related to Criteria for Cathodic Protection on

Underground or Submerged Metallic Piping Systems, 2002
This document provides procedures for testing buried or submerged steel, cast iron, copper, or
aluminum pipeline. The document contains instrumentation and general measurement guidelines
B-5
C
TEST METHODS
In designing the cathodic protection system, certain tests should be carried out to design a proper
cathodic protection system. After the cathodic protection system is installed, it is imperative that
it should be evaluated periodically to ensure that it is providing adequate corrosion protection.
This Appendix describes various tests and testing techniques used to measure or monitor various
parameters of the cathodic protection system that are used for the design and/or to monitor the
functioning of a cathodic protection system.
C.1 Soil Analysis and Testing
Soil characteristics must be defined in order to establish the requirements for protection of buried
systems. Sulfide, sulfate, chloride, pH, and other chemical constituents in the soil may affect the
current requirements for cathodic protection. The following discusses the soil properties and
their impact on metals and corrosion protection and addresses proper testing and analysis of the
soil.
C.1.1 Soil Resistivity
Soil resistivity is the single most important characteristic used in the design of cathodic
protection systems for buried structures. Protective current requirements, sacrificial anode
outputs, and impressed current anode bed resistance are all dependent upon soil resistivity.
A soil resistivity survey should be conducted prior to the construction of any structure. Other
available information related to soil condition, type, and chemistry should also be obtained. The
data can be used to determine if cathodic protection is necessary. If a cathodic protection system
is found to be necessary, the data can be used in designing the system.
C.1.2 pH
pH is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a water solution. Soil pH is a measurement of the

pH of the water contained in the soil. pH values range from 0 to 14 with 0 to 7 being acidic, 7
being neutral, and 7 to 14 being alkaline.
C-1
Test Methods
C.1.3 Chemical Constituents
Sulfide, sulfate, chloride, and other chemical constituents in the soil may be important in the
design of a cathodic protection system. Unless experience in the area has shown otherwise,
analysis for sulfate, sulfide, and chloride should be performed on soil samples from the site prior
to system design.
C.2 Water/Liquid Analysis
When the medium is water or other liquids, the electrolyte should be analyzed for pH, chlorides,
sulfates, and resistivity. Liquid electrolytes are typically tested for these attributes using chemical
test methods.
C.2.1 pH Measurement
pH of a liquid electrolyte may be measured using a pH measuring electrode or indicators whose

color changes with pH. A pH meter measures the potential difference between a pH insensitive
reference electrode and an electrode whose potential is sensitive to pH.
Color indicators are used in the form of pH papers. The paper is wetted with the solution being
measured and the resulting color is compared with color standards to determine the pH.
C.2.2 Resistivity Measurement
In liquid environments, the resistivity is measured directly with a conductivity meter or by a

variation of the Wenner 4-pin method that uses a specially designed container with four
electrodes.
C.3 Potential Surveys
In potential surveys the potential between a structure and its environment is measured. Potential
measurements can indicate locations where corrosion is most severe and areas that are subject to
stray current interference.
C.4 Current Requirement Tests
Current requirements for buried structures are best determined by field tests. In these tests, a
temporary cathodic protection system is installed. Measurements of the currents supplied and the
structure-to-electrolyte potentials achieved are used to establish the required current to protect
the structure.
C-2
Test Methods
C.5 Location of Other Structures in the Area
As the presence of interfering structures is very important in the design of cathodic protection
systems, a site survey should be performed to locate any such structures. Buried structures such
as pipelines, which have risers, valves, etc., in the area can be traced using electronic tracers. It is
difficult to locate buried structures unless there are indications on the surface. This factor makes
the maintenance of accurate activity records showing all buried structures and utilities extremely
important.
C.6 Soil Corrosiveness
Soil corrosiveness is often classified on the basis of its resistivity, as shown in Table C-1. In
general, when soils have resistivities greater than approximately 50,000 Ω cm, corrosion is
negligible and cathodic protection is not needed.
Table C-1
Corrosion Classification of Soil and Water
Resistivity (Ω cm) Corrosion Classification
0-1000 Extremely corrosive
1000-2000 Very corrosive
2000-10,000 Corrosive
Greater than 10,000 Progressively less corrosive
If the resistance of the soil is low, corrosion currents created by dissimilar metals are greater and
underground structures can corrode more rapidly. When soil resistivities are below
approximately 10,000 Ω cm and when other soil data indicate that the soil may be corrosive,
cathodic protection is necessary.
If the resistivity of the soil is between 10,000 Ω cm and 50,000 Ω cm or is not uniform, further
investigations are required to establish whether cathodic protection is necessary and, if it is, what
the protection requirements at various locations are. These measures include using test coupons
to determine actual corrosion rates and installing test points on the underground structure to
facilitate the taking of potential measurements. Soil resistivity and potential measurements can
be evaluated together to determine corrosion rates.
It is recommended that the soil resistivity measurements be recorded in tabular form. Field time
can be saved if this is done on preprinted forms, such as the one shown in Table C-2.
C-3
Test Methods
Table C-2
Sample Form for Recording Soil Resistivity Measurements
Project: ____________________
Date: ______________________
Tester: _____________________
Location No. _________, (Describe Location)
Spacing Resistivity
Depth Resistance (ohm) factor (ohm - cm)
Location No._________ , (Describe Location)
Spacing Resistivity
Depth Resistance (ohm) factor (ohm - cm)
C.7 Soil Resistivity
The soils of the earth consist of solid particles and dissolved salts. Electrical current flows
through the earth primarily as ion movement. The ionic conduction is heavily influenced by the
concentration and kinds of salts in the moisture in the soil. Ionic disassociation occurs when salts
are dissolved and it is the movement of these ions under the influence of electrical potential
which enable the medium to conduct electricity.
Resistivity is defined in terms of the electrical resistance of a cube of homogeneous material. The
resistance of a homogeneous cube, as measured across opposite faces, is proportional to the
resistivity and inversely proportional to the length of one side of the cube. Two common units of
resistivity are ohm-cm or ohm-in.
C.7.1 Typical Resistivity Ranges
Table C-3 lists measured resistivity values from a variety of sources. As can be seen form the
resistivity values, ranges of one or two orders of magnitude in values of resistivity for a given
soil type are to be expected.
C-4
Test Methods
Table C-3
Resistivity Values of Earthing Medium
(Courtesy of MIL-HDBK-419A)
Resistivity(ohm-cm)
Medium
Minimum Average Maximum
Surface soils, loam, etc 102 5x103
Clay 2x102 104
Sand and gravel 5x103 105
Surface limestone 104 106
Limestone 5x102 4x105
Shale 5x102 104
Granites, basalts, etc 106
Decomposed gneisses 5x103 5x104
Slates, etc. 103 104
Fresh Water Lakes 2x104 2x107
Tap Water 103 5x103
Sea Water 20 102 2x102
Pastoral, low hills, rich soil,

typical of Dallas, Texas; 3x103
Lincoln, Nebraska Areas
Flat country, marshy,

densely wooded typical of
2x102 104
Louisiana near Mississippi
River
Pastoral, medium hills and

forestation, typical of
Maryland, Pennsylvania,
2x104
New York, exclusive of
mountainous territory and
seacoasts
Rocky soil, steep hills,

103 5x104 105
typical of New England
Sandy, dry, flat, typical of

103 5x104 5x105
coastal country
City, industrial areas 105 106
C-5
Test Methods
Table C-3 (cont.)

Resistivity Values of Earthing Medium
(Courtesy of MIL-HDBK-419A)
Resistivity(ohm-cm)
Medium
Minimum Average Maximum
Fills, ashes, cinders, brine,

6x102 2.5x103 7x103
waste
Clay, shale, gumbo, loam 3x102 4x103 2x104
Same-with varying
proportion of sand and 103 1.5x104 105
gravel
Gravel, sand stones with

5x104 105 106
little clay or loam, granite
C.7.2 Environmental Effects
In addition to the variation with soil types, the resistivity of a given type of soil will vary several
orders of magnitude with small changes in the moisture content, salt concentration, and soil
temperature. It is largely these variations in soil environment that cause the wide range of values
for each soil type noted in Table C-3. Figure C-1 shows the variations observed in a particular
soil as moisture, salt, and temperature were changed. The curves are intended only to indicate
trends another type of soil would be expected to yield curves with similar shapes but different
--
values.
Figure C-1
Typical Variations in Soil Resistivity as a Function of Moisture, Temperature and Salt
Content (Source: MIL-HDBK-419A)
C-6
Test Methods
The discontinuity in the temperature curve [see Figure C-1(b)] indicates that at below freezing
temperatures the soil resistivity increased markedly. This undesirable temperature effect can be
minimized by burying anode below the frost line.
C.8 Measurement of Electrolyte Resistivity
It is important to determine the properties of the medium in which the structure or component
will be installed. This section addresses the measurements that should be made to determine the
electrolyte resistivity.
C.8.1 Measurement of Soil Resistivity
It is not always possible to ascertain with a high degree of certainty the exact type of soil present
at a given site. Soil is typically rather non-homogeneous and many types will be encountered at
most locations. Even with the aid of borings and test samples and the use of Table C-3, the
resistivity estimate can easily be off by two or three orders of magnitude. When temperature and
moisture variations are added to the soil type variations, it is evident that estimates based on
Table C-3 are not sufficiently accurate for design purposes. The only way to accurately
determine the resistivity of the soil at a specific location is to measure it.
Key Technical Point

The only way to accurately determine the resistivity of the soil at a specific
location is to measure it.
Soil resistivity at the plant specific location is used in designing the cathodic protection system
or when the soil properties change over time. The most common method of measuring soil
resistivity is the Wenner four-pin method in which, four steel pins are driven into the soil equally
spaced in a straight line to a depth of approximately 6 in. The distance between the pins is equal
to the depth to which resistivity information is needed (see Figure C-2). The resistivity of the soil
is a function of the voltage drop between the center pins with current flowing between the outer
pair. This method measures the average resistivity in the immediate area of the test. If only one
resistance reading is taken, errors may result due to polarization and galvanic effects between the
electrodes and therefore, the dc leads should be reversed and the readings are averaged.
C-7
Test Methods
Figure C-2
Four-Pin Method for Measuring Soil Resistivity
Various instruments are available for this purpose, the most common being an instrument that
measures resistance directly as shown in Figure C-3.
Figure C-3
Four-Pin Cable and Equipment for Measuring Soil Resistivity
(Courtesy: M. C. Miller)
The soil resistivity (ρ - rho) in ohm-centimeters is calculated as ρ=191.5 AE/I, where A is the pin
spacing in feet, E is the voltage drop between pins in volts, and I is the current flow in amperes.
Otherwise, the average resistivity (in ohm centimeters) may also be determined using Table C-4,
as 191.5 multiplied by pin spacing in feet multiplied by meter reading. Note that the pins are
normally spaced to make these factors even, thus simplifying subsequent calculations.
C-8
Test Methods
Table C-4
Factors Used in Four-Pin Resistivity Measurements
Pin Spacing, ft-in Factor
2’ 7” 500
5’ 3” 1000
7’ 10” 1500
10’ 5” 2000
13’ 1” 2500
15’ 8” 3000
20’ 11” 4000
31’ 4” 6000
In the Wenner 4-pin method, the average resistivity of the soil between the two center electrodes
to a depth equal to the pin spacing is measured. Soil resistivity can also be determined using a
three-pin test or by using a probe rod. The probe rod measures the soil resistivity adjacent to the
rod tip. Other instruments using the 2-pin method give less accurate results than the Wenner 4-
pin method and are limited to measurement of resistivity only in the direct vicinity of the soil
probe. Use of these instruments is primarily limited to preliminary surveys.
If the resistivity is measured close to an existing underground structure, some of the test current
could flow through the structure, making the resistance appear lower. Therefore, resistivity
measurements near existing structures should be avoided. The measured resistance value
normally decreases with increased pin spacing. The total resistance of a parallel circuit must be
less than any individual resistance element. However, because of the multiplying spacing factors,
the resistivity values may increase, decrease, or stay the same.
When it is not possible to measure soil resistivity in the field, soil samples can be measured in a
soil box. As shown in Figure C-4, metal contacts in each end of the box are used to pass current
through the sample. Potential drop is measured across probes inserted into the soil. Due to the
variation in density of the soil sample during sampling and possible drying out of the soil, this
method is less accurate than actual field tests. Drying out of samples should be minimized by
using sealed containers during shipment. Tamping of soil to a different compaction may also
provide different results.
C-9
Test Methods
Figure C-4
Soil Box for Determination of Resistivity
(Source: Mil-Hdbk-1004/10)
Soil resistivity is given as ρ = RWD/L

where,
ρ = Resistivity in ohm-centimeters
R= Resistance in Ohms
W, D, L = distances in centimeters
C.8.2 Liquid Resistivity Measurement
The resistivity of liquids can be measured using the Wenner 4-pin method using a soil box or by
using a conductivity meter as shown in Figure C-5, which is specifically designed for the
measurement of the conductivity of solutions.
Figure C-5
Liquid Conductivity Meter
(Courtesy of Amber Science, Inc.)
C-10
Test Methods
C.9 Potential Survey
The potential readings indicate the corrosive activity on the structure and the effectiveness of the
cathodic protection system. Three types of potential measurements may be made:
• Structure-to-Soil Potential Survey
• Structure-to-Anode
• Structure-to-Soil Potential Survey
Structure-to-soil potential survey is conducted to measure the potential between the structure and
its environment. Potential surveys are performed to identify areas vulnerable for corrosion and to
identify areas that are subject to stray currents. Figure C-6 shows test setup for potential
measurement.
Figure C-6
Over-the Pipe Potential Survey
(Source: Mil-Hdbk-1004/10)
Figure C-6 shows how potential measurements can be used to locate an area of a pipe subject to
corrosion. One section of a pipe (labeled Soil A) is at a potential of -500 mV with respect to the
soil. Soil B has a potential of -700 mV with respect to the soil. This difference in potential can
result from slight alloying differences in parts of the pipe. It can also be caused by differences in
the soil. Current flows from the Soil B section of the pipe into the soil and corrodes that portion
of piping.
C.9.1 Potential Measurements
The potentials of underground or submerged metallic structures are measured with respect to a
reference electrode in contact with the earth or with water. A copper sulfate electrode is the most
commonly used reference. It may also be called a copper-copper sulfate electrode, a copper
sulfate reference, a copper sulfate half-cell, a CuSO4 electrode, or a CuSO4 half-cell. The
conversion factors given in Table C-5 can be used to convert potentials from other types of
reference electrodes to those of copper sulfate. The negative terminal of the voltmeter is
electrically connected to the metal structure to be measured; and is connected to the positive
terminal to a copper sulfate reference electrode. The contact with the reference, either earth or
water, is made with the saturated porous plug, which is usually wooden.
C-11
Test Methods
Table C-5
Comparison of Reference Electrodes with a Copper Sulfate Electrode at 25ºC
(Reference: EPRI Power Plant Electrical Reference Series, Volume 11)
Reference Electrode Structure-to-Electrode Reading Structure-to-Electrode Reading

Equivalent to 0.85 V with Correction with Respect to
Respect to CuSO4(V) CuSO4(V)
Calomel (Saturated) -0.778 Add -0.072
Silver-Silver Chloride -0.840 Add -0.010

(0.2 Nominal Potassium
Chloride Solution)
Pure Zinc +0.25 Add 1.10
Potential measurements in a power plant are typically made by placing the reference electrode
close to the structure to be tested as shown in Figure C-7. Typical locations include around the
base of an above ground storage tank, above buried pipelines and tanks, adjacent to hydrants,
risers, and pilings, and so on. At an intake structure, the reference can be lowered into the water
adjacent to submerged equipment, such as traveling water screens and pumps. Potential profiles
versus depth can be plotted. Potential testing in condenser waterboxes and heat exchangers
usually requires permanently installed reference electrodes. It may be possible, however, to
mount a reference electrode at the end of a nonmetallic pipe and insert the pipe into the waterbox
or heat exchanger. Again, a voltage profile can be obtained.
Figure C-7
Structure-to-Soil Potential Survey
C-12
Test Methods
The potential of the structure is measured using a reference electrode and a high impedance
voltmeter. The copper/copper sulfate reference electrode is the reference electrode most
commonly used for buried structures. For structures submerged in seawater the silver/silver
chloride reference electrode is commonly used. Other reference electrodes are used when
appropriate. If other reference electrodes are used, the readings can be converted to
copper/copper sulfate half-cell using Table C-5.
In a power plant, the reference electrode is placed close to the structure to be tested such as the
base of an above ground storage tank, above buried pipelines and tanks, adjacent to hydrants
risers, and pilings. The reference electrode can be lowered into the water adjacent to submerged
equipment, such as traveling water screens and pumps. In structures that contain water such as
condenser waterboxes and heat exchangers, the reference electrodes may be permanently
installed.
To make these measurements, the negative terminal of the voltmeter is electrically attached to
the metal structure to be measured. The voltmeter’s positive terminal is connected to the
reference electrode. The reference electrode is placed in contact with the electrolyte close to the
structure being monitored. The voltmeter will provide a positive reading, which indicates that the
reference electrode is positive relative to the structure, or that the structure is at a negative
potential relative to the reference electrode.
C.9.2 Anode-to-Electrolyte Potential Survey
The anode-to-electrolyte potential survey can identify which lead is connected to the anode. By
moving the reference cell around, the location of the anode can be identified. If there is a break
in the lead wire to the anode, or if the anode is consumed, it can be identified by this survey.
C.10 Current Measurement
Current requirements for typical environments are given in Tables C-6 and C-7.
Table C-6
Current Requirements for Cathodic Protection of Bare Steel
ENVIRONMENT MILLIAMPERES PER SQUARE FOOT (mA/ft2)

Soil with resistivity <1,000 ohm—cm 6.0—25.0
Soil with resistivity 1,000—10,000 ohm—cm 3.0—6.0
Soil with resistivity 10,000—30,000 ohm-cm 2.0—3.0
Soil with resistivity >30,000 ohm-cm 1.0—2.0
Highly aggressive soil with anaerobic bacteria 15.0—40.0

Still fresh water 2.0—4.0
Moving fresh water 4.0—6.0
C-13
Test Methods
Table C-6 (cont.)

Current Requirements for Cathodic Protection of Bare Steel
ENVIRONMENT MILLIAMPERES PER SQUARE FOOT (mA/ft2)

Turbulent fresh water 5.0—15.0
Hot fresh water 5.0—15.0
Still seawater 1.0—3.0
Moving seawater 3.0—25.0
Concrete 0.5—1.5
Table C-7
Current Requirements for Cathodic Protection of Coated Steel
Environment Current (Milli-amperes Per

Square Foot (mA/ft2))
Pipeline, epoxy or other high performance coating 0.001—0.005
Pipeline, reinforced coal tar 0.005—0.025

Pipeline, grease coating with wrapper 0.05—0.150
Pipeline, asphalt mastic 1/2’ thick 0.001—0.005
Pipeline, old asphalt, or other deteriorated coating 0.05—0.35

Pipeline, old paint coating 0.10—0.30
Tank bottoms 0.05—2.0
Tanks for cold potable water 0.05—2.0

Tanks for cold seawater 0.05—4.0
Turbulent cold water or hot potable water tanks 0.30—3.0
Steel sheet piling fresh water side 0.10—1.5
Steel sheet piling seawater side 0.10—2.0
Steel sheet piling soil side 0.05—1.0
The current put out by the rectifier indicates the operating condition of the anode and rectifiers
and that sufficient current is being applied for cathodic protection. The current is typically
measured across the rectifier terminals. Figures C-8 and C-9 show the current measuring
techniques.
C-14
Test Methods
Figure C-8
Sacrificial Anode Current Measurement
Figure C-9
Rectifier Output Current Measurement
C-15
Test Methods
C.11 Resistance Bond Check
When there is stray current interference between structures, an electrical connection may be
needed to direct the current. This electrical connection is called a “bond”. The resistance bond
check is an operational check of two metallic structures connected with some type of semi-
conductor or resistor, to ensure that the structures affected by the bond are maintained at proper
potentials. The bond can be a 100 percent bond or a resistance bond. The 100 percent bond
allows all the current collected on one structure to flow back to the source. The resistance bond
allows only a portion of the current to flow through the bond back to the source. The purpose of
the resistance bond is to limit the amount of current that can collect on a structure so that the
potential does not exceed the maximum allowable for the structure or if the structure does not
require cathodic protection. The resistance bond check is performed while the cathodic
protection system is operating. The potential measurements are compared to previous readings.
C.12 Chemical Analysis of the Environment
pH of soil or water in which a structure is located can affect the corrosiveness of the environment
and the current required for cathodic protection. pH measurement may involve either the use of
electrodes or indicators whose colors are dependent on the pH level. A pH meter may be used to
measure the potential difference between a pH insensitive reference electrode and an electrode
whose potential is sensitive to pH. Colored indicators are normally used in the form of pH
papers. Soil pH can also be measured using the antimony electrode method.
The potential of the metal antimony is sensitive to pH and therefore, can be used to measure pH.
To measure the pH of a soil using an antimony electrode, the antimony electrode and a
copper/copper sulfate electrode are placed on the surface of the soil and the potential difference
between the two electrodes is measured using a voltmeter. In order to eliminate the possible
effects of stray soil currents, the position of the electrodes is reversed and the potential is again
measured. The average of these readings is converted to pH values. pH at the surface of the soil
could be vastly different from the pH of the soil at the structure. Therefore, pH measurements
should be taken as close to the structure as possible.
C.13 Continuity Testing
If the structure is not continuous, then either continuity must be achieved by the installation of
continuity bonds or the structure must be protected using independent cathodic protection
systems for each electrically isolated section of the structure.
Structure-to-electrolyte potential measurements may be made over the protected structure to

locate the isolation points. Another method involves applying current to the structure and
measuring the potential drop along the structure. Another method is to use ultrasonic testing to
locate the open joint as shown in Figure C-10.
C-16
Test Methods
Figure C-10
Ultrasonic Testing for Isolation Areas
(Source: US Army Center for Public Works Technical bulletin 420-49-29)
C.14 Insulation Testing
If sections of the structure are intended to be protected separately, the sections are isolated using
insulating joints. For buried structures measuring the insulation resistance of a joint may be
difficult because of the conductivity of the soil. Typically, buried insulating flanges are equipped
with test stations for testing of the joint. For above ground sections, the insulating fittings may be
easily tested. Both for buried insulating joints and above ground joints, special instruments have
been developed for more precise measurement. A flange insulation tester that uses high
frequency skin effect current is preferred if available. If there is considerable potential difference
(over 100 mV) between the isolated sections, the insulation is effective. Figure C-11 shows a
typical insulation tester.
Figure C-11
Insulation Testers
(Courtesy Amber Science)
C-17
Test Methods
C.15 Coating Conductance
Coatings reduce corrosion of structures and reduce cathodic protection current requirements. In
the design of cathodic protection systems, use of protective coatings is an important factor. For
buried structures, the condition of the coating can be determined by electrical conductance
testing. There are two methods available for measuring coating conductance: short line method
and long line method.
The short line method is used when an isolated section of pipeline is available for testing as
shown in Figure C-12. In this method, the test current is applied and then interrupted and the
corresponding structure-to-electrolyte potentials are measured. The coating conductance is given
by:
C= ΔI * 106
[(ΔE1+ΔE2)/2]*L
where,
ΔI is the difference in the applied and interrupted (=0 Amps) currents
ΔE1is the pipe-to-structure potential at test point 1 with current on
ΔE2 is the pipe-to-structure potential at test point 2 with current on
L is the length of the test section of the pipe
Figure C-12
Coating Conductance Testing – Short Line Method
C-18
Test Methods
The long line method is used when a section of structure cannot be effectively isolated The test
setup for the long line method is shown in Figure C-13.
Figure C-13
Coating Conductance Testing – Long Line Method
The long line method is used when a section of pipe can not be isolated for the test. In the long
line method the test current is applied and the current flowing through the pipe is determined at
the two IR drop test points. The structure-to-electrolyte potential at the two test points is
measured with the current on. The test current is interrupted and the change in current at the two
IR drop test points as well as the change in potential at the two potential test points are measured.
C.16 Stray Current Measurements
Stray currents from one structure’s cathodic protection system can affect the cathodic protection
system on a nearby structure since cathodic protection currents sufficient to protect other parts of
the structure may not be adequate to protect the structure at the discharge point. Tests must be
performed to identify the stray current interference so that protective measures can be taken.
A current interrupter is inserted into the cathodic protection circuit of the structure that may be
causing the stray current problem. The potential of nearby structures is then measured with the
current on and off. Potentials are measured where the structures are closest. If the potential of the
nearby structure becomes less negative with the current on, cathodic interference is identified
and corrective measures are required.
When interference is found, it is necessary to determine if the point of crossing from one
structure to the other is actually the point where current is greatest. This can be done by moving
the reference electrode at the crossing. Generally, the point of maximum current discharge
corresponds to the point of greatest voltage change.
C-19
Test Methods
“Accidental” interference can be a serious problem within a power plant. Structures such as
condenser waterboxes and intake structures. Information obtained in these analyses will help
determine the need for cathodic protection and the level required.
C.17 Current Requirements
Specific tests can be conducted to determine the current required for effective cathodic
protection of a structure. Current is forced to flow from a temporary ground connection to the
structure to be protected as shown in Figure C-14. The current source is adjusted until protective
potentials are attained or until a noticeable change in potential is measured.
Figure C-14
Current Requirements
When an uncoated structure is tested, the current is typically allowed to flow for a period of time,
permitting the structure to polarize to some degree. Although full polarization can take a long
time, the approximate potential can be obtained from a plot of protective potential versus time at
a fixed current. The protective potential at full polarization can be obtained by extrapolating this
curve.
The net current flow onto the protected section is the total current minus the current flowing into
the section along the structure (then discharged from the structure). For example, Figure C-14
shows a pipe with a total current of 45 A flowing from a rectifier onto the pipe. Currents of 2A
and 3A are measured at the two test stations. The net current flowing onto the pipe between the
two current-measuring test stations is, therefore, 45A.
C-20
Test Methods
For coated structures the electrical resistance of the coating and the cathodic protection current
requirements can be measured concurrently. The current requirements of a coated structure are
much less than those of an uncoated structure.
Because of these significantly lower current requirements, a larger section of a well-coated

structure can be tested with one test setup and a modest power supply.
Defects lower the overall resistance of the coating. Comparisons of the resistance a coating
would have if perfect and the measured resistance provides an indication of the quality of the
coating.
Similar testing can be done to determine current requirements for intake structures and other
marine facilities. Condenser waterbox testing is more difficult because of access; however, with
the installation of a few anodes and a reference electrode, these measurements may also be
obtained. This procedure involves measuring the potential to a reference electrode with only one
anode energized. Subsequent anodes can then be energized, making it possible to measure the
change in potential and determine how much area can be protected from one anode. The total
number of anodes and the current requirement can then be determined. This procedure on several
anodes can be laborious, and a reference electrode must be installed in the waterbox prior to
testing.
C-21
D
LISTING OF KEY POINTS
The following list provides the location of “Key Point” information in this report.
Key O&M Cost Point

Emphasizes information that will result in reduced purchase, operating, or
maintenance costs.
Section Page Key O&M Cost Point
2.0 2-1 Consideration of corrosion in the design, material selection,

construction, operation and maintenance of structures and
components saves billions of dollars in repair, maintenance and
replacement costs.
3.1 3-3 Uncoated structures may require an exorbitant number of anodes
for adequate protection.
3.2 3-5 Materials such as graphite, high silicon cast iron, platinum, or
mixed metal oxide are used as anodes because they have a very
low loss of weight per ampere-year.
3.3 3-6 A sacrificial anode system for a buried metallic piping system in
a power plant becomes unrealistic. Anode consumption is also
inherent in sacrificial anode systems and economic allowances
for periodic anode replacement must be made
8.1.2 8-2 Troubleshooting to find the anode lead wire to repair after the
excavation has been backfilled is usually not successful and
replacement of the failed anode is generally the most
economical option.
D-1
Listing of Key Points
Key Technical Point

Targets information that will lead to improved equipment reliability.
Section Page Key Technical Point
2.2 2-3 In order for an electrochemical corrosion cell to form, there

must be a difference in potential between two different metallic
structures or between one part of a metallic structure and
another.
2.2 2-3 Every metal immersed in an electrolyte (soil, water, or other
chemically suitable material) develops an electrochemical
potential due to the free energy of the atoms in the metal.
2.2.1 2-4 Oxidation is the loss of electrons from an atom or molecule and
as a result, energy is released. Reduction is the gain of electrons
by atoms and as a result energy is gained. Electrons function as
energy carriers.
2.3.12 2-17 Different metals have specific amounts of weight loss when
exposed to current discharge. This weight loss is normally
measured in pounds (or kilograms) of metal lost due to a current
of one amp for a period of one year (one amp-year).
2.3.13 2-19 When corrosion is noted, or when a leak occurs due to
corrosion, it is essential that the cause(s) of the corrosion be
identified so that the appropriate corrective action can be taken.
2.5.3 2-24 Corrosion inhibitors are also known as passivators.
2.5.4 2-24 Cathodic protection can limit the evolution of corrosion or new
structures and slow the growth of corrosion on existing
structures.
3.4.1 3-7 Coatings are often used to protect structures or components in
conjunction with cathodic protection systems
3.4.2 3-11 A soil resistivity survey is typically conducted prior to the
beginning of construction at the site so the data can be used in
determining the soil resistivity and to determine any interference
from buried structures.
3.4.5 3-12 Therefore, where practical, bare lead-covered copper ground
cable and stainless steel ground rods should be used instead of
bare copper and copper weld ground rods.
3.5.2.4 3-19 A consensus of knowledgeable engineers finds that
metallurgically bonded anodes seem to have fewer failures
because the metals are compressed together in an oxygen-free
vacuum.
D-2
Section Page Key Technical Point
3.5.8 3-30 Copper sulfate electrodes are the most commonly used reference
electrodes. Measurements using other types of reference
electrodes are often converted to those of copper sulfate.
3.5.8 3-30 Connections of the cables to the protected structure are one of
the major concerns with cathodic protection systems.
Attachment of the cables to the structure by mechanical means
is the least desirable method; whereas, welded connections are
more desirable.
8.1.3 8-2 After the anode failure current can reverse because of the copper
center tap of the anode which will become cathodic to the
protected structure.
8.2.6 8-4 If the rectifier is adjusted to increase output and structure
protection and subsequently the soil gets wet (for example, due
to rain), the rectifier output could increase excessively,
damaging the cathodic protection system as well as the coatings
on the structure.
8.2.15 8-9 Excessive coating on the cabinet may cause excessive heating in
very hot environments.
8.2.16 8-9 If the rectifier is set to maintain a constant potential on the
anode bed as the resistively decreases the current will increase
causing a potential overload condition on the rectifier.
C.8.1 C-7 The only way to accurately determine the resistivity of the soil
at a specific location is to measure it.
D-3

Denotes information that requires personnel action or consideration in order
to prevent injury or damage or ease completion of the task.
Section Page Key Human Performance Point
3.4.1 3-10 Under some conditions, it is possible to apply excessive

amounts of current to a coated structure and damage the coating.
4.1.3.1 4-10 A diver inspecting the intake structure and receiving an
electrical shock that was traced back to the impressed current
cathodic protection system for the intake structure.
4.1.3.1 4-10 The second case of leaving the cathodic protection system on
was the result of a new cathodic protection system being
installed on a condenser waterbox and not recognizing the
potential for a shock hazard to working craft personnel.
4.1.3.1 4-11 A workman scrapping off foreign material inside the condenser
waterbox material developed a severe rash. Material being
scrapped off had a pH of around 12, which required the
personnel to use protective equipment.
6.4 6-7 If the contact between the earth and the reference cell is not
good or if the referenced cell is lifted too early or pressing the
recording trigger too early, readings could be erroneous.
7.3.3 7-8 Older oil cooled units may contain polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), which require special handling per EPA regulations.
D-4
E
TRANSLATED TABLE OF CONTENTS
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF

WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI).
NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY
PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:
(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH
RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM
DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR
PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED
RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS
SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S CIRCUMSTANCE, (IV) THAT ANY TRANSLATION FROM THE
ENGLISH-LANGUAGE ORIGINAL OF THIS DOCUMENT IS WITHOUT ERROR; OR
(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING
ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF
THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS
DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN
THIS DOCUMENT.
THE TRANSLATION OF THIS DOCUMENT FROM THE ENGLISH-LANGUAGE ORIGINAL HAS BEEN PREPARED WITH
LIMITED BUDGETARY RESOURCES BY OR ON BEHALF OF EPRI. IT IS PROVIDED FOR REFERENCE PURPOSES ONLY
AND EPRI DISCLAIMS ALL RESPONSIBILITY FOR ITS ACCURACY. THE ENGLISH-LANGUAGE ORIGINAL SHOULD BE
CONSULTED TO CROSS-CHECK TERMS AND STATEMENTS IN THE TRANSLATION.
ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT
Sargent & Lundy, LLC
E-1
Translated Table of Contents
RESUME
Objectifs
Ce projet développe un guide d'application et d'entretien pour le système de protection
cathodique classique et le matériel associé. Le matériel de système cathodique de protection
comprend des redresseurs, des anodes, des boîtes de jonction d'anode, des cellules de référence
(électrodes), et des postes de test. La portée de ce guide comprend l'entretien et le contrôle du
système, de ses composants, et les recommandations appropriées. Ces recommandations
fournissent la base pour l'entretien préventif (P.M.) et l'entretien prédictif appropriés (PdM).
E-2
TABLE DES MATIERES
1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................. 1-1

1.1 Portée et but du guide ................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Organisation du guide ................................................................................................... 1-2
1.3 Points marquants .......................................................................................................... 1-3
CORROSION 2 ........................................................................................................................ 2-1

2.1 Corrosion générale ........................................................................................................ 2-1
2.2 Corrosion électrochimique ............................................................................................. 2-2
2.2.1 Réaction fondamentale .......................................................................................... 2-4
2.2.2 Déclenchement de corrosion ................................................................................. 2-5
2.3 Cellules électrochimiques de corrosion ......................................................................... 2-5
2.3.1 Environnement disymétrique ................................................................................. 2-6
2.3.2 Concentration en oxygène ..................................................................................... 2-7
2.3.3 Électrolyte humide/sec .......................................................................................... 2-8
2.3.4 Sols non homogènes ............................................................................................. 2-8
2.3.5 Surface adjacente au béton/sols ........................................................................... 2-9
2.3.6 Effets biologiques .................................................................................................. 2-9
2.3.7 Corrosion galvanique de cellules ......................................................................... 2-10
2.3.8 Métaux différents ................................................................................................. 2-10
2.3.9 Syndrome Vieux-à-Neuf ...................................................................................... 2-14
2.3.10 Surface endommagée ou rayée ........................................................................ 2-15
2.3.11 Facteurs environnementaux .............................................................................. 2-16
2.3.12 Corrosion parasite ............................................................................................. 2-16
2.3.13 Sources simultanées de corrosion .................................................................... 2-18
2.4 Taux de corrosion ........................................................................................................ 2-19
2.4.1 Effets électriques sur le taux de corrosion ........................................................... 2-20
2.4.1.1 Différence de potentiel ............................................................................... 2-20
E-3
2.4.1.2 résistivité de l’electrolyte ............................................................................ 2-20

2.4.1.3 Resistance de contact ................................................................................ 2-20
2.4.1.4 Enrobage de la structure ........................................................................... 2-20
2.4.1.5 Polarisation de la structure ........................................................................ 2-20
2.4.1.6 Valeur du courant de fuite .......................................................................... 2-21
2.4.1.7 Ratios de surface ..................................................................................... 2-210
2.4.2 Effets chimiques sur le taux de corrosion ............................................................ 2-21
2.4.2.1 Temperature .............................................................................................. 2-22
2.4.2.2 PH de l’électrolyte....................................................................................... 2-22
2.4.2.3 Concentration en ions ................................................................................ 2-22
2.4.2.4 Concentration en électrons ........................................................................ 2-23
2.5 Prévention de la corrosion ........................................................................................... 2-23

2.5.1 Sélection matérielle ............................................................................................. 2-23
2.5.2 Couches et revêtements ...................................................................................... 2-23
2.5.3 Inhibiteurs de corrosion ....................................................................................... 2-24
2.5.4 Protection cathodique (CP) ................................................................................. 2-24
3 SYSTEMES DE PROTECTION CATHODIQUES ................................................................ 3-1

3.1 Système sacrificatoire d'anode ..................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Système de courant appliqué ........................................................................................ 3-3
3.3 Avantages et désavantages d'anode sacrificatoire et de systèmes courant
appliqués ..............................................................................................................................3-6
3.4 Facteurs affectant la protection cathodique .................................................................. 3-6
3.4.1 Couches ................................................................................................................ 3-7
3.4.2 Sols....................................................................................................................... 3-10
3.4.3 Analyse de l'eau .................................................................................................. 3-11
3.4.4 Protection électrique/interférence ........................................................................ 3-11
3.4.5 Revêtements de terre .......................................................................................... 3-11
3.4.6 Autres considérations .......................................................................................... 3-12
3.5 Composants cathodiques des systèmes de protection ............................................... 3-12
3.5.1 Anodes pour les systèmes sacrificatoires d'anode .............................................. 3-12
3.5.2 Anodes pour les systèmes de courant appliqué .................................................. 3-15
3.5.3 Câble d'interconnexion ........................................................................................ 3-19
E-4
3.5.4 Alimentation en énergie ....................................................................................... 3-20

3.5.5 Vérification des postes ........................................................................................ 3-23
3.5.6 Boîte de jonction d'anode .................................................................................... 3-26
3.5.7 Électrode de référence ........................................................................................ 3-26
3.5.8 Connexions .......................................................................................................... 3-27
3.6 Lits d'anode ................................................................................................................. 3-29
3.6.1 Distribution locale ................................................................................................. 3-29
3.6.3 Distribution profonde ............................................................................................ 3-31
3.6.2 Distribution éloignée d'anode .............................................................................. 3-32
3.7 Remblais ..................................................................................................................... 3-33
3.8 Autres accessoires ...................................................................................................... 3-33
3.9 Considérations de conception ..................................................................................... 3-34
3.9.1 Isolement électrique ............................................................................................ 3-36
3.9.2 Résistance de sol ................................................................................................ 3-37
3.9.3 Condition d'alimentation en énergie ................................................................... 3-37
3.9.4 Enlèvement de chlorures ..................................................................................... 3-37
3.9.5 Procédure de modèle fondamentale pour les systèmes sacrificatoires
d'anode ......................................................................................................................... 3-37
3.9.6 Procédure de modèle fondamentale pour le système à courant appliqué .......... 3-38
3.9.7 Analyse des facteurs de conception .................................................................... 3-39
3.9.8 Vulnérabilité aux dommages physiques .............................................................. 3-39
EXPERIENCE INDUSTRIELLE................................................................................................ 4-1

4.1 Base de données d'INPO EPIX ..................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.1 Défauts dus au manque de protection cathodique adéquate ................................ 4-1
4.1.2 Défauts du matériel de système cathodique de protection ....................................... 4
4.1.3 Expérience fonctionnelle d'INPO .............................................................................. 7
4.1.3 NERC/GADS base de données .............................................................................. 14
4.2 Guides de normalisation de NRC ................................................................................... 14
4.3 Résumé de NRC pour les notices IE .............................................................................. 14
4.4 Caractéristiques et résumés d'études ............................................................................ 17
4.4.1 Matériel de centrale protégé par le système CP ..................................................... 17
4.4.2 Longévité de conception ......................................................................................... 17
4.4.3 Défauts de matériel ................................................................................................ 18
4.4.4 Remplacement des systèmes de protection cathodique ........................................ 18
E-5
5 MODES DE DEFAILLANCE ET MECANISMES .................................................................. 5-1

5.1 Anodes .......................................................................................................................... 5-2
5.2 Bâtis d'anode ................................................................................................................. 5-2
5.3 Fusibles .......................................................................................................................... 5-2
5.4 Couche et couverture .................................................................................................... 5-2
5.5 Continuité ...................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.6 Vieillissement .................................................................................................................5-3
5.7 Sécurité du personnel ................................................................................................... 5-3
5.8 Sous protection ............................................................................................................. 5-3
5.9 Protection cathodique excessive ................................................................................... 5-3
5.10 Génération d'hydrogène .............................................................................................. 5-4
5.11 Fragilisation à l’hydrogène .......................................................................................... 5-4
5.12 Courants parasites ...................................................................................................... 5-4
5.13 Chimie de l'eau ............................................................................................................ 5-4
5.14 Corrosion galvanique .................................................................................................. 5-4
5.15 Eclatement du ferraillage.............................................................................................. 5-5
6 PRATIQUES DE CONTROLE ET D'ENTRETIEN ......................................................... 6-1

6.1 Critères d'inspection des revêtements ........................................................................... 6-2
6.2 Critères cathodiques de protection ................................................................................ 6-2
6.3 Vérification du poste ...................................................................................................... 6-4
6.4 Enquête sur la corrosion à intervalle rapprochés ........................................................... 6-5
6.6 Enquête sur la corrosion (enquête sur les systèmes cathodiques de protection) ......... 6-7
6.7 Enquête appliquée sur les lits d'anode .......................................................................... 6-8
6.8 Enquête sur les sacrificatoire de système sacrificatoires d'anode ................................ 6-9
6.9 Utilisation de coupons de tests .................................................................................... 6-10
6.10 Enquête sur les fuites ................................................................................................ 6-10
6.11 Rassemblement de données (paramètres de contrôle) ............................................ 6-11
7 ENTRETIEN PREVENTIF .............................................................................................. 7-1

7.1 Besoins ......................................................................................................................... 7-2
7.2 Système sacrificatoire d'anode ..................................................................................... 7-2
7.2.1 Conditions des normes de la NACE ...................................................................... 7-2
7.2.2 Meilleures pratiques en matière industrielle .......................................................... 7-3
7.3 Système de courant appliqué ........................................................................................ 7-5
E-6
7.3.1 Conditions des normes de la NACE ...................................................................... 7-5

7.3.2 Meilleures pratiques en matière industrielle ........................................................... 7-6
7.3.2 Inspection de redresseur ....................................................................................... 7-7
7.3.4 Inspection d’un pannel............................................................................................ 7-8
7.3.5 Empilements .......................................................................................................... 7-9
7.3.6 Contacts ................................................................................................................ 7-9
7.3.7 Filtre ..................................................................................................................... 7-10
7.3.8 Circuits d'arc ........................................................................................................ 7-10
7.3.9 Contrôle automatique du circuit ........................................................................... 7-10
7.4 Coupons ...................................................................................................................... 7-10
8 DEPANNAGE ................................................................................................................. 8-1

8.1 Protection cathodique sacrificatoire ............................................................................... 8-1
8.1.1 Problèmes courants ............................................................................................... 8-1
8.1.2 Fil d’alimentation .................................................................................................... 8-1
8.1.3 Consommation d'anode ......................................................................................... 8-2
8.2 Protection cathodique par courant appliqué .................................................................. 8-2
8.2.1 Inspection initiale ................................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.2 Isolement de la structure ....................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.3 Structure non isolée ............................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.4 Couches ................................................................................................................ 8-4
8.2.5 Sorties (mètres) ..................................................................................................... 8-4
8.2.6 Lit sec d'anode ....................................................................................................... 8-4
8.2.7 Lit sec d'anode (dépannage) ................................................................................. 8-4
8.2.8 Polarisation ............................................................................................................ 8-5
8.2.9 Câble de tête ......................................................................................................... 8-5
8.2.11 Fil de structure ..................................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.12 Perte de diode du redresseur .............................................................................. 8-6
8.2.13 Perte de courant alternatif ................................................................................... 8-7
8.2.14 Fonctionnement impropre du disjoncteur ou des fusibles ................................... 8-8
8.2.15 Coupures de tension ........................................................................................... 8-8
8.2.16 Chaleur excessive ............................................................................................... 8-8
8.2.17 Surcharge temporaire .......................................................................................... 8-9
8.2.18 Isolement de structure ......................................................................................... 8-9
8.2.19 Circuits ou dispositif d'arrêt de foudre défaillant ................................................ 8-10
E-7
8.2.20 Classe de fusible incorrecte ............................................................................... 8-10
9 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................... 9-1

9.1 Normes .......................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.1 Références techniques .................................................................................................. 9-1
9.3 Sites Web ...................................................................................................................... 9-2
GLOSSAIRE ............................................................................................................................ A-1
NORMES, RECOMMANDATIONS, ET DIRECTIVES INDUSTRIELLES .............................. B-1

Institut américain de pétrole (api) ....................................................................................... B-1
Société américaine des matériaux de contrôle (ASTM) ..................................................... B-1
Association américaine de travaux d'eau (AWWA) ............................................................ B-3
Association nationale des techniciens de la corrosion (NACE) .......................................... B-3
C METHODES DE TEST......................................................................................................... C-1

Analyse du sol et contrôle ................................................................................................... C-1
Résistivité des sols ......................................................................................................... C-1
pH .......................................................................................................................... C-1
Constituants chimiques ...................................................................................................... C-1
Eau/analyse liquide ............................................................................................................. C2
Mesure de pH ................................................................................................................. C2
Mesure de la résistivité.................................................................................................... C2
Enquêtes du potentiel........................................................................................................... C2
Condition de courant ........................................................................................................... C2
Emplacementd'autres structures dans l'endroit ................................................................... C2
Facteur de corrosion du sol ................................................................................................ C-3
Résistivité de la saleté C.7 ................................................................................................. C-4
Echelon de résistivité...................................................................................................... C-4
Effets sur l'environnement ............................................................................................. C-6
Mesure de la résistivité d'électrolyte .................................................................................. C-7
Mesure de la résistivité du sol ....................................................................................... C-7
Mesure de la résistivité liquide ..................................................................................... C-10
Étude du potentiel ............................................................................................................ C-11
Mesures des potentiels ................................................................................................ C-11
Enquête sur le potentielAnode-à-Électrolite ................................................................. C-13
E-8
Vérification de l’adhésion à la résistance ......................................................................... C-16

Analyse chimique de l'environnement .............................................................................. C-16
Contrôle de la continuité.................................................................................................... C-16
Contrôle de l'isolant........................................................................................................... C-17
Mesures des courants parasites ...................................................................................... C-19
Conditions pour les courants............................................................................................. C-20
E-9
LISTE DE FIGURES
Shéma cellule électrochimique de corrosion (source : Draft UFC 3-570-06) ........................... 2-2
Schéma cellule de concentration provoquée par différents sols (source : Draft UFC 3-
570-06) ............................................................................................................................. 2-7
Schéma cellule provoquée par différentes concentrations en oxygène (source :
Draft UFC 3-570-06) ......................................................................................................... 2-7
Schéma cellule de concentration provoquée par différentes concentrations de l'eau
(source : Draft UFC 3-570-06) ..........................................................................................2-8
Cellule de concentration provoquée par un solé non homogène (source : Draft UFC 3-
570-06) ..............................................................................................................................2-9
Le schéma cellule de concentration provoquée par des électrolytes de béton et de sols
(source : Draft UFC 3-570-06) ..........................................................................................2-9
Le schéma cellule galvanique de corrosion provoquée par différents métaux (source :
Draft UFC 3-570-06) .......................................................................................................2-11
Le schéma corrosion de tuyaux acier due à l'interaction avec la terre de la centrale
(source : Série de référence de centrale d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) ...................... 2-13
Le schéma corrosion de 2-9 d'acier à l’interface du sol (source : Série de référence de
centrale d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) ........................................................................ 2-14
Le schéma cellule galvanique de corrosion de 2-10 provoquée par le vieux et neuf acier
(source : Draft UFC 3-570-06) 2-15
Le schéma cellule galvanique de corrosion provoquée par les surfaces endommagées et
rayées (source : Draft UFC 3-570-06) .............................................................................2-15
Le schéma cellule de corrosion par courant parasite provoqué par l'anode et la cathode
externes (source : Draft UFC 3-570-06) .........................................................................2-17
Le schéma combinaison de 2-13 de différentes cellules de corrosion l (source : Draft
UFC 3-570-06) ................................................................................................................2-19
Le schéma effet de l'électrolyte (pH) sur le régime de la corrosion (source : Draft UFC 3-
570-06)............................................................................................................................ 2-22
Le schéma du système sacrificatoire d'anode (source : [27]) .................................................. 3-2
Le schéma installation sacrificatoire, type de système d'anode (source : Centre d'armée
des USA pour le bulletin technique 420-49-29 de travaux publics) .................................. 3-2
Le schéma système de courant appliqué (West coast prevention corrosion, Ltd)................ … 3-4
Le schéma système de courant appliqué type (source : Army Corp des techniciens, du
laboratoire de recherches de construction) ...................................................................... 3-5
Le schéma protection cathodique d'une conduite enduite (source : Série de référence de
centrale d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) .......................................................................... 3-7
E-10
Le schéma protection cathodique d'une canalisation non-enduite (source : Série de

référence de centrale d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) ..................................................... 3-8
Le schéma installation sacrificatoire d'anode (source : Service du Dakota du Sud des
ressources naturelles) .....................................................................................................3-13
Le schéma installation d'anode de graphite............................................................................ 3-17
Le schéma câblage interne de boîte de jonction .................................................................... 3-20
Le schéma agencement type de redresseur de 3-10 ............................................................ 3-22
La figure poste de test (source : Draft UFC 3-570-06) ........................................................... 3-24
Figure Station de test (source : Draft UFC 3-570-06) ............................................................ 3-24
Le schéma poste de courant appliqué ................................................................................... 3-25
Le schéma test cathodique de protection (accueil de CORRPRO) ........................................3-25
Le schéma boîte de jonction ................................................................................................... 3-26
Le schéma 3-15 électrodes types de référence (source : Office de sécurité de
canalisation, POINT et [27]))........................................................................................... 3-27
Le schéma connexion type de 3-16 du conducteur dans la pipe par Welding (contrôle de
corrosion d'Accueil-Farwest) 3-27
Le schéma connexion du conducteur à l'anode de fonderie ...................................................3-28
Le schéma épissure de conducteurs avec soudure Thermite ............................................... 3-28
Le schéma système local horizontal réparti d'anode ............................................................. 3-30
Le schéma système local vertical réparti d'anode (source : MIL-HDBK-1004/20N) .............. 3-31
Le schéma système type de bâti d'anode profond.................................................................. 3-32
Schéma système éloigné à l'anode (source : Draft UFC 3-570-06) ....................................... 3-32
Le schéma anode immergée dans le remblais ....................................................................... 3-33
Le schéma disposition type d'un système de protection cathodique ..................................... 3-35
Le schéma isolement électrique (source : Centre d'armée des USA pour le bulletin
technique 420-49-29) de travaux publics
Figure variations types de la résistivité des sols en fonction de l'humidité, de la
température et de la teneur en sel (source : MIL-HDBK-419A) ...................................... C-7
Figure Quatre-Cheville méthode de C2 pour mesurer la résistivité de saleté (source :
Série de référence de centrale d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) ...................................... C-8
Figure Câble à 4 ancrages et matériel pour la mesure de la résistivité des sols .................... C-8
Figure Boîtier de sols pour la détermination de la résistivité (source : Mil-Hdbk-1004/10) ... C-10
Figure Mesureur de la conductivité (Amber Science, Inc.) .................................................. C-10
Figure Potentiel au dessus de la canalisation (source : Mil-Hdbk-1004/10) ......................... C-11
Figure enquête potentiel de la Structure-au-Sol (source : Série de référence de centrale
d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) ..................................................................................... C-12
Figure mesure de courant d'anode sacrificatoire de C-8 (source : Centre d'armée des
USA pour le bulletin technique 420-49-29 de travaux publics) ..................................... C-15
Figure mesure de courant de sortie de redresseur de C-9 (source : Centre d'armée des
E-11
Figure détermination ultrasonique des régions d'isolement (source : Centre d'armée des
Figure appareils de contrôle d'isolement (la Science ambre d'accueil) ................................ C-17
Figure Contrôle de conductivité des revêtements (source : Centre d'armée des USA
pour le bulletin technique 420-49-29 de travaux publics) .............................................. C-18
Figure – Contrôle de conductivité des revêtements, méthode à ligne longue (source :
Centre d'armée des USA pour le bulletin technique 420-49-29 de travaux publics) ..... C-19
Figure conditions de courants requis (source : ..............................................................................
de référence de centrale d'EPRI de série électrique, de volume 11) ............................. C-20
E-12
LISTE DE TABLEAUX
Série galvanique pour des métaux utilisés généralement dans les centrales (source :
Série de référence de centrale d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) ..................................... 2-12
Perte de masse de métaux à un courant d'un ampère pendant une année (1 Ampère-
Année) ............................................................................................................................ 2-18
Potentiel requis pour la protection cathodique (référence : La gestion du temps physique
nationalede duréedu laboratoire (R-U) des matériaux, protection cathodique
pratiquent par le technicien. FE Francis) ......................................................................... 3-3
Conditions de courant de protection requis (source : Série de référence de centrale
d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) ........................................................................................ 3-9
Analyse de corrosion des sols et de l’eau (source : Série de référence de centrale
d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) ...................................................................................... 3-10
Propriétés des anodes sacrificatoires .................................................................................... 3-12
Propriétés des anodes à courant appliqué (référence : Protection cathodique par le
technicien. Francis) .........................................................................................................3-15
Matériel résultats EPIX sur les défauts de corrosion dus au manque ou au défaut de
protection cathodique............................................................................................................ 3
Défauts de matériel cathodiques de protection............................................................................ 5
Résumé d'expérience INPO ...................................................................................................... 11
Transmissions génériques NRC ............................................................................................... 16
Pourcentage de matériel de centrale protégé par le système de CP ....................................... 17
Caractéristiques consolidées pour le système de protection cathodique ................................. 19
Modes de défaillance, mécanismes, causes et modalités de correction .................................. 5-5
Méthodes pour évaluer le rendement en service d'inducteur de revêtement (NACE
RP0169-2002) .................................................................................................................. 6-2
Critères pour la protection cathodique ..................................................................................... 6-3
Tensions d'anode pour ce qui concerne le couple de référence Cu/CuSO4 ........................... 6-4
Conditions de mesure de potentiel (référence : Traite UFC-3-570-06, datée de juillet
2001) ................................................................................................................................ 6-5
Conditions initiales de test cathodiques du système de protection (référence : Traité
UFC-3-570-06, daté de juillet 2001) ................................................................................. 6-6
Conditions d'enquête de corrosion (référence : Traité UFC-3-570-06,) 6-8 daté de juillet
2001
Emplacements des test pour l'enquête sur le courant appliqué au bâti d'anode
(référence : Traite UFC-3-570-06, datée de juillet 2001) ................................................. 6-9
E-13
Les modalités de reprise recommandées pour la prévention des fuites (référence : Traite
UFC-3-570-06, datée de juillet 2001) ............................................................................. 6-10
Enquête collecte initiale de données (référence : Traité UFC-3-570-06, datée de juillet
2001) ............................................................................................................................... 6-11
Régime d'entretien recommandé pour le système sacrificatoire d'anode ................................ 7-4
Le tableau de régime recommandé d'entretien pour le système de courant appliqué ............. 7-6
Le tableau 8-1 dépannage des systèmes de protection cathodiques actuels ....................... 8-11
Analyse de corrosion des sols et d'eau (source : Série de référence de centrale d'EPRI,
volume électriques 11) .................................................................................................... C-3
Formulaire standard pour les mesures de résistivité de sols ................................................... C-4
Valeurs de résistivité du matériau de mise à la terre (MIL-HDBK-419A) ................................ C-5
Facteurs utilisés pour les mesures de résistivité à quatre ancrage (source : Série de
référence de centrale d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) .................................................... C-9
Comparaison entre électrodes de référence avec une électrode de sulfate de cuivre à
25ºC (référence : Série de référence de centrale d'EPRI, volume électriques 11) ....... C-12
Conditions de courant pour la protection cathodique de l'acier nu ....................................... C-13
Conditions courant pour la protection cathodique de l'acier enduit ....................................... C-14
E-14
レポートの概要
目次
・標準的な電気防食システムおよび関連する装置のための適用および保全ガイドを開発
すること。電気防食システム装置には整流器、陽極、陽極ジャンクション・ボックス
、対照電池(電極)、および試験ステーションを含む。
・システム機器の保全とテストの問題を取り扱い、適切な提言を提供すること
・提言により、予防保全(PM)および予知保全(PdM)のプログラムのベースを提供するこ
と。
E-15
目次
1はじめに........................................................................................................................ 1-1
1.1このガイドの範囲と目的 ......................................................................................... 1-1
1.2ガイドの構成.......................................................................................................... 1-3
1.3キーポイント........................................................................................................... 1-3
2腐食 2-1
2.1全面腐食 ................................................................................................................ 2-1
2.2電気化学腐食.......................................................................................................... 2-2
2.2.1基本的反応...................................................................................................... 2-4
2.2.2腐食の開始...................................................................................................... 2-5
2.3電気化学腐食の電池................................................................................................ 2-5
2.3.1異なった環境 .................................................................................................. 2-6
2.3.2酸素濃度 ......................................................................................................... 2-7
2.3.3湿った/乾燥した電解物 .................................................................................... 2-8
2.3.4非均質な土...................................................................................................... 2-8
2.3.5コンクリート/土相互作用................................................................................. 2-9
2.3.6生物学的作用 .................................................................................................. 2-9
2.3.7ガルバニック電池腐食 ................................................................................... 2-10
2.3.8異なった金属 ................................................................................................ 2-10
2.3.9新旧シンドローム.......................................................................................... 2-14
E-16
2.3.10傷つけられたか、またはスクラッチされた表面............................................. 2-15
2.3.11環境要因 ..................................................................................................... 2-16
2.3.12迷走電流による腐食..................................................................................... 2-16
2.3.13同時に作用する複数の腐食原因 .................................................................... 2-18
2.4腐食の進展率........................................................................................................ 2-19
2.4.1腐食の進展率に対する電気的効果 .................................................................. 2-20
2.4.1.1 電位差 ................................................................................................... 2-20
2.4.1.2 電解質の抵抗率 ...................................................................................... 2-20
2.4.1.3 接触抵抗率............................................................................................. 2-20
2.4.1.4 構造物のコーティング ............................................................................ 2-20
2.4.1.5 構造物の分極化 ...................................................................................... 2-20
2.4.1.6 電流値 ................................................................................................... 2-21
2.4.1.7 表面面積比............................................................................................. 2-21
2.4.2 腐食の進展率に対する化学的効果 ................................................................. 2-21
2.4.2.1 温度....................................................................................................... 2-22
2.4.2.2 電解質のpH ............................................................................................ 2-22
2.4.2.3 イオン濃度............................................................................................. 2-22
2.4.2.4 電子濃度 ................................................................................................ 2-23
2.5防食 ..................................................................................................................... 2-23
2.5.1材料の選択.................................................................................................... 2-23
2.5.2コーティングおよびライナー ......................................................................... 2-23
2.5.3腐食抑制剤.................................................................................................... 2-24
2.5.4電気防食(CP) ................................................................................................ 2-24
3電気防食システム .......................................................................................................... 3-1
3.1犠牲陽極システム ................................................................................................... 3-1
E-17
3.2外部電源システム ................................................................................................... 3-3
3.3犠牲陽極および外部電源システムの利点そして不利な点3-6
3.4電気防食に影響を与える要因 .................................................................................. 3-7
3.4.1コーティング .................................................................................................. 3-7
3.4.2土 3-10
3.4.3水質分析 ....................................................................................................... 3-11
3.4.4電気絶縁/干渉 ............................................................................................... 3-12
3.4.5接地と接地マット.......................................................................................... 3-12
3.4.6他の考察 ....................................................................................................... 3-13
3.5電気防食のシステムの機器.................................................................................... 3-13
3.5.1犠牲陽極システムのための陽極...................................................................... 3-13
3.5.1.1 亜鉛....................................................................................................... 3-14
3.5.1.2 マグネシウム ......................................................................................... 3-15
3.5.1.3 アルミニウム ......................................................................................... 3-15
3.5.2 外部電源システムのための陽極..................................................................... 3-16
3.5.2.1 高-シリコン鋳鉄 ........................................................................... 3-17
3.5.2.2 グラファイト ......................................................................................... 3-17
3.5.2.3 アルミニウム ....................................................................................... 3-19
3.5.2.4 プラティナ ........................................................................................... 3-19
3.5.2.5 鉛合金陽極............................................................................................. 3-20
3.5.2.6 混合金属酸化物 ...................................................................................... 3-20
3.5.3相互接続ケーブル.......................................................................................... 3-20
3.5.4電源.............................................................................................................. 3-21
3.5.4.1 変圧器 ................................................................................................... 3-23
3.5.4.2整流器 .................................................................................................... 3-24
E-18
3.5.4.3 過付加保護............................................................................................. 3-24
3.5.4.4 保護....................................................................................................... 3-24
3.5.4.5 その他電源............................................................................................. 3-24
3.5.5試験ステーション.......................................................................................... 3-24
3.5.6陽極ジャンクション・ボックス...................................................................... 3-24
3.5.7参照電極 ....................................................................................................... 3-28
3.5.8接続.............................................................................................................. 3-29
3.6陽極ベッド ........................................................................................................... 3-31
3.6.1ローカル分散陽極ベッド................................................................................ 3-31
3.6.3深据付陽極ベッド.......................................................................................... 3-33
3.6.2遠隔陽極ベッド ............................................................................................. 3-34
3.7 埋戻し.................................................................................................................. 3-35
3.8他のアクセサリ .................................................................................................... 3-36
3.9デザイン考察........................................................................................................ 3-36
3.9.1電気的隔離.................................................................................................... 3-38
3.9.2土の抵抗 ....................................................................................................... 3-39
3.9.3電源の条件.................................................................................................... 3-39
3.9.4塩化物の除去 ................................................................................................ 3-39
3.9.5犠牲陽極システムの基本設計手順 .................................................................. 3-39
3.9.6外部電源システムの基本設計手順 .................................................................. 3-40
3.9.6.1 全電流の決定 ......................................................................................... 3-40
3.9.6.2 全抵抗の決定 ......................................................................................... 3-40
3.9.6.3 整流器の大きさの決定 ............................................................................ 3-41
3.9.7設計要素の分析 ............................................................................................. 3-41
3.9.8物理的な損傷への脆弱性................................................................................ 3-42
E-19
4企業の経験 .................................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 INPO EPIXのデータベース...................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.1十分な電気防食の欠乏のための故障 ................................................................. 4-1
4.1.2電気防食システム装置の故障 ............................................................................ 4-5
4.1.3 INPOの運転経験 ........................................................................................... 4-10
4.1.3.1 外部電源電気防システム......................................................................... 4-10
4.1.3.2 陽極....................................................................................................... 4-11
4.1.3.3 コーティング ......................................................................................... 4-12
4.1.3.4 他の腐食の問題 ...................................................................................... 4-12
4.1.3 NERC/GADSのデータベース .......................................................................... 4-18
4.2 NRCのレギュラトリガイド ................................................................................... 4-18
4.3 NRCのIE通知の概要 ............................................................................................. 4-18
4.4調査データおよび概要 .......................................................................................... 4-21
4.4.1 電気防食システムによって保護されるプラント設備....................................... 4-21
4.4.2設計寿命 ........................................................................................................ 4-21
4.4.3機器故障 ....................................................................................................... 4-22
4.4.4電気防食の機器の取替え................................................................................ 4-22
5故障モードおよびメカニズム.......................................................................................... 5-1
5.1陽極 ....................................................................................................................... 5-2
5.2陽極ベッド ............................................................................................................. 5-2
5.3ヒューズ ................................................................................................................ 5-2
5.4コーティングおよびライナー .................................................................................. 5-2
5.5継続性.................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.6経年化.................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.7人身安全 ................................................................................................................ 5-3
E-20
5.8保護された範囲 ...................................................................................................... 5-3
5.9余分な電気防食 ...................................................................................................... 5-4
5.10水素の生成 ........................................................................................................... 5-4
5.11水素ぜい化 ........................................................................................................... 5-4
5.12迷走電流............................................................................................................... 5-4
5.13水化学 .................................................................................................................. 5-4
5.14ガルバニック腐食 ................................................................................................. 5-5
5.15鉄筋腐食によるコンクリート割れ .......................................................................... 5-5
6テストおよび保全方法.................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1コーティングの点検基準 ......................................................................................... 6-2
6.2電気防食の基準 ...................................................................................................... 6-2
6.3試験ステーション ................................................................................................... 6-4
6.4高頻度の腐食の調査................................................................................................ 6-5
6.6腐食の調査(電気防食の調査) .................................................................................. 6-8
6.7外部電源陽極ベッドの調査...................................................................................... 6-9
6.8犠牲陽極システム調査 ............................................................................................ 6-9
6.9クーポンの使用 .................................................................................................... 6-10
6.10漏えい調査 ......................................................................................................... 6-10
6.11データ収集(パラメータモニタリング) ................................................................. 6-11
7予防保全........................................................................................................................ 7-1
7.1必要データ ............................................................................................................. 7-2
7.2犠牲陽極システム ................................................................................................... 7-2
7.2.1 NACE基準の要件............................................................................................. 7-3
7.2.2産業界のベストプラクティス ........................................................................... 7-3
7.2.2.1 目視検査 .................................................................................................. 7-3
E-21
7.2.2.2 電気的計測............................................................................................... 7-4
7.3外部電源システム ................................................................................................... 7-5
7.3.1 NACEの基準からの要件................................................................................... 7-5
7.3.2産業界のベストプラクティス ........................................................................... 7-6
7.3.2整流器の点検 .................................................................................................. 7-6
7.3.2.1 目視検査 .................................................................................................. 7-6
7.3.4パネルの点検 .................................................................................................. 7-8
7.3.5スタック ......................................................................................................... 7-9
7.3.6接触................................................................................................................ 7-9
7.3.7フィルター ................................................................................................... 7-10
7.3.8アークの経路 ................................................................................................ 7-10
7.3.9自動制御回路 ................................................................................................. 7-10
7.4クーポン .............................................................................................................. 7-10
8トラブルシューティング ................................................................................................ 8-1
8.1犠牲的な電気防食のトラブルシューテ-ィング.......................................................... 8-1
8.1.1よくある問題 .................................................................................................. 8-2
8.1.2リードワイヤー .............................................................................................. 8-1
8.1.3陽極消費 ......................................................................................................... 8-2
8.2外部電源電気防食のトラブルシューテ-ィング.......................................................... 8-2
8.2.1初回の検査...................................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.2構造の隔離...................................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.3非絶縁構造...................................................................................................... 8-4
8.2.4コーティング .................................................................................................. 8-4
8.2.5出力(メータ) .................................................................................................. 8-4
8.2.6乾燥した陽極ベッド ........................................................................................ 8-4
E-22
8.2.7陽極ベッドのトラブルシューテ-ィング............................................................. 8-5
8.2.7.1 徐々に進行する劣化 ...8-5
8.2.7.2 急速に進行する劣化 ... 8-5
8.2.8分極................................................................................................................ 8-5
8.2.9ヘッダケーブル ............................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.11リード線 ....................................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.11.1 電流 .................................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.11.2 無電流 ................................................................................................. 8-6
8.2.12整流器ダイオードの故障 ................................................................................ 8-6
8.2.13交流電源の故障 ............................................................................................. 8-7
8.2.14サーキットブレーカまたはヒューズの誤作動 .................................................. 8-8
8.2.15電圧トランジェント....................................................................................... 8-8
8.2.16過度の熱 ....................................................................................................... 8-8
8.2.17一時的なオーバーロード ................................................................................ 8-9
8.2.18構造の隔離 .................................................................................................... 8-9
8.2.19避雷器のショートまたは故障 ....................................................................... 8-10
8.2.20不適当な大きさのヒューズ........................................................................... 8-11
9参照 9-1
9.1基準 ....................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.1技術的な参照.......................................................................................................... 9-1
9.3ウェブサイト.......................................................................................................... 9-2
Ａ用語集 ........................................................................................................................ A-1
B産業界標準、提言および指針 ......................................................................................... B-1
API(アメリカの石油の協会) ........................................................................................ B-1
ASTM(アメリカ材料学会）........................................................................................... B-1
E-23
AWWA(アメリカ水作業連合) ....................................................................................... B-3
NACE(国家腐食エンジニア連合) ................................................................................... B-3
Cテスト方法 .................................................................................................................... C-1
C.1土壌分析およびテスト ............................................................................................ C-1
C.1.1土の抵抗率...................................................................................................... C-1
C.1.2 pH ................................................................................................................ C-1
C.1.3化学成分 ............................................................................................................. C-1
C.2水/液体の分析 ........................................................................................................ C-2
C.2.1 pHの測定 ....................................................................................................... C-2
C.2.2抵抗率の測定 .................................................................................................. C-2
C.3電位の調査............................................................................................................. C-2
C.4電流条件テスト ...................................................................................................... C-2
C.5領域の他の構造位置 ............................................................................................... C-2
C.6土の腐食性 ............................................................................................................ C-3
C.7土の抵抗率............................................................................................................. C-4
C.7.1典型的な抵抗率のレンジ................................................................................. C-4
C.7.2環境影響 ......................................................................................................... C-6
C.8電解物の抵抗率の測定 ............................................................................................ C-7
C.8.1土の抵抗率の測定............................................................................................ C-7
C.8.2液体の抵抗率の測定 ...................................................................................... C-10
C.9電位調査 .............................................................................................................. C-11
C.9.1電位測定 ....................................................................................................... C-11
C.9.2陽極と電解物の電位調査................................................................................ C-13
C.11抵抗ボンドチェック............................................................................................ C-16
C.12環境に対する化学分析 ........................................................................................ C-16
E-24
C.13継続テスト ......................................................................................................... C-16
C.14絶縁体のテスト .................................................................................................. C-17
C.15 コーティングの電導率 ........................................................................................ C-18
C.16迷走電流の測定 .................................................................................................. C-19
C.17電流の要件 ......................................................................................................... C-20
D キー情報のリスト.......................................................................................................... D-1
E-25
図のリスト
図2-1電気化学的腐食電池................................................................................................. 2-2
図2-2異なった土によって引き起こされる濃淡電池............................................................ 2-7
図2-3異なった酸素の濃度によって引き起こされる濃淡電池 .............................................. 2-7
図2-4異なった水の集中によって引き起こされる濃淡電池.................................................. 2-8
図2-5非均質な土によって引き起こされる濃淡電池 2-9
図2-6コンクリートおよび土の電解物によって引き起こされる濃淡電池 2-9
図2-7異なった金属によって引き起こされるガルバニック腐食の電池2-11:
図2-8プラントの接地システムとの相互作用による鋼管の腐食 ....................................... 2-13
図2-9土－コンクリートの作用による鋼鉄の腐食 ............................................................. 2-14
図2-10新旧の鋼鉄によって引き起こされるガルバニック腐食の電池2-15
図2-
11傷つけられたおよびスクラッチされた表面によって引き起こされるガルバニック
腐食の電池............................................................................................................. 2-16
図2-12外部陽極および陰極によって引き起こされる電食電池........................................... 2-17
図2-13作動中の多くの異なった腐食電池の組合せ 2-19
図2-14腐食電解物pHの進展率への効果 ........................................................................... 2-22
図3-1犠牲陽極システム .................................................................................................... 3-2
図3-2典型的犠牲陽極システム施設 ................................................................................... 3-2
図3-3外部電流システム ..................................................................................................… 3-4
図3-4典型的外部電源システム .......................................................................................... 3-5
図3-5塗装管の電気防食 .................................................................................................... 3-8
図3-6塗装の無い管の電気防食 .......................................................................................... 3-9
図3-7犠牲陽極設備 3-14
E-26
図3-8グラファイトの陽極設備 ........................................................................................ 3-18
図3-9ジャンクション・ボックスの内部ケーブル ............................................................. 3-21
図3-10典型的な整流器の構成 ......................................................................................... 3-23
図3-11フラッシュ試験ステーション ............................................................................... 3-24
図3-12地上 (Above Grade)試験ステーション ................................................................... 3-25
図3-13典型的な外部電源試験ステーション 3-26
図3-14典型的なフラッシュ／地上電気防食試験ステーション........................................... 3-27
図 3-15 ジャンクションボクス ........................................................................................ 3-28
図3-16典型的な参照電極 ................................................................................................. 3-29
図3-17溶接による管とコンダクターとの典型的な接続...................................................... 3-27
図3-18コンダクターと鋳鉄の陽極との接続 ...................................................................... 3-28
図3-19テルミット溶接によるコンダクターの接続 ........................................................... 3-30
図3-20水平のローカル分散陽極システム......................................................................... 3-32
図3-21垂直のローカル分散陽極システム......................................................................... 3-33
図3-22典型的深据付陽極ベッドシステム......................................................................... 3-34
図3-23遠隔陽極システム ................................................................................................ 3-34
図3-24埋戻し用袋に浸る陽極 ......................................................................................... 3-35
図3-25電気防食システムの典型的発電所のレイアウト..................................................... 3-35
図3-26電気隔離 .............................................................................................................. 3-36
図C-1湿気、温度および塩分を関数とする土の抵抗率の典型的な変化 ................................. C-6
図C-2土の抵抗率を測定するための4Pin方法 ...................................................................... C-8
図C-3土の抵抗率測定のための4Pinケーブルと装置 ............................................................. C-8
図C-4抵抗決定のための土ボックス ............................................................................... C-10
図C-5液体の伝導率メータ .............................................................................................. C-10
図C-6管の電位調査 ........................................................................................................ C-11
図C-7構造－土の電位調査 .............................................................................................. C-12
図C-8犠牲陽極電流の測定 .............................................................................................. C-15
E-27
図C-9整流器の出力電流の測定........................................................................................ C-15
図C-10隔離領域の超音波テスト ...................................................................................... C-17
図C-11絶縁体のテスター .............................................................................................. C-17
図C-12コーティング導電率のテスト-ショートライン方法 ................................................ C-18
図C-13コーティング導電率のテスト–ロングライン方法................................................... C-19
図C-14電流の要件 .......................................................................................................... C-20
E-28
テーブルのリスト
表2-1発電所で一般的に使用されている金属のガルバニックシリーズ ............................... 2-12
表2-2 1年間1アンペア(1アンペア年)の電流による金属の減量........................................ 2-18
表3-1電気防食に必要な電位 ............................................................................................. 3-4
表3-2電気防食の電流の要件 ........................................................................................... 3-10
表3-3土および水の腐食の分類 ........................................................................................ 3-11
表3-4犠牲陽極の特性 ..................................................................................................... 3-13
表3-5外部電源陽極の特性................................................................................................ 3-16
表4-1 EPIX電気防食がないか故障により腐食故障するプラント機器 .................................... 4-3
表4-2電気防食の機器故障................................................................................................. 4-6
表4-3 INPOの運転経験の概要 ......................................................................................... 4-14
表4-4 NRC Generic Communications................................................................................ 4-20
表4-5電気防食システムによって保護される工場設備のパーセント .................................. 4-21
表4-6電気防食システムのプラントデータのまとめ.......................................................... 4-23
表5-1故障モード、メカニズム、原因および是正処置 ........................................................ 5-5
表6-1コーティングのインサービスフィールドパフォーマンスを評価するための方法.......... 6-2
表6-2電気防食のための基準 ............................................................................................. 6-3
表6-3Cu/CuSO4対照電池に関するの陽極電圧 .................................................................... 6-4
表6.4高頻度で行う電位測定調査の要件............................................................................. 6-6
表6-5最初の電気防食のシステム試験の要件 ....................................................................... 6-7
表6-6腐食調査の要件 ........................................................................................................ 6-8
表6-7外部電源陽極ベッドの調査のためのテスト位置 ........................................................ 6-9
表6-8推薦された漏洩防止是正処置 ................................................................................. 6-10
E-29
表6-9最初のデータ収集調査 ........................................................................................... 6-11
表7-1推薦された犠牲陽極システムのための保全プログラム .............................................. 7-5
表7-2推薦された外部電源システムの保全プログラム ..................................................... 7-7
表8-1外部電源電気防食システムのトラブルシューティング ............................................ 8-11
表C-1土および水の腐食の分類.......................................................................................... C-3
表C-2土の抵抗率の測定記録のためのサンプル形式............................................................ C-4
表C-3接地媒体の抵抗率値 ................................................................................................ C-5
表C-4 4Pinの抵抗測定で使用される因子 ......................................................................... C-9
表C-5 25ºCでの銅硫酸塩の電極と参照電極との比較...................................................... C-12
表C-6裸鋼鉄の電気防食する電流の要件 .......................................................................... C-13
表C-7塗装付き鋼鉄の電気防食のための電流の要件.......................................................... C-14
E-30
Objetivos
Este proyecto desarrollara una guía de aplicación y mantenimiento para el clásico sistema de
protección catódica y sus equipos asociados. Típicamente, los equipos de protección del sistema
catódico incluyen rectificadores, ánodos, cajas de unión de ánodos, células de referencia
(electrodos) y estaciones de pruebas. El alcance de esta guía incluye tomar medidas en el
mantenimiento y verificaciones del sistema, de los componentes y ofrecer recomendaciones
adecuadas. Estas recomendaciones ofrecerán la base para un programa conveniente de
mantenimiento preventivo y profético (PM) y (PdM)
E-31
CONTENIDO
1 INTRODUCCIÓN .................................................................................................................. 1-1

1.1 Alcance y propósito de esta guía
1.2 Organización de la Guía ................................................................................................ 1-2
1.3 Casos Inesperados ....................................................................................................... 1-3
2 CORROSIÓN......................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 Corrosión General ......................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Corrosión Electroquímica .............................................................................................. 2-2
2.2.1 Reacción Básica .................................................................................................... 2-4
2.2.2 Iniciación de Corrosión .......................................................................................... 2-5
2.3 Células de Corrosión Electroquímicas ........................................................................... 2-5
2.3.1 Ambiente Disímil .................................................................................................... 2-6
2.3.2 Concentración de Oxígeno .................................................................................... 2-7
2.3.3 Electrolito Húmedo/Seco ....................................................................................... 2-8
2.3.4 Suelos No Homogéneos ........................................................................................ 2-8
2.3.5 Interfaz de Concreto/Suelo..................................................................................... 2-9
2.3.6 Efectos Biológicos ................................................................................................. 2-9
2.3.7 Corrosión Célula Galvánica.................................................................................. 2-10
2.3.8 Metales Disímiles ................................................................................................ 2-10
2.3.9 Síndrome de Viejo-a-Nuevo ................................................................................ 2-14
2.3.10 Superficie Deteriorada o Rallada........................................................................ 2-15
2.3.11 Factores Ambientales ........................................................................................ 2-16
2.3.12 Corrosión de Corriente Directa .......................................................................... 2-16
2.3.13 Fuentes Simultáneas de Corrosión ................................................................... 2-18
2.4 Índice de Corrosión ..................................................................................................... 2-19
2.4.1 Efectos Eléctricos sobre el Índice de Corrosión .................................................. 2-20
2.4.1.1 Diferencia de Potencial ................................................................................ 2-20
2.4.1.2 Resistencia del Electrolito ............................................................................ 2-20
E-32
2.4.1.3 Resistencia de Contacto .............................................................................. 2-20

2.4.1.4 Capa de la Estructura .................................................................................. 2-20
2.4.1.5 Polarización de la Estructura ....................................................................... 2-20
2.4.1.6 Cantidad de Flujo de Corriente ..................................................................... 2-21
2.4.1.7 Índices de la Área Superficial ...................................................................... 2-21
2.4.2 Efectos Químicos sobre el Índice de Corrosión .................................................. 2-21
2.4.2.1 Temperatura ................................................................................................ 2-22
2.4.2.2 pH del Electrolito .......................................................................................... 2-22
2.4.2.3 Concentración del Ión .................................................................................. 2-22
2.4.2.4 Concentración del Electrón .......................................................................... 2-23
2.5 Prevención de Corrosión ............................................................................................. 2-23
2.5.1 Selección de Material .......................................................................................... 2-23
2.5.2 Capas y Forros .................................................................................................... 2-23
2.5.3 Inhibidores de Corrosión ..................................................................................... 2-24
2.5.4 Protección Catódica (CP) .................................................................................... 2-24
3 SISTEMAS DE PROTECCIÓN CATÓDICOS ...................................................................... 3-1

3.1 Sistema de Ánodo de Sacrificio ..................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Sistema de Corriente Impreso........................................................................................ 3-3
3.3 Ventajas y Desventajas del Ánodo de Sacrificio y del Sistemas de Corriente
Impreso ................................................................................................................................3-6
3.4 Factores que Afectan la Protección Catódica ............................................................... 3-7
3.4.1 Capas .................................................................................................................... 3-7
3.4.2 Suelos .................................................................................................................. 3-11
3.4.3 Análisis de Agua .................................................................................................. 3-11
3.4.4 Capa/Interferencia Eléctrica ................................................................................. 3-12
3.4.5 Puesto a Tierra y Lozas de Puesta a Tierra ......................................................... 3-12
3.4.6 Otras Consideraciones ........................................................................................ 3-13
3.5 Componentes de Sistemas de Protección Catódica ................................................... 3-13
3.5.1 Ánodos para los Sistemas de Ánodo de Sacrifico................................................ 3-13
3.5.1.1 Cinc .............................................................................................................. 3-14
3.5.1.2 Magnesio ..................................................................................................... 3-15
3.5.1.3 Aluminio ....................................................................................................... 3-15
3.5.2 Ánodos para los Sistemas de Corriente Impresa ................................................. 3-16
3.5.2.1 Hierro Fundido de Alto-Silicon ..................................................................... 3-17
E-33
3.5.2.2 Grafito .......................................................................................................... 3-17

3.5.2.3 Aluminio ....................................................................................................... 3-19
3.5.2.4 Platino .......................................................................................................... 3-19
3.5.2.5 Ánodos de Aleación de Plomo ..................................................................... 3-20
3.5.2.6 Oxido Metálico Mezclado ............................................................................. 3-20
3.5.3 Cable de Interconexión ........................................................................................ 3-20
3.5.4 Fuentes de Alimentación ...................................................................................... 3-21
3.5.4.1 Transformador ............................................................................................. 3-23
3.5.4.2 Rectificando Elementos ............................................................................... 3-24
3.5.4.3 Protección de Sobrecarga ........................................................................... 3-24
3.5.4.4 Contadores .................................................................................................. 3-24
3.5.4.5 Otras Fuentes de Alimentación .................................................................... 3-24
3.5.5 Estaciones de Pruebas ........................................................................................ 3-24
3.5.6 Caja de Unión del Ánodo...................................................................................... 3-27
3.5.7 Electrodo de Referencia ...................................................................................... 3-28
3.5.8 Conexiones .......................................................................................................... 3-29
3.6 Cama del Ánodo .......................................................................................................... 3-31
3.6.1 Cama de Ánodo Distribuida Local ........................................................................ 3-31
3.6.3 Camas del Ánodo Profundas ............................................................................... 3-33
3.6.2 Cama de Ánodo Alejada....................................................................................... 3-34
3.7 Relleno ........................................................................................................................ 3-35
3.8 Otros Accesorios .......................................................................................................... 3-36
3.9 Consideraciones del Diseño ........................................................................................ 3-36
3.9.1 Aislamiento Eléctrico ........................................................................................... 3-38
3.9.2 Resistencia del Suelo .......................................................................................... 3-39
3.9.3 Requisito de el Suministro de Energia ................................................................. 3-39
3.9.4 Extracion del Cloruro ........................................................................................... 3-39
3.9.5 Procedimiento de Diseño Básico para Sistemas de Ánodo de Sacrificio............. 3-39
3.9.6 Procedimiento de Diseño Básico par Sistema de Corriente Impreso................... 3-40
3.9.6.1 Determinación de Corriente Total ................................................................ 3-40
3.9.6.2 Determinación de Resistencia Total ............................................................. 3-40
3.9.6.3 Determinación de Tamaño del Rectificador.................................................. 3-41
.9.7 Análisis de los Factores de Diseño ....................................................................... 3-41
3.9.8 Vulnerabilidad al Daño Físico .............................................................................. 3-42
E-34
4 EXPERIENCIA DE LA INDUSTRIA ..................................................................................... 4-1

4.1 Base de Datos de INPO EPIX ....................................................................................... 4-1
4.1.1 Fallas debido a la Carencia de Protección Catódica Adecuada ............................ 4-1
4.1.2 Fallas de el Equipo de Sistema de Protección Catódica........................................ 4-5
4.1.3 Experiencia de Operación de INPO .................................................................... 4-10
4.1.3.1 Sistemas de Protección Catódica de Corriente Impresas ............................ 4-10
4.1.3.2 Ánodos ......................................................................................................... 4-11
4.1.3.3 Capas .......................................................................................................... 4-12
4.1.3.4 Otros Problemas de Corrosion ..................................................................... 4-12
4.1.3 NERC/GADS base de datos ................................................................................ 4-18
4.2 Guías Reguladoras de NRC ........................................................................................ 4-18
4.3 Resumen de NRC para Advertencias de IE ................................................................ 4-18
4.4 Datos y Resumen de Encuesta.................................................................................... 4-21
4.4.1 Equipo de la Planta Protegido por Sistema de CP ............................................... 4-21
4.4.2 Vida del Diseño ................................................................................................... 4-21
4.4.3 Fallas de Equipo .................................................................................................. 4-22
4.4.4 Reemplazo de Componentes de Protección Catódica......................................... 4-22
5 MODOS DE FALLA Y MECANISMOS ................................................................................. 5-1

5.1 Ánodos .......................................................................................................................... 5-2
5.2 Camas de Ánodos ......................................................................................................... 5-2
5.3 Fusible ............................................................................................................................5-2
5.4 Capa y Forro ................................................................................................................. 5-2
5.5 Continuidad ................................................................................................................... 5-3
5.6 Envejecimiento ...............................................................................................................5-3
5.7 Seguridad del Personal .................................................................................................. 5-3
5.8 Bajo Protección ............................................................................................................. 5-3
5.9 Protección Catódica Excesiva ....................................................................................... 5-4
5.10 Generación de Hidrógeno ........................................................................................... 5-4
5.11 Fragilidad de Hidrógeno .............................................................................................. 5-4
5.12 Corrientes Directas ...................................................................................................... 5-4
5.13 Química del Agua ........................................................................................................ 5-4
5.14 Corrosión Galvánica .................................................................................................... 5-5
5.15 Barra de Refuerzo Desconchada ................................................................................ 5-5
E-35
6 PRÁCTICAS DE MANTENIMIENTO Y DE PRUEBAS......................................................... 6-1

6.1 Consideraciones de Inspección de Recubrimiento ....................................................... 6-2
6.2 Consideraciones Protección Catódica ........................................................................... 6-2
6.3 Estación de Prueba ........................................................................................................ 6-4
6.4 Encuesta Sobre la Corrosión de Intervalo-Cerrado ....................................................... 6-5
6.6 Encuesta Sobre la Corrosión (Encuesta sobre Protección Catódica) ........................... 6-7
6.7 Encuesta Sobre Cama de Ánodo de Corriente Impresa ................................................ 6-8
6.8 Encuesta Sobre Sistema de Ánodo de Sacrificio........................................................... 6-9
6.9 Uso de Cupones ......................................................................................................... 6-10
6.10 Encuesta Sobre Fuga ................................................................................................ 6-10
6.11 Colección de Datos (Monitoreo de Parámetros) ........................................................ 6-11
7 MANTENIMIENTO PREVENTIVO ........................................................................................ 7-1

7.1 Datos Requeridos .......................................................................................................... 7-2
7.2 Sistema de Ánodo de Sacrificio .................................................................................... 7-2
7.2.1 Requisitos de Normas de NACE ........................................................................... 7-2
7.2.2 Las Mejores Prácticas de la Industria .................................................................... 7-3
7.2.2.1 Inspección Visual ........................................................................................... 7-3
7.2.2.2 Mediciones Eléctricas .................................................................................... 7-4
7.3 Sistema de Corriente Impresa ....................................................................................... 7-5
7.3.1 Requisitos de Normas de NACE ............................................................................ 7-5
7.3.2 Las Mejores Prácticas de la Industria..................................................................... 7-6
7.3.2.1 Inspección Visual ........................................................................................... 7-6
7.3.4 Inspección del Panel ............................................................................................. 7-8
7.3.5 Apilamiento ............................................................................................................ 7-9
7.3.6 Contactos .............................................................................................................. 7-9
7.3.7 Filtro ..................................................................................................................... 7-10
7.3.8 Caminos del Arco ................................................................................................ 7-10
7.3.9 Circuito de Control Automático............................................................................. 7-10
7.4 Cupones ...................................................................................................................... 7-10
E-36
8 LOCALIZANDO AVERÍAS ................................................................................................... 8-1

8.1 Localización de Averías en Protección Catódica de Sacrificio....................................... 8-1
8.1.1 Problemas Comunes ............................................................................................. 8-1
8.1.2 Alambre de Plomo .................................................................................................. 8-2
8.1.3 Consumo de Ánodo................................................................................................ 8-2
8.2 Localización de Averías en Protección Catódica de Corriente Impresa ........................ 8-2
8.2.1 Inspección Inicial ................................................................................................... 8-3
8.2.2 Aislamiento de la Estructura .................................................................................. 8-3
8.2.3 Estructura sin Aislar ............................................................................................... 8-4
8.2.4 Capas .................................................................................................................... 8-4
8.2.5 Rendimiento (Contadores) .................................................................................... 8-4
8.2.6 Cama del Ánodo Seco............................................................................................ 8-4
8.2.7 Localización de Averías de la Cama de Ánodo...................................................... 8-5
8.2.7.1 Deterioro Gradual .......................................................................................... 8-5
8.2.7.2 Deterioro Repentino ....................................................................................... 8-5
8.2.8 Polarización ........................................................................................................... 8-5
8.2.9 Cable de Cabeza.................................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.11 Estructura de Plomo ............................................................................................. 8-6
8.2.11.1 Flujo de Corriente ......................................................................................... 8-6
8.2.11.2 Ningún Flujo de Corriente ............................................................................. 8-6
8.2.12 Perdida de Diodo del Rectificador ........................................................................ 8-7
8.2.13 Perdida de Energía Alterna .................................................................................. 8-7
8.2.14 Disyuntor de Señal Falsa o Operación de Fusible ............................................... 8-8
8.2.15 Corrientes Momentáneas de Voltaje ................................................................... 8-8
8.2.16 Calor Excesivo ..................................................................................................... 8-8
8.2.17 Sobrecarga Temporal .......................................................................................... 8-9
8.2.18 Aislamiento de Estructura .................................................................................... 8-9
8.2.19 Cortocircuitos o Falla de Pararrayos de Relámpago .......................................... 8-10
8.2.20 Fusible Incorrectamente Clasificado ................................................................. 8-11
9 REFERENCIAS .................................................................................................................... 9-1

9.1 Normas........................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.1 Referencias Técnicas .................................................................................................... 9-1
9.3 Sitios de Web ................................................................................................................. 9-2
E-37
A GLOSARIO .......................................................................................................................... A-1
B NORMAS, RECOMENDACIONES, Y GUIAS DE LA INDUSTRIA ..................................... B-1

B.1 Instituto Americano de Petróleo (API) .......................................................................... B-1
B.2 Sociedad Americana de Materiales de Prueba (ASTM) .............................................. B-1
B.3 Asociación Americana de los Trabajos de Agua (AWWA) .......................................... B-3
B.4 Asociación Nacional de los Ingenieros de Corrosión (NACE) ..................................... B-3
C MÉTODOS DE PRUEBAS................................................................................................... C-1

C.1 Análisis y Prueba de Suelo........................................................................................... C-1
C.1.1 Resistencia del Suelo ........................................................................................... C-1
C.1.2 pH ........................................................................................................................ C-1
C.1.3 Componentes Químicos ............................................................................................ C-1
C.1.3 Análisis de Liquido/Agua .......................................................................................... C-2
C.2.1 Medición de pH .................................................................................................... C-2
C.2.2 Medición de Resistencia ....................................................................................... C-2
C.3 Encuestas sobre el Potencial ....................................................................................... C-2
C.4 Pruebas de Requisito de Corriente............................................................................... C-2
C.5 Localización de Otras Estructuras en el Área............................................................... C-2
C.6 Corrosión del Suelo ...................................................................................................... C-3
C.7 Resistencia del Suelo .................................................................................................. C-4
C.7.1 Rango de Resistencia Típica ................................................................................ C-4
C.7.2 Efectos Ambientales ............................................................................................ C-6
C.8 Medición de la Resistencia del Electrolito .................................................................. C-7
C.8.1 Medición de la Resistencia del Suelo .................................................................. C-7
C.8.2 Medición de Resistencia Líquida ........................................................................ C-10
C.9 Encuestas sobre el Potencial ..................................................................................... C-11
C.9.1 Mediciones Potenciales ...................................................................................... C-11
C.9.2 Encuesta sobre el Potencial de Ánodo-a-Electrolito........................................... C-13
C.10 Medición Actual ....................................................................................................... C-13
C.11 Verificación de Liga de Resistencia ......................................................................... C-16
C.12 Análisis Químico del Ambiente ................................................................................ C-16
C.13 Prueba de Continuidad ............................................................................................. C-16
C.14 Prueba del Aislamiento............................................................................................. C-17
C.15 Conductancia del Recubrimiento.............................................................................. C-18
E-38
C.16 Mediciones de Corrientes Directas........................................................................... C-19

C.17 Requisitos de Corriente ............................................................................................ C-20
D LISTADO DE INFORMACIÓN DOMINANTE ..................................................................... D-1
E-39
LISTA DE FIGURAS
Figura 2-1 Célula de Corrosión Electroquímica (Fuente: Draft FC 3-570-06) .......................... 2-2
Figura 2-2 Célula de Concentración Causada por Diversos Suelos......................................... 2-7
Figura 2-3 Célula de Concentración Causada por Diversas Concentraciones de Oxígeno ......2-7
Figura 2-4 Célula de Concentración Causada por Diversas Concentraciones del Agua...........2-8
Figura 2-5 Célula de Concentración Causada por el Suelo no Homogéneo ...........................2-9
Figura 2-6 Célula de Concentración Causada por el Concreto y los Electrólitos del
Suelo ..................................................................................................................................2-9
Figura 2-7 Célula de Corrosión Galvánica Causada por Diferentes Metales ..........................2-11
Figura 2-8 Corrosión del Tubo de Acero Debido a la Interacción con el Sistema de
Puesta de Tierra de la Planta ........................................................................................ 2-13
Figura 2-9 Corrosión de Acero en un Interfaz de Suelo-Concreto ......................................... 2-14
Figura 2-10 Célula de Corrosión Galvánica Causada por Acero Viejo y Nuevo ....................2-15
Figura 2-11 Célula de Corrosión Galvánica Causada por las Superficies Deterioradas y
Ralladas ...........................................................................................................................2-15
Figura 2-12 Corrosión de Corriente Derecha Causada por Ánodo Y Cátodo Externo ..........2-17
Figura 2-13 Combinación de Muchas Diversas Células de la Corrosión en Trabajo ..............2-19
Figura 2-14 Efecto del Electrolito pH en el Índice de Corrosión ............................................. 2-22
Figura 3-1 Sistema de Ánodo Sacrificado .............................................................................. 3-2
Figura 3-2 Instalación del Sistema de Ánodo de Sacrificio Típico ........................................... 3-2
Figura 3-3 Sistema de Corriente Impresa............................................................................. … 3-4
Figura 3-4 Típico Sistema de Corriente Impresa .................................................................... 3-5
Figura 3-5 Proyección Catódica de un Tubo Revestido ......................................................... 3-7
Figura 3-6 Proyección Catódica de un Tubo Sin Revestido ................................................... 3-8
Figura 3-7 Instalación de Ánodo de Sacrificio ........................................................................3-13
Figura 3-8 Instalación de Ánodo de Grafitos .......................................................................... 3-17
Figura 3-9 Cablegrafiar Interno de Caja de Unión ................................................................. 3-20
Figura 3-10 Típica Ordenación del Rectificador .................................................................... 3-22
Figura 3-11a Estación de Prueba de Drenaje ....................................................................... 3-24
Figura 3-11b Estación de Prueba Por Encima de la Pendiente ............................................. 3-24
Figura 3-12 Típica Estación de Prueba de Corriente Impresa................................................ 3-25
Figura 3-13 Típica Estación de Prueba de Protección Catódica de Drenaje de Pendiente ....3-25
Figura 3-14 Caja de Unión...................................................................................................... 3-26
E-40
Figura 3--15 Típicas Referencias de Electrodos......................................................................3-27

Figura 3-16 Típica Conexión del Conductor al Tubo por Soldadura........................................3-27
Figura 3-17 Conexión del Conductor al Ánodo de Hierro ........................................................3-28
Figura 3-18 Uniones de Conductores con Soldadura de Thermite......................................... 3-28
Figura 3-19 Sistema de Ánodo Horizontal Distribuido Local .................................................. 3-30
Figura 3-20 Sistema de Ánodo Vertical Distribuido Local....................................................... 3-31
Figura 3-21 Típico Sistema de Cama de Ánodo Profundo ..................................................... 3-32
Figura 3-22 Sistema de Ánodo Remoto.................................................................................. 3-32
Figura 3-23 Ánodo Inmerso en Bolsa de Relleno ................................................................... 3-33
Figura 3-24 Típico Plan de Plantas Eléctrica de un Sistema de Protección Catódica............ 3-35
Figura 3-25 Aislamiento Eléctrico ............................................................................................3-36
Figura C-1 Típicas Variaciones en Resistencia del Suelo como una Función de
Humedad, Temperatura y Contenido de Sal.................................................................... C-7
Figura C-2 Método de Cuatro-Espiga para Medir la Resistencia del Suelo............................. C-8
Figura C-3 Cable y Equipo de Cuatro-Espiga para Medir Resistencia del Suelo ..................... C-8
Figura C-4 Caja de Suelo para Determinar la Resistencia .................................................... C-10
Figura C-5 Contador de Conductividad Líquido..................................................................... C-10
Figura C-6 Encuesta Sobre el Potencial de Sobre Tuberías ................................................. C-11
Figura C-7 Encuesta Sobre el Potencial de Estructura-a-Suelo ........................................... C-12
Figura C-8 Medición de Corriente de Ánodo de Sacrificio..................................................... C-15
Figura C-9 Medición de Corriente de Salida del Rectificador ................................................ C-15
Figura C-10 Pruebas Ultrasónicas para Áreas de Aislamiento.............................................. C-17
Figura C-11 Probadores de Aislamiento................................................................................ C-17
Figura C-12 Prueba de Conductancia Recubierta – Método de Línea Corta ...................... C-18
Figura C-13 Prueba de Conductancia Recubierta – Método de Línea Larga ........................ C-19
Figura C-14 Requisitos Actuales ............................................................................................ C-20
E-41
LISTA DE TABLAS
Tabla 2-1 Serie Galvánica para Metales Usando comúnmente en Plantas Eléctricas ........... 2-12
Tabla 2-2 Baja de Peso de Metales en una Corriente de Un Amperio por un Año (1
Amperio-Año) ................................................................................................................. 2-18
Tabla 3-1 Potencial Requerido para Protección Catódica ........................................................ 3-4
Tabla 3-2 Requerimientos Actuales de Protección Catódica.................................................. 3-10
Tabla 3-3 Clasificación de Corrosion de Suelo y Agua........................................................... 3-11
Tabla 3-4 Propiedades de Ánodos de Sacrificio..................................................................... 3-13
Tabla 3-5 Propiedades de Ánodos de Corriente Impresa........................................................3-16
Tabla 4-1 Equipo de la Planta EPIX que tiene Fallas de Corrosión por Falta o Falla de
Protección Catódica ..........................................................................................................4-3
Tabla 4-2 Fallas de Equipos de Protección Catódica ............................................................... 4-6
Tabla 4-3 Resumen de Experiencia en Operaciones de INPO .............................................. 4-14
Tabla 4-4 Comunicaciones Gerencias de NRC ..................................................................... 4-20
Tabla 4-5 Porcentaje de Equipos de Plantas Protegidos por Sistemas CP ........................... 4-21
Tabla 4-6 Datos de Plantas Consolidados para Sistemas de Protección Catódico................ 4-23
Tabla 5-1Modos de Fallo, Mecanismos, Causas y Acciones Correctivas .............................. 5-5
Tabla 6-1Métodos de para Evaluar Funcionamiento de Campo en Servicio de
Recubrimiento ................................................................................................................... 6-2
Tabla 6-2 Consideraciones para Protección Catódica ............................................................. 6-3
Tabla 6-3 Voltajes del Ánodo con Respecto a Células de Referencia Cu/CuSO4 ................... 6-4
Tabla 6.4 Requisitos Potenciales de Medición de Encuesta sobre el Intervalo Cerrado.......... 6-6
Tabla 6-5 Requerimientos de Pruebas de Sistemas de Protección Catódicas Inicial .............. 6-7
Tabla 6-6 Requisitos de la Encuesta sobre Corrosión
Tabla 6-7 Localizaciones de Pruebas para la Encuesta de Cama de Ánodo de Corriente
Impreso (Referencia: Draft UFC-3-570-06, con fecha de Julio de 2001) ......................... 6-8
Tabla 6-9 Acciones Correctivas Recomendadas para Prevenir Escapes (Referencia:
Draft UFC-3-570-06, con fecha de Julio de 2001) ......................................................... 6-10
Tabla 6-10 Colección de Datos de la Encuesta Inicial............................................................ 6-11
Tabla 7-1 Programa de Mantenimiento Recomendado para el Sistema de Ánodo de
Sacrificio............................................................................................................................ 7-5
Tabla 7-2 Programa de Mantenimiento Recomendado para Sistemas de Corriente
Impreso ............................................................................................................................. 7-7
E-42
Tabla 8-1 Sistema de Protección Catódico de Corriente Impreso en Localización de

Averías ............................................................................................................................ 8-11
Tabla C-1 Clasificación de Corrosión de Agua y Suelo ........................................................... C-3
Tabla C-2 Forma de Muestra para Medir Resistencia de Suelo Grabada ............................... C-4
Tabla C-3 Valores de Resistencia por Medio de Tierra ........................................................... C-5
Tabla C-4 Factores Usados en Medidas de Resistencia de Cuatro-Espiga ............................ C-9
Tabla C-5 Comparación de los Electrodos de Referencia con un Electrodo de Sulfato de
Cobre en 25ºC................................................................................................................ C-12
Tabla C-6 Requerimientos Actuales para Protección Catódica de Acero Pelado ................ C-13
Tabla C-7 Requerimientos Actuales para Protección Catódica de Acero Revestido ........... C-14
E-43
Export Control Restrictions The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
Access to and use of EPRI Intellectual Property is granted with The Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), with major locations in
the specific understanding and requirement that responsibility Palo Alto, California, and Charlotte, North Carolina, was established
for ensuring full compliance with all applicable U.S. and in 1973 as an independent, nonprofit center for public interest
foreign export laws and regulations is being undertaken by energy and environmental research. EPRI brings together members,
you and your company. This includes an obligation to ensure participants, the Institute’s scientists and engineers, and other leading
that any individual receiving access hereunder who is not a experts to work collaboratively on solutions to the challenges of electric
U.S. citizen or permanent U.S. resident is permitted access power. These solutions span nearly every area of electricity generation,
under applicable U.S. and foreign export laws and delivery, and use, including health, safety, and environment. EPRI’s
regulations. In the event you are uncertain whether you or members represent over 90% of the electricity generated in the
your company may lawfully obtain access to this EPRI United States. International participation represents nearly 15% of
Intellectual Property, you acknowledge that it is your EPRI’s total research, development, and demonstration program.
obligation to consult with your company’s legal counsel to
determine whether this access is lawful. Although EPRI may Together...Shaping the Future of Electricity
make available on a case-by-case basis an informal
assessment of the applicable U.S. export classification for
specific EPRI Intellectual Property, you and your company
acknowledge that this assessment is solely for informational
purposes and not for reliance purposes. You and your
company acknowledge that it is still the obligation of you and
your company to make your own assessment of the applicable
U.S. export classification and ensure compliance accordingly.
You and your company understand and acknowledge your
obligations to make a prompt report to EPRI and the
appropriate authorities regarding any access to or use of EPRI
Intellectual Property hereunder that may be in violation of
applicable U.S. or foreign export laws or regulations.
Program:
© 2005 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Inc. All rights reserved.
Nuclear Power
Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of
the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
Printed on recycled paper in the United States of America 1011905
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1395 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com

Protección Catódi

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Protección Catódi

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Protección Catódi

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Cathodic Protection System Application and

Final Report, December 2005

EPRI Project Manager

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

Sargent & Lundy, LLC

This report was prepared by

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

Respondent’s Name Plant Name

Alan Parker/Youssef Tabib LaSalle Generating Station

Barry Bowen Hope Creek

Bill Alkema Agua Fria Generating Station

Brian Weber Michoud S.E.S.

Calvin C. King Jr. PSEG Salem Units 1 & 2

David Knights Tarong Power Station, Queensland, Australia (Tarong

Derek Fanguy Callaway Nuclear Power Plant

Doug Dayton South Texas Project Electric Generating Station

Gary Corsiglia Diablo Canyon Power Plant

Gary Deck/Youssef Tabib Braidwood Generating Station

John Rogenmuser Peach Bottom Atomic Power Station

Justyna Kapotec Darlington Nuclear

Mark Rooney Delta Electricity/Vales Point Power Station

Mike Peters Harris

Roy Echols Coronado Generating Station

Shayne Jones Navajo Generating Station

Todd Johnson VC Summer Station

Yoga Swamy LABADIE (AmerenUE)

Farwest Corrosion Protection

M.C. Miller Corporation

Amber Science, Inc.

3 CATHODIC PROTECTION SYSTEMS ..................................................................................3-1

5 FAILURE MODES AND MECHANISMS ................................................................................5-1

A GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................... A-1

B INDUSTRY STANDARDS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND GUIDELINES ............................ B-1

C TEST METHODS .................................................................................................................. C-1

E TRANSLATED TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. E-1

日本語 (Japanese) ............................................................................................................. E-15

1.1 Scope and Purpose of the Guide

A 1999 study performed by a team led by CC Technologies in collaboration with National

1.2 Organization of the Guide

The organization of this guide is as follows:

Section 1 is an introduction and discussion of the guide’s purpose and organization.

Section 6 provides guidance for testing and maintenance practices.

Section 8 provides guidance for troubleshooting.

Section 7 includes preventive maintenance recommendations.

Section 9 is a list of references.

Appendix B lists applicable industry standards.

Appendix D provides a listing of the key points identified in this guide.

1.3 Key Points

Key O&M Cost Point

Key Technical Point

Key Human Performance Point

Consideration of corrosion in the design, material selection, construction, operation and

Key O&M Cost Point

Cathodic protection is an electrical method of mitigating corrosion. It is essential to understand