CONTENTS

1.0.0 INTRODUCTION TO PARASITOLOGY ................................................................................4

2.0.0 VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY..............................................................................................9
2.1.0 IMPACTS OF ECTOPARASITES ON LIVESTOCK AND BIRDS ...................................10
2.2.0 CONTROL OF ARTHROPOD BORNE DISEASES .........................................................10
2.3.0 FEATURES OF ARTHROPODS ......................................................................................11
2.4.0 IMPORTANT CLASSES ...................................................................................................11
2.5.0 ARACHNIDS .....................................................................................................................11
2.6.0 CHILOPODS .....................................................................................................................11
2.7.0 DIPLOPODA .....................................................................................................................12
2.8.0 CRUSTACEANS ...............................................................................................................12
2.9.0 INSECTS ...........................................................................................................................12
3.0.0 CLASS INSECTA .................................................................................................................13
3.2.0 EXTERNAL ANATOMY ....................................................................................................13
3.2.1 THE INSECT HEAD ......................................................................................................14
3.2.2 THE INSECT THORAX .................................................................................................17
3.2.3 LEGS .............................................................................................................................17
3.2.4 INSECT WINGS. ...........................................................................................................18
3.2.0 THE INSECT ABDOMEN AND EXTERNAL GENITALIA ................................................18
3.3.0 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF AN INSECT ......................................................................19
3.3.1 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (Figure 2.1)................................................................................19
3.3.2 HOW THE FOOD IS USED..........................................................................................21
3.3.3 NERVOUS SYSTEM .....................................................................................................22
3.3.4 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM .................................................................................................23
3.3.5 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM ..........................................................................................23
4.0.0 THE REPRODUCTION OF INSECTS .................................................................................27
4.1.0 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION: .........................................................................................27
4.2.0 LIFE CYCLE......................................................................................................................27
5.0.0 ORDER DIPTERA ................................................................................................................29
5.1.0 GLOSINIIDAE ...................................................................................................................29

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 5.2.0 CULICIDAE .......................................................................................................................35
5.3.0 SIMULIIDAE .....................................................................................................................36
5.4.0 PSYCHODIDAE ................................................................................................................37
5.5.0 CERATOPOGONIDAE .....................................................................................................37
5.6.0 TABANIDAE .....................................................................................................................37
Figure 15: horse flies..................................................................................................................39
5.7.0 MUSCIDAE .......................................................................................................................39
5.8.0 CALLIPHORIDAE .............................................................................................................40
6.0.0 MYIASIS................................................................................................................................41
6.1.0 SARCOPHAGIDAE...........................................................................................................42
6.2.0 GASTEROPHILIDAE ........................................................................................................42
6.3.0 OESTRIDAE .....................................................................................................................43
7.0.0 HEMIPTERA .........................................................................................................................45
7.1.0 CIMICIDAE........................................................................................................................45
7.2.0 REDUVIIDAE ....................................................................................................................45
8.0.0 PHTHIRAPTERA ..................................................................................................................46
9.0.0 SIPHONAPTERA..................................................................................................................48
10.0.0 ACAROLOGY .....................................................................................................................50
10.1.0 ANATOMY OF ARACHNIDS ..........................................................................................50
10.1.0 THE MITES .....................................................................................................................50
10.1.2 MITE INFESTATION IN VARIOUS ANIMAL SPECIES .............................................51
10.2 0 THE TICKS .....................................................................................................................51
10.2.1 FAMILY ARGASIDAE .....................................................................................................51
10.2.3 GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF SOFT TICKS...............................................................51
10.2.4 VETERINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF SOFT TICKS ......................................................52
9.3.0 FAMILY IXODIDAE ...........................................................................................................52
10.3.1 GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF HARD TICKS ....................................................................52
10.3.2 IMPORTANCE HARD TICKS .....................................................................................53
10.3.3 COMMON NAMES OF TICKS AND THE DISEASES THE TRANSMIT ...................54
10.3.4 PREDILATION SITES OF EACH TICK SPECIES .....................................................54
10.3.5 SIMPLE CRITERIA OF IDENTIFICATION OF TICK ..................................................55
11.0.0 GENERAL CONTROL OF TICKS ......................................................................................56

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11.1.0 CULTURAL CONTROL METHODS ...............................................................................56
11.2.0 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL METHOD...............................................................................56
11.3.0 CHEMICAL CONTROL METHODS ...............................................................................56
11.4.0 CONTROL STRATEGIES ..............................................................................................57
11.5.0 TICK BORNE DISEASES: ..............................................................................................57

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1.0.0 INTRODUCTION TO PARASITOLOGY
1. SYMBIOSIS (="living together") (Any plant, animal, or protist that is intimately
associated with another organism of a different species; each member is termed
a SYMBIONT). There are various types of symbiosis:
A. PHORESIS ("traveling together" or "to carry") (A smaller organism, termed
the PHORONT, is carried mechanically by a HOST) [For instance,
bacteria, fungus, cysts, or eggs on insect legs or even passively within an
arthropod gut]
B. COMMENSALISM (when one symbiont, the COMMENSAL, benefits and
the other animal is neither helped nor harmed) [True commensalism
difficult to find, and may not even actually exist. Close inspections usually
reveal either a mutualistic or parasitic association. Perhaps Entamoeba
gingivalis in mouth to some degree; some pilotfish and remoras
associated with sharks]
C. MUTUALISM (each member, a MUTUALIST, depends upon the other;
oblilgatory or facultative) [many examples in nature. For instance,
flagellates produce cellulase in gut of termites; ciliates in ruminants; algae
and fungus forming a lichen; crocodiles and Egyptian teeth cleaning
plovers]
D. PREDATION (where one member, the PREDATOR, benefits and a
smaller organism, the PREY, is harmed; usually eaten) [This association
is not usually considered a type of symbiosis, but it technically falls under
the definition]. Examples include coyotes and rabbits, cats and mice.
E. PARASITISM (where one member, the PARASITE, lives in or on another
organism, the HOST, at the expense of that organism)
2. PARASITOLOGY [the study of the relationship between a parasite and its host]
is the topic in this course. This method of existence is the single most successful
way of making a living, and it has been estimated that no less than 80% of all
species of organisms are parasites. It is likely that this is under-estimation.
3. Parasitic relationships may be temporary, facultative, or obligatory
4. Basic types of parasitism and terminology
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 A. ECTOPARASITE (lives on surface of the host.) [i.e. ticks, lice, fleas]
B. ENDOPARASITE (lives within the host) [i.e. roundworms in gut;
tapeworms in gut]
C. HYPERPARASITE (parasite within a parasite) [i.e. malaria in mosquitos;
tapeworm larvae in fleas]
5. VECTORS (transmits parasites from host to host)
A. BIOLOGICAL VECTOR (essential in life-cycle of parasite)
B. MECHANICAL VECTOR (unessential in life-cycle of parasite - phoretic)
6. Types of hosts
A. DEFINITIVE OR FINAL HOST (host in which parasite reaches sexual
maturity and reproduces)
B. INTERMEDIATE HOST (some development in host, but does not reach
sexual maturity; often asexual stages)
C. PARATENIC OR TRANSPORT HOST (no parasite development; but
parasite continues to live and is infective to next host; for instance,
pseudophyllidean tapeworm larvae in fish)
D. RESERVOIR HOST (non-human animals that serve as sources of
infection to humans)
7. Some typical characterisitics of parasitism
A. High reproductive potential (i.e. multiple fission in Apicomplexa;
hermaphrodism of trematodes; partenogenesis in Strongyloides spp.; i.e.
strobilation of tapeworms for high ova output; and overall high ova/larval
output of many worms)
B. Often unique morphological or physiological specializations, loss of
structures, etc.
1. loss of digestive tract of tapeworms
2. loss of wings of fleas and lice
3. loss of many sensory structures of nematodes
4. development and refinement of a TEGUMENT; a living external
layer of digenes, cestodes and acanthocephala that allows
digestion and other functions across body surface

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 5. development of special holdfast organs, including hooks, suckers,
teeth, clamps, cutting plates, spines
6. production of anti-coagulants in leeches and hookworms
C. Often special site specificity
D. Usually, but not always, non-lethal to host
E. Generally more numerous than hosts
F. Generally much smaller than host (if larger, then termed a predator)
G. Often have evolved methods of evading host immune system
1. Antigenic variation of trypanosomes
2. Tough tegument of acanthocephalans
3. Intracellular habitat of coccidia and Trichinella larvae
4. Antigen acquisition of schistosomes
5. Suppression eosinophil or neutrophil migration to the site of the
parasite
6. Encystment
7. Ability to cleave antibodies or consume complement
8. Ability to trigger certain arms of the immune response, which may
in turn damage host tissue enough to facilitate parasite invasion
H. Many parasites are now being shown to change host behavior. Growing
number of scientists believe that many ecological studies need to include
parasitology as component as much animal behavior can be explained by
level of parasitism. Especially behavior of some insects harboring larval
stages of parasites, and bird behavior in response to both ectoparasites
and densities of some intestinal worms.
8. Level of pathology due to parasites is highly varied
A. Physical trauma [cell-tissue destruction; i.e. migration of nematodes
through tissues; ulceration of intestinal wall and liver by cysteine
proteases of Entamoeba histolytica; displacement of tissue or structures
by hydatids; protease digestion of epithelial cells by Trichomonas
vaginalis; ulceration due to insertion of hooks, spines, etc. into intestinal
wall]

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 B. Nutritional diversion [i.e. giardiasis results in diarrhea and malabsorption;
Diphyllobothrium absorbs vitamin B12]
C. Toxins/Excretory products/Immune complexes [i.e. African trypanosomes
slough antigen/Ab complexes that are absorbed by RBC's; complement
activated; massive RBC lysis; i.e. excretory products of some trematodes
and cestodes causing anaphylaxis; i.e. fibrosis and inflammation around
schistosome eggs; i.e. granulomas, fibrosis, edema against adult filarids]
D. Blood loss [i.e. hookworms and anaemia]
9. Typical ways parasites transmitted
A. INGESTION from food or water / inhalation included here
B. VECTORS
C. DIRECT PENETRATION of skin from environment
10. Some additional terminology to be used in class
A. Anthroponoses (human diseases that can be transmitted to animals)
B. Epidemic (disease that affects a large number of humans and spreads
rapidly)
C. Epizootic (disease that affects a large number of non-human animals and
spreads rapidly)
D. Epizoic (living on the surface; a skin parasite)
E. Euryxenous (broad host range)
F. Heteroxenous (alternation of generations of a parasite)
G. Incidence (the number of cases of an infection occurring during a given
period of time in relation to the popultion unit in which they occur)
H. Infection (parasitic invasion resulting in injury and reaction to injury)
I. Latent (non-visible infection)
J. Monoxenous (single host life cycle)
K. Parasitemia (parasites in blood)
L. Pathogenic (results in disease or morbid symptoms)
M. Premunition (resistance to superinfection; depends upon survival of
parasites in host and disappears with their elimination)

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N. Prevalence (number of organisms in a population infected with a parasite
at any one time)
O. Virulence (relative infectiousness of a parasite)
P. Zoonosis (animal diseases that may be transmitted from animals to
humans)

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2.0.0 VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY
Definition:

Entomology (from the greek word entomos, “that which is cut in pieces or
engraved/segmented”) is the study of insects. Though technically incorrect, the
definition is sometimes widened to include the study of terrestrial animals in other
arthropod groups or other phyla, such as arachnids, myriapod deals.

Entomology is the study that deals with insects. Veterinary entomology therefore
is the science that deals with insects of veterinary importance and other related
forms. Entomology is the branch of parasitology. Entomon ( greek) means insect.
Insects are six-legged animals with distinct head, thorax and abdomen. Related
forms are animals which are not insects but are closely related to insects; for
example mites and ticks. The insects and their related forms are collectively
called arthropods, belonging to the phylum arthropoda, which is the largest
phylum in the animal kingdom. figure 1 (louse fly).

Taxonomically insect belong to the super kingdom eucaryota, kingdom animalia,

phylum arthropoda and class insect.

Figure 1: louse fly.

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2.1.0 IMPACTS OF ECTOPARASITES ON LIVESTOCK AND BIRDS
Many ectoparasites are known to be vectors of pathogens, which the parasite
typically transmit to hosts while feeding or ( occasionally ) defaecating. However,
ectoparasites - especially in large aggregations - may also debilitate domestic
animals in other ways, by causing the following disorders.

 Anaemia
 Irritability
 Dermatitis
 Skin necrosis
 Low weight gains (particularly important in livestock)
 Secondary infection
 Focal haemorrhages
 Blockage of orifices (ears, etc.)
 Inoculation of toxins
 Exsanguination (occasionally).
 Subdermally-located parasitic larval stages of certain flies cause a condition
termed 'myiasis', which may lead to significant tissue damage and secondary
infection

2.2.0 CONTROL OF ARTHROPOD BORNE DISEASES

There are four main ways of controlling arthropod-borne diseases:

 Disrupt vector-host contact by removing animals from vector infested areas.

 Eradicate vector by chemical or biological methods.
 Chemotherapy of the host population.
 Immunization or vaccination of host population.

Basic requirement of effective vector control measures involve the following: -

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  Correct vector identification
 Sufficient biological and ecological information of the vector
 Establishing the magnitude of the damage caused by the vector
 Sufficient information on vector temporal and spatial distribution.

2.3.0 FEATURES OF ARTHROPODS

All arthropods possess

 Exoskeleton - a hard protective covering around the outside of the body

 Segmented body - that allows movement
 Jointed limbs and jointed mouthparts - that allow extensive specialization
 Bilateral symmetry - whereby a central line can divide the body into two identical
halves, left and right
 Ventral nerve chord - as opposed to a vertebrate nerve chord which is dorsal
 Dorsal blood vessel

2.4.0 IMPORTANT CLASSES

Five important classes of Arthropods are arachnids, chilopoda, diplopoda, crustaceans
and insects.

2.5.0 ARACHNIDS
 Arachnids include spiders, scorpions, ticks and mites. They all have
 2 body segments - cephalothorax and abdomen
 8 legs
 no antennae

2.6.0 CHILOPODS
 Chilopods, which include centipedes, all have
 Many body segments
 1 pair of legs /body segment
 1 pair antennae

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  Poisonous jaws

2.7.0 DIPLOPODA
 Diplopods, which include millipedes, all possess
 Many body segments
 2 pair legs /body segment
 1 pair antennae

2.8.0 CRUSTACEANS

Crustaceans include crabs, prawns, slaters, barnacles etc. Their features are;

 Varied number of body segments - usually there is a head, thorax and abdomen
but there is much fusion, reduction and modification of segments
 Varied number of legs
 2 pair antennae

2.9.0 INSECTS

Insects such as beetles, wasps and cockroaches all have

 3 body segments
 6 legs
 1 pair antennae

NB: The classes of veterinary importance are the arachnids and insects.

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3.0.0 CLASS INSECTA
Major insect orders of veterinary importance are:-

 Order Diptera (flies) – 11 families,

 Order Hemiptera (true bugs) – 2 families,
 Order Phthiraptera (lice) – 4 families,
 Order Siphonaptera (fleas) – 2 families.

3.2.0 EXTERNAL ANATOMY

 Large well-known group
 Thousands of important species
 Adult have 1 pair of membranous fore-wings
 Hind wings reduced to form halteres
 Mouth parts are proboscus-like for sucking fluids or piercing & sucking or
penetrating tissues
 Larval features, no conspicuous head Legless Slender bodies with pointed fronts
which broaden towards rear Fluid sucking Piercing

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Figure 2:Darsal view of tsetse fly

Figure 3: Side view of tsetse fly.

3.2.1 THE INSECT HEAD

The insect head is a sclerotised capsule of mainly rigid sclerites. It houses the
compound eyes, simple eyes (ocelli), antennae and mouthparts.

COMPOUND EYE.
In most insects there is one pair of large, prominent compound eyes. It is composed of
several units called ommatidia. There may be up to 30,000 ommatidia in a compound
eye. This type of eye gives less resolution than the vertebrate eye, but it gives acute
perception of movement -important in flight. When present, ocelli (either 2 or 3), detect
low light or small changes in light intensity.

ANTENNAE

Insect antennae vary morphologically.

Antennae can detect very low levels of chemicals and are used in insect
communication, finding host plants or mates.

ANTENNAL SEGMENTS.

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  The first antennal segment (closest to the head) is called the scape.
 The second antennal segment is called the pedicel.
 The remainder of the antenna is collectively called the flagellum

Figure 4: head and antenna of tsetse fly.

MOUTHPARTS

 The 4 mouthparts are the labrum, mandibles, maxillae and labium.

 The labrum is a simple fused sclerite, often called the upper lip, and moves
longitudinally. It is hinged to the clypeus.
 The mandibles, or jaws, are highly sclerotised paired structures that move at right
angles to the body. They are used for biting, chewing and severing food.
 The maxillae are paired structures that can move at right angles to the body and
possess segmented palps.
 The labium (often called the lower lip), is a fused structure that moves
longitudinally and possesses a pair of segmented palps.

The tsetse mouthparts are also characteristic features that can be used to distinguish
tsetse from other types of fly. The mouthparts are attached to the head by a bulb-like
swelling at the end of the labium, called the thecal bulb. This bulb contains muscles to
manipulate the mouthparts. At rest, the mouthparts point forward and are protected by a
pair of maxillary palps. When the fly feeds, the mouthparts are lowered from the palps
and point downwards. The tube for sucking blood is made up of two parts that are

15
shaped like the gutter of a building and they fit closely one on top of the other to form
the tube. These two parts are called the labium, which is the thickest and darkest
section and the labrum, which is thinner and more transparent. The labium has small
teeth (labellar teeth) at the tip, which are used to pierce the hosts’ skin. The small tube
within the blood-sucking tube is called the hypopharynx that is used to inject saliva into
the host blood to stop it from coagulating. It is important to recognize these structures
as they are sites for trypanosomes in infected flies and therefore can be dissected and
examined microscopically to determine infection rates of tsetse with trypanosomes.

Figure 5: mouth parts of tse tse fly.

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TYPES OF MOUTH PARTS

 Piecing-adapted for sucking e.g. in mosquitoes

 Chewing-mallophaga lice
 Cutting and sponging- important for mechanical transmission
 Sponging- mechanical transmission e.g. house

3.2.2 THE INSECT THORAX

 The insect thorax is box-like with dorsal, ventral and lateral sclerites.
 The dorsal sclerites are collectively called the notum or tergum.
 The ventral sclerites are called the sternum and the lateral sclerites are called
the pleuron.
 This construction allows attachment and contraction of muscles used in the
movement of the wings and legs.
 The thorax is further subdivided into 3 segments, the prothorax, mesothorax
and metathorax.
 Each of these segments bears a pair of legs.
 In addition, the mesothorax may bear a pair of fore wings and the metathorax
may bear a pair of hind wings.

3.2.3 LEGS

The legs (figure 6), named from the anterior, are the fore, mid and hind legs. Each leg
has several segments:

Figure 6: Leg segments.

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  The coxa articulates with the body.
 The trochanter is usually quite small.
 The femur is usually the longest and strongest segment.
 The tibia is usually long and slender.
 The tarsus is collectively composed of 2 to 5 smaller tarsomeres. The last
tarsomere usually has a pair of claws and often 2 or 3 tarsal pads.

LEG TYPES

 Unmodified legs are used for walking and are called ambulatory.
 Legs modified for running are called cursorial.
 Digging legs are called fossorial.
 Swimming legs are called natatorial.
 Jumping legs are called saltatorial.
 Grasping legs are called raptorial.

3.2.4 INSECT WINGS.

 Most adult insect possess wings. Some have shortened (brachypterous) wings
while others may be wingless (apterous).
 Wings have a network of veins which give rigidity and support. Air, nerves and
blood also pass through the wing veins.
 There are several major longitudinal veins. These are the costa, subcosta,
radius, median, cubitus and anal veins.

Primitive wings have many, short cross veins. Such wings are called reticulate.

HALTERES.

In flies, (Diptera), the hind wings have become modified to form small balance organs,
called halteres.

3.2.0 THE INSECT ABDOMEN AND EXTERNAL GENITALIA

 The insect abdomen has a tergum (never called a notum) and sternum but has
no pleuron since it does not bear legs or wings.
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  Terminally the abdomen bears the external genitalia. In some female insects
there is a very obvious ovipositor for depositing eggs.
 A pair of cerci is also present at the end of the abdomen. These have a sensory
function.
 In some orders there may also be additional terminal appendages.

3.3.0 INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF AN INSECT

3.3.1 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM (Figure 2.1)

Salivary glands and saliva The tsetse fly has two salivary glands. The main part of each gland
lies in the anterior part of the abdomen and it sends forward to the head a very narrow tube that
joins with the one from the other side, before entering the hypopharynx .

When the fly feeds, saliva is sent forward from the glands and so down the length of the
hypopharynx. It mixes with the blood meal as this is sucked up from the host's body. Saliva
contains an anticoagulant, a substance that helps to prevent the blood meal from clotting in the
mouthparts and anterior part of the alimentary canal.

Labellar teeth: There are hundreds of very small sharp labellar teeth at the end of the labium.
The teeth help to cut into the skin of the host. As the proboscis moves through the skin, the
teeth cut the walls of small blood vessels (capillaries) and release the blood from them, forming
a pool of blood under the skin (pool feeding).

Pharynx The released blood is drawn up the food canal by the action of the muscles of the
pharynx. When the fly is feeding, strong muscles in the head contract to make the space inside
the pharynx larger, and this pulls blood up into the pharynx. When the muscles relax, the
pharynx returns to its usual size, and the blood meal is sent on to the next part of the alimentary
canal, the oesophagus.

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Fig. 7 Diagram to show the arrangement (simplified) of the digestive system in Glossina. Ventral
view of body, side view of head.

Fig. 8 Diagram to show the internal structure of the proventriculus of Glossina. Arrows show the
route that the blood meal makes to get from the crop into the midgut.

Oesophagus This is a simple tube carrying the blood meal from the pharynx to the
proventriculus in the thorax.

Proventriculus and peritrophic membrane .The proventriculus is a small but important muscular
organ. Most of the blood taken up in a blood meal flows straight past the proventriculus to the
crop, where it is stored. Afterwards, the blood meal passes back from the crop to the
proventriculus where it is redirected into the midgut. As this happens, the proventriculus makes
a very thin sleeve, or peritrophic membrane, which encloses the blood meal as it passes along
the midgut.

Crop When the crop takes in the blood meal, it expands enormously and fills up most of the
space of the swollen abdomen, which therefore appears rounded and bright red immediately
after the blood meal. Then the blood passes to the midgut, and the bright red colour gradually

20
disappears, to be replaced by a brown, almost black, colour as digestion proceeds in the
midgut.

Midgut As the blood enters the midgut much water is removed. This is rapidly passed out at the
anus, as clear drops. The anticoagulant action of the saliva is destroyed, and digestion begins.
These processes result in the bright red colour of the blood meal changing to dull red or dark
brown. The abdomen may appear almost black from the ventral side, at this stage. Digested
food gets into the insect's haemolymph by passing through the paritrophic membrane and the
midgut wall.

Hindgut At the level where the Malpighian tubules join the alimentary canal, the midgut changes
to the hindgut. Here the undigested food is mixed with the product of the Malpighian tubules.

Anus The waste material in the last part of the hindgut (rectum) is sent out through the anus, as
faeces or droppings.

Fig. 9 Diagram to show the crop and midgut of Glossina in side view: A, immediately after taking
a blood meal; B, some hours later.

3.3.2 HOW THE FOOD IS USED

Digestion of the blood meal Digestion is the conversion of insoluble food materials into simpler
soluble substances. This conversion has to be done before the body can use the food. It is
carried out by digestive enzymes, which are protein substances produced by the gut in small
amounts; enzymes in general assist all the breaking down and building up processes that are
continually taking place in the body.

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The main food content of the blood meal that has to be digested is the protein part; there is little
fat or carbohydrate in the blood meal. Proteins are digested by digestive enzymes in the middle
part of the midgut to form amino acids, which are simple substances that can pass through the
gut wall.

The blood meal provides the entire food supply of the tsetse fly.

Assimilation The absorption of soluble digested food into the body is called assimilation. Most of
this takes place through the wall of the last part of the midgut.

Circulation: function of the blood systemDigested and assimilated food gets from the midgut to
the rest of the body by means of the blood system. This consists of a liquid, haemolymph
(blood), trickling through the body and its tissues, driven by a simple tubular heart (or aorta)
which lies along the dorsal side of the body. Haemolymph does not carry oxygen in the way that
mammalian blood does.

Excretory materials are carried to the Malpighian tubules by the same means.

Respiration; function of the spiracles and tracheae The release of energy from assimilated

food is called respiration. The tsetse fly needs oxygen to release energy. For this purpose, all
the tissues of the body are supplied with tubes, called tracheae, carrying air (which contains
oxygen). The tracheae run from holes in the sides of the body, called spiracles.

The larger tracheae of the abdomen can be seen from the outside of an engorged fly, showing
up as white lines against the dark background.

Food for muscle building and feeding the larvaWhereas much of the food intake is used to
provide energy, some is used for purposes such as building up the flight muscles of the thorax
in the young fly, and feeding the larva in the pregnant female.

Food storage: function of the fat body Any quantity of amino acids in excess of these immediate
needs is converted to fat and stored in the fat body. This is a network of cells containing fat,
lying in the spaces of the body, particularly in the abdomen. The fat body is the main food
reserve of the fly.

Excretion: function of the Malpighian tubules The process by which the breakdown products of
all the different activities going on in the body are eliminated, is called excretion. These different
activities include respiration, growth, repair, and conversion of one material into another.

When the fly uses energy, either for building new tissues or for movement, there has to be a
breakdown of some food into waste materials. Cue waste product is carbon dioxide, and this
passes out of the body through the spiracles by diffusion. Other waste materials are taken up
from the insect's blood system by the Malpighian tubules and passed into the hindgut. They are
mixed with the undigested food there and passed out of the anus as faeces. Uric acid is the
main excretory material in the faeces.

3.3.3 NERVOUS SYSTEM

22
The senses and the behaviour of the tsetse fly are coordinated by the nervous system. The fly is
able to see, small and feel with the aid of its sense organs.

These send messages along nerves to the larger masses of nervous tissue in the head ('brain')
and thorax (ganglion), which coordinate the sensory messages coming in, and send out other
messages along other nerves to the muscles of the body, so that the fly moves (behaves) in an
appropriate manner.

3.3.4 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

Another message-sending system is the endocrine system. There are small glands in different
parts of the body which release chemical substances (hormones) into the haemolymph, causing
an appropriate reaction elsewhere in the body.

Processes such as pupation are under the control of the endocrine system.

3.3.5 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Glossina reproduces by the female fly producing eggs which hatch into larvae inside the body;
these later emerge from the body fully grown. In order that the female fly may develop these
eggs into larvae, the male fly has to make sperm and transfer it to the female.

Male reproduction system The main parts of the male reproduction system are:

i. a pair of testes
ii. a pair of accessory glands
iii. a sperm pump
iv. various ducts joining these other parts together.

The main function of the male reproduction system is to produce sperm and transfer these to
the female, in order to fertilise the eggs.

Testes A testis is a coiled tube in which sperm is made and stored. The main part of the testis
has a covering of orange or brown material, which makes it easy to see in dissections.

23
Fig. 10 Part of the male reproductive system of Glossina.

Fig. 11 Female reproductive system of Glossina.

Accessory glands The accessory glands are long, white, somewhat coiled structures in which
material other than sperm is produced. The exact shape varies in different species. The glands
produce secretions which go to form the spermatophore, a bag into which sperm are placed in
the uterus at the time of mating.

Sperm pump Sperm and accessory secretions are passed over into the female during mating by
the muscular action of the sperm pump, a small structure within the penis.

Female reproductive system The main parts of the female reproductive system are:

i. a pair of ovaries
ii. a pair of oviducts

24
 iii. a uterus
iv. a uterine gland or milk gland
v. a pair of spermathecae

The main functions of the female reproductive system are:

a. to produce eggs, one at a time

b. to feed the resulting larvae until they are fully grown.

Ovaries An ovary is an organ in which the eggs are made. Each ovary has two parts or
ovarioles, both of which can produce eggs. There are therefore a total of four ovarioles. First,
one of the ovarioles in the right ovary produces an egg and passes this down to the uterus.
Then, 9 to 11 days later (more or less according to temperature and to species), an ovariole in
the left ovary does the same. Later, the second ovariole of the right ovary produces its egg, and
after that the second ovariole of the left ovary does the same.

In this way a single egg is produced in the female fly at intervals of about 9–11 days (more or
less, according to temperature and species.

The appearance of the ovaries can be used to estimate the age of the fly.

Egg When the egg in the ovariole has reached full size, it ovulates, that is, it breaks through the
membrane (follicle) surrounding it and passes down the oviduct. It stops in the uterus. The size
of the mature egg varies according to species, but in Glossina morsitansit is about 1.5 – 1.6 mm
long. The egg is covered by a thin coat, the chorion.

Oviduct Each oviduct is a muscular tube which squeezes the mature egg from the ovary to the
uterus. There are two oviducts, one on each side, leading from the ovaries to a short common
oviduct and hence to the uterus.

Spermathecae A spermatheca is a small con tainer in which are kept the sperm received during
mating.

In the tsetse fly the female has two spermathecae: they are round and pale brown coloured.
They lie approximately between the two ovaries, but are joined directly to the uterus by a pair of
spermathecal ducts.

Fertilization is the coming together of sperm and egg, which is necessary before the egg can
begin its development. Fertilization takes place immediately an egg enters the uterus, by sperm
from the spermathecae coming into contact with the anterior end of the egg.

Uterus The uterus is a bag with highly folded walls that can unfold and stretch to accommodate
the larva as it grows. At the posterior end it leads to the exterior via the vulva.

Milk gland or uterine gland The milk glandis a much branched gland lying in the abdomen. It has
a duct leading into the uterus at a point close to where the spermathecal ducts also enter the
uterus.

25
The function of the milk gland is to provide a secretion ('milk') on which the larva in the uterus
feeds. The branches of the milk gland became thick during pregnancy, and thin again in periods
between pregnancies.

Choriothete This is a soft sticky platform on the ventral side of the uterus, on which the egg
comes to rest when it enters the uterus.

Vulva The vulva is the external opening of the female reproductive system, through which the
mature larva will eventually be expelled.

26
4.0.0 THE REPRODUCTION OF INSECTS
Insects are dioecious i.e. are either male or female. The female insects have an organ
called spermathemaca which stores sperms from a single mating which will fertilize the
eggs all the life of the insect. Most insects therefore mate once in a life time.

4.1.0 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION:

 Oviparous-the eggs are fertilized, laid and hatch outside the mother’s body e.g.
housefly, mosquitoes, etc.
 Ovoviviparous-the eggs are fertilized, retained in the mother’s body until just
before hatching when they are laid to hatch.
 Viviparous-after fertilization the eggs are re tained in the mother’s body, the
embryo receive nourishment from the mother in addition to or instead of that
present in the yolk, and then hatch within the mother’s body e.g. Tsetse fly.
 Parthenogenesis-in some species of insects when the female fails to find a male
for fertilization, the females can produce young ones from unfertilized eggs e.g.
bees, aphids, black flies etc.

4.2.0 LIFE CYCLE

 Moulting: moulting or ecdysis is the shedding off of the exoskeleton of the insect
to allow it to grow. When the eggs hatch larvae emerge and develop into pupae
which in turn develop into adult insects. Insects moult as they develop from one
stage to another. There can be several larval stages and thus several moults.
 Metamorphosis: is the process by which the egg, la rva and pupae reach the adult
phase. This process is controlled by the brain, molting and juvenile hormones.
There are two forms of metamorphosis:
 Complete metamorphosis is also called holometabolous metamorphosis. The
eggs hatch into larvae, the larva secretes a cocoon around itself to form a
puparium and the adult emerges from the pupa. The life cycle stages include
egg, larva, pupa and adult. The different stages live in different environment.
They also have different types of requirements, infact the pupa stage does not
feed at all.

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Figure 12: life cycle of fleas

 Incomplete or hemimetabolous metamorphosis. In this life cycle, the adult lays

eggs which hatch into nymphs and after a single or several molts the nymphs
develop into the adult. The nymps feed on the same feed as the adults. But the
nymphs have no wings and reproductive organs . In other insects such as the
dragonfly there are naiads which are similar to nymphs but eat food different from
that of the adult.

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5.0.0 ORDER DIPTERA
Insects that belong to the order dipteral have a single pair of wings. Most are harmless
but others are important vectors. All are holometabolous. There are three suborders:
Nematocera, brachycera and cyclorrhapha.

Suborder nematocera-has four important families and these are culicidae (mosquitoes),
certopogonidae (biting midges), simulidae (black flies) and psycodidae (sandflies)

Suborder brachycera-has one important family-Tabanidae which has three

genera;Tabanas, chrysops and haematopota.

Suborder cyclorrhapha-Families muscidae and glosinidae i.e house flies, stable flies
and Tsetse flies respectively.

5.1.0 GLOSINIIDAE

TSETSE FLIES
Tsetse flies belong to the family Glossinidae and genus called Glossina. The name Tsetse is
derived from the Sechuana meaning “fly destructive to cattle”

STRUCTURE: The flies are robust with various shades of brown, from yellowish to
blackish brown. Both male and female are haematophagus. The males are
distinguished from females by the presence of hypopygium on the ventral posterior
surface.

Figure 13: male and female tsetse flies.

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EXTERNAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TSETSE FLIES

1. They sit with their wings folded in a scissior like manner over the back, with the tips of
the wings extending slightly beyond the end abdomen, unlike other biting cyclorrhapha.
2. They have a discal cell characteristically hatched shaped in the venation of the wing
between the 4th and 5th veins, while in other biting cyclorrhapha it is triangular in shape.
3. They have long proboscis projecting forwards from underneath the head and basal balb,
palps are as long as the proboscis
4. The antenna consists of three segments of which the third has a secondarily branched
arista.

DISTRIBUTION The genus Glossina occurs over 11m sq. km of Africa between
latitudes 150N and 300 S. The northern limit across the continent is from Senegal in the
west to Southern Somalia in the east. The northern limit corresponds closely to the
southern edges of the Sahara and Somali deserts. The southern limit is less well
defined. In the southwest it corresponds closely to the northern edges of the Kalahari
and Namibian desert. In the southwest it is generally 200 S but extends as far as 290 S
along the east African coastal region.

The Glossina are usually divided into three species based on their on their morphological
differences
1. Fusca group (subgenus Austenina)
2. Palpalis group (subgenus Nemorhina)
3. Morsitans group (subgenus Glossina)

The major limiting factors of the range of genus appear to be:

1. Vegetation
2. Food-presence of animals
3. Climate: Whether too hot or too cold or too little rainfall

The limits are more often than not determined by the climate through the effect of vegetation
1. Subgenus Austenina (Fusca group)
These are limited to dense/thickly forested areas. However, they do not penetrate very
far into forests, but are associated with forest edges. Some species are capable of
extending into dry savannah zones.
2. Subgenus Nemorhina (Palpalis group)
These normally occupy very humid areas of Africa (mangrove swamps , rain forest, lake
shores, and gallery forests along rivers). Those found in drier areas, do not move far
from water (rivers, lakes). In more humid areas they do not need to live very close to free
water.
3. Subgenus Glossina (Morsitans group)
This group is restricted to the savannah grassy woodlands. It is least hydrophilic, they
don’t live in wettest areas like the rain forest or mangrove swamps. In addition to climate,
its distribution is limited to scarcity of game animals on which they feed.

30
TSETSE FLY SPECIES:There are between 22-23 recognised species of Glossinidae
worldwide. In Zambia the following have been recorded from the three groups

Morsitans group (subgenus Glossina)

1. G. pallidipes
2. G. morsitans morsitans
3. G. morsitans centralis
Palpalis group (subgenus Nemorhina)
1. G. fuscipes fuscipes
Fusca group (subgenus Austenina)
1. G. brevipalpis

LIFE CYCLE

MATINS

The mating of tsetse flies probably takes place near to or on host animals. Male flies settle on
the back of the female, and the claspers at the posterior end of the male abdomen grip the end
of the female abdomen. This position may be held for an hour or two, before the male and
female flies part company.

Females are mated young, before or at about the time of taking the first blood meal. Females
usually mate only once in their lives but some may mate more than once; males can mate
several times. Older males are better able to mate successfully than very young ones.

During mating, the male penis is inserted into the vulva, reaching into the uterus as far as the
exit of the spermathecal ducts. A large ball of sperm is deposited there in a spermatophore. At
the end of mating, the male releases his grip on the female and flies away.

In the next few hours sperm make their way up from the spermatophore into the spermathecal
ducts and the spermathecae. Sperm remain active in the spermathecae for the rest of the
female's life.

EGG STAGE

The egg is fertilized immediately it enters the uterus by sperm from the spermathecae coming
into contact with and penetrating the anterior part of the egg. The fertilized egg remains lying in
the uterus for about four days, while development of the first instar larva takes place inside. The
egg is about 1.6 mm long (Glossina morsitans).

LARVAL STAGES

As with other flies, the larva in Glossina passes through several stages or instars, as it grows.
There are three larval instars in Glossina up to the time when the fully grown larva is dropped by
the female fly: the first, second and third instars. The larva has a mouth at the anterior end, and
two posterior spiracles. The unusual feature of the Glossina life history is that the larva spends
practically all its time, and does all its feeding, within the body of the female fly .

31
First instar larva This is the stage that emerges from the egg. It breaks out of the chorion using
a sharp egg tooth.

The first instar grows to 1.8 mm (G.morsitans)before changing to the next stage by getting rid of
its old skin. The first instar lasts for about 1 day.

Second instar larva This is a stage of rapid growth and development. To either side of the
posterior spiracles are swellings, and between the spiracles is an area of small spines.

The second instar lasts two days, and the larva grows to a length of 4.5 mm (G. morsitans).

Third instar larva This is also a stage of rapid growth and development. The fully grown larva
has a pair of large black swellings at the posterior end. These are the polypneustic lobes, which
carry many small holes through which the larva breathes. The polypneustic lobes are at first
white, becoming black later. The rest of the larva is white in colour. Most of the weight and
volume of the third instar larva is due to the gut which contains large amounts of unassimilated
food. The third instar lasts just over two days and the larva grows to a length of 6–7 mm (G.
morsitans).

Fig. 14 Side view of larva of Glossina, A, in the uterus; B, mature larva after being dropped by
the female.

32
Fig. 15 Pupal stage and emergence; A, pupa; B, young fly emerging from the pupa, with
ptilinum inflated in front of head.

Feeding by the larva Apart from the food already in the egg, all the food of the three larval
instars comes from the milk gland of the mother fly. The milky secretion of this gland is poured
out of the duct of the gland, at the head end of the larva. The larva sucks up this secretion and
passes it straight to the midgut. Here it is slowly digested and assimilated.

Breathing by the larva For its air supply the larva depends on air entering the vulva of the
female and then passing into its posterior spiracles or polypneustic lobes.

Abortion Sometimes a larva fails to reach its full size and is expelled from the uterus before the
usual time. This is called an abortion. The aborted larva dies. Abortions can be caused by the
mother fly not obtaining sufficient food, and may also occur when the fly is carelessly handled,
or when it comes into contact with insecticide. The egg may also be aborted for the same
reasons.

LARVIPOSITION (BIRTH OF THE LARVA)

When the larva in the uterus is fully grown, the female Glossina flies around looking for a
suitable area in which to drop it. This will usually be a place where there is a patch of loose
sandy soil, sheltered by an overhanging rock, branch or twig. The female tsetse settles down
either on the ground or on the overhanging object. The larva then works itself backward cut of
the vulva of the female, helped by pushing movements of the female's legs, and drops to the
ground. The larva burrows into the ground and out of sight. The female flies away.

Within an hour or two the larva becomes barrel-shaped, darkens and may then be called a
pupa.

There is no feeding by the larva after it is dropped by the female.

PUPA

The pupa is a dark brown rounded object; at the posterior end are the polypneustic lobes the
shape of which helps to distinguish the tsetse pupa from the pupae of other flies. The pupa is
slightly shorter than the larva that produces it.

The hard case on the outside of the pupa is called the puparium.

33
Inside the pupa two main processes take place:

i. the food still remaining in the midgut is digested and assimilated,

ii. the organs of the adult fly begin to form.

The pupal stage usually lasts about four to five weeks, according to temperature. Higher
temperatures shorten the pupal period; lower temperatures lengthen the pupal period (to more
than 50 days in some climates). Too high or too low a temperature will cause the death of the
pupa.

At the end of this period, the adult fly is ready to emerge.

ADULT FLY

Emergence of the adult fly: When ready to emerge the young adult fly expands its ptilinum to
burst open the end of the puparium. The body works its way out of the hole so made, and also
gets through the surrounding soil by using the ptilinum. In this way the young fly struggles to the
top of the soil and out into the open air.

At this stage the body is very soft and the wings are small and crumpled. After a few urinates
the wings begin to expand to reach their proper size.

Teneral fly: From the time the fly emerges to the taking of its first meal, the young fly is called a
teneral fly. The underside of the abdomen appears whitish and semi-transparent, the ptilinum
can sometimes be everted when the sides of the head are squeezed between the fingers, and
the body has a soft feel to it.

Non-teneral fly : After the first blood meal has been taken, the underside of the abdomen
appears more creamy yellow, and when held up to the light the dark shape of the last meal can
be seen. The thorax feels firmer and harder, because of the greater development of muscles in
it. The ptilinum cannot easily be everted. The fly is then termed a non-teneral fly.

RATE OF REPRODUCTION

Once mated, a female can produce larvae for the rest of her life.

At a temperature of about 25°C a female fly will produce a mature larva every 9–10 days,
except for the first one which may take 18–20 days from the time of emergence of the fly from
the puparium. Lower temperatures give a lower rate of breeding; higher temperatures increase
the rate of breeding. However, temperatures that are too high or too low will cause breeding to
stop altogether.

ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR:

Temperature is a very important factor in the ecology of tsetse flies. It affects the fly
activity, inter-larval period and puparial duration. Temperatures below 160 C flies are
inactive and above 350C they seek refuge, in which they become inactive.
Temperatures must remain in the 16-350C range for them to be active and able to seek
food.
34
GENERAL TSETSE ACTIVITY:Tsetse flies are generally not active at night. During day
light G. morsitans males can fly for 15 and 30 minutes in the hot and cold seasons
respectively, while females fly fewer minutes.

Tsetse flies are highly active in the morning and afternoon and inactive in the middle of the day.
Hungry flies tend to be more active and have higher increases to visual responses.
The young and old flies are less active. The young due to low fat reserves whilst the old it’s
probably due to fraying of the wings and other degenerative changes. On the day of oviposition
the female fly is totally inactive.

HOST SEEKING AND PREFERENCE: Tsetse flies feed at regular intervals (3-4 days)
and they use visual stimuli to locate moving hosts or stationery host. They also use
odours from the host. Host preference is mainly dependent on availability of hosts.
Removal of the most favoured host from the habitat results in adaptation to another
host.

TSETSE FLY HABITAT: Tsetse flies can be grouped according to their preferred
habitats. Forest species are least important. Riverine species infest essential watering
areas. Savannah tsetse are the most important as they occupy large tracts of suitable
grazing land. Control of tsetse fly by spraying is aided by detailed knowledge of fly
habitats.

CONTROL

1. Regular inspection-clinical and wet smearing in herds in areas adjoining fly area, and
using prophylactic drugs
2. Bush clearing-making unsuitable for tsetse fly
3. Aerial spraying – to destroy tsetse fly
4. Fly pickets – to take fly counts
5. Settlement-development of agriculture
6. Game fencing/elimination
7. Sterile insect technique
8. Insect treated baits
9. Targets

5.2.0 CULICIDAE

Culicidae (mosquitoes) Transmit several parasites Protozoa, (malaria) Filarial worms,

(elephantiasis) Arbovirus.

Identification: Long & narrow wings with scales along veins & wing margin

35
Figure 16: mosquitoes

Culicidae (mosquitoes) Biology: Almost all blood-sucking; only females take blood;
males take nectar & plant juices. Eggs laid in flowing or still water; water collected in
containers, tree cavities & leaf axils of plants Eggs laid singly or together in floating raft
Larvae & pupae are aquatic; active swimmers & breathe via siphon tube Adults usually
close to breeding sites.

Culicidae (mosquitoes) has two subfamilies Anophelinae Genus Anopheles (human

malaria). Adults rest with abdomen tilted at steep angle to substrate. Larvae rest
horizontally on water surface. Culicinae Genera Aedes & Culex (arboviruses & filarial
worms) Adults rest with abdomen parallel to substrate Larvae hang at angle from water
surface. Eggs Larvae Adults.

5.3.0 SIMULIIDAE

Simuliidae (black flies) Females are blood-feeders; Vicious biters & cause major
distress to poultry, livestock & humans.

Black flies are small, dark, stout-bodied flies with a humpbacked appearance. The adult
females feed mainly during daylight hours and are not host specific. The black fly is a
potential disease vector. It hovers about the eyes, ears and nostrils of animals, often
alighting and puncturing the skin with an irritating bite. Large numbers of bites may
cause weakness from blood loss, anaphylactic shock or death.

36
The black fly life cycle begins with eggs being deposited on logs, rocks or solid surfaces
in eddies of flowing streams. Larvae attach themselves to rocks or vegetation with a
posterior sucker or threads. The length of the larval period is quite variable depending
on the species and the larval environment. The adults, which emerge after pupation, are
strong fliers and may fly 7 to 10 miles from their breeding sites.

5.4.0 PSYCHODIDAE
Psychodidae (sand flies) mostly harmless, except blood-sucking sand flies (subfamily
Phlebotominae). Transmit several pathogens Protozoa, Bacteria (oroya fever)

Identification: Small cryptic flies (2-4 mm) Very broad & hairy wings with long parallel
veins. Wings held open over body.

Psychodidae (sand flies) Biology: Adults hide in hyrax & rat burrows during day; enter
houses at night to feed: Adults & larvae live near water: Larvae live in moist soil or in
cracks & crevices where they survive on condensed water

5.5.0 CERATOPOGONIDAE
Ceratopogonidae (biting midges) Females of some genera (Culicoides) are blood-
suckers; males visit flowers Painless bite is followed by intense irritation & itchiness.

Identification: Very small flies (0.5-2mm) Grey or yellowish bodies Wings folded over
body at rest Wings have thick radial veins crowded close to wing margin

Ceratopogonidae (biting midges) Biology: Larvae carnivores or detritivores: Larvae

mostly live in water bodies with high organic content; some live in moist or terrestrial
habitats. Adult females transmit arboviruses, in livestock, Bluetongue virus in sheep,
African horse sickness. Species that bite humans may transmit filarial worms & viruses.

5.6.0 TABANIDAE
Tabanidae (horse flies). Horse flies ( figure 10) and deer flies, also called Tabanids, are
insects that are usually strong fliers. As with mosquitoes, only females bite. They are

37
usually daytime feeders and are vicious biters. Their attacks often account for lowered
weight gains and lowered milk production. Because of their painful bites and frequent
attacks, horse flies produce frenzied behavior in their hosts, sometimes causing them to
run long distances in an effort to escape.

Tabanids introduce an anticoagulant into the wound when they bite that causes blood to
ooze. These wounds are excellent sites for secondary invasion of other insects and
diseases, and also cause more blood loss. Being intermittent feeders, they can be
important mechanical transmitters of diseases such as anthrax, tularemia and
anaplasmosis.

Most species of tabanids are aquatic or semi-aquatic in the immature stage, but some
develop in moist soil, leaf mold or rotting logs. Generally the eggs are deposited in
layers on vegetation, objects over water, or moist areas favorable to larval development.
Eggs hatch in 5 to 7 days and the larvae fall to the surface of the water or moist areas
where they begin to feed on organic matter.

Many species prey upon insect larvae, crustacea, snails and earthworms. When the
larvae are ready to pupate, they move into drier soil, usually an inch or two below the
surface. The pupal stage lasts 2 to 3 weeks, after which the adults emerge. The life
cycle varies considerably between species, requiring anywhere from 70 days to 2 years.
They are difficult pests to control. Daily mist applications will protect animals, but are
difficult for most cattlemen to implement.

38
Figure 17: horse flies

5.7.0 MUSCIDAE
Muscidae (house flies) figure 11. Large group with many common flies & some
important pests Nuisance flies Mechanical disease transmitters. Thorax lightly striped
Mostly. Larvae live in various types of organic matter; manure, garbage, rotting
vegetation 2 important subfamilies Muscinae Stomoxyinae

Figure 18: house flies.

Muscidae (house flies) Muscinae Non-biting species – short fleshy proboscus for
mopping up surface liquids. Some species extract fluids from human food & faeces (e.g.
house fly, Musca domestica ). Such species mechanically transfer bacteria & viruses
Cholera, poliomyelitis, leprosy, typhoid fever, dysentery etc others feed on wounds or
run off from wounds some involved in myiasis

Muscidae; Stomoxyinae Biting species – long piercing mouth parts Some species are
aggressive & persistent blood-suckers (e.g. stable fly, Stomoxys calcitrans ) Torment
wild & domestic animals (e.g. ears of dogs) Stomoxys calcitrans

39
5.8.0 CALLIPHORIDAE
Calliphoridae (blow flies) figure 12. Identification: Stoutly built flies Shiny metallic (blue
or green) colour Plumose arista (at least 2/3 of length) 2-3 notopleural bristles

Calliphoridae (blow flies) Biology: Adults attracted to decaying flesh, carrion & faeces;
larvae develop inside. Other species are involved in myiasis (genera Calliphora ,
Chrysomyia & Lucilia ) Not normally involved with diseases, but may spread bacteria
(e.g. anthrax) Positive attributes; Wound treatment.

Figure 19: blow flies

40
6.0.0 MYIASIS
Suborder cyclorrhapha

Insects in the suborder cyclorrhapha can cause a condition called myiasis. Myiasis
refers to infestation of living animals and humans by dipteran larvae, which feed on the
host’s living tissue, dead tissue, body fluids or ingested food material. There are three
types of myiasis:

Facultative myiasis- the fly larva are usually free living, however, under certain
circumstances, these larva can adapt themselves to a parasitic dependency on host.
Examples are musca domestica (housefly ), calliphora spp ( blue bottle flies ), lucilia spp
(green bottle flies) and phormia spp ( the blue flies). The adult flies are attracted to a
moist wound, skin lesion, or soiled hair coat. The common site is the breec h, where flies
may be attracted to wool soaked with urine or faeces. As the adults feed in these sites,
they lay eggs which hatch to produce larvae (maggots) that move independently about
the wound surface ingesting dead cells, exudates, secretion and debris but not living
tissue. This condition is called “fly strike” or “strike”. These larva irritate, injure and kill
successive layers of skin and produce more exudates. The infested animal may die
from shock, intoxication, histolysis or infection. Control is by reducing attraction by
shearing or shaving around the attach areas.

Obligatory myiasis- the fly larvae are completely parasitic i.e. they depend on the host to
complete their life cycle, examples include cochliommyia hominivorax ( new world screw
worms). The adult flies are attracted to wounds of several days of age. All species of
animals may be attacked. The adult oviposite on the wound and the eggs hatch into
larva to penetrate the body like a screw; hence the name screw-worm. These larvae
cause pain and destruction as they move into through. Tissues to pupate they fall to the
ground. After some days the adult emerges. The wounds that attract adult may be from
dehorning, tick bites, castration, barbed wire, or newly cut navels. Control is by dressing
wounds.

Accidental myiasis- in accidental or pseudo-myiasis, the dipteran larvae are accidentally

ingested (during licking or grooming) and are found within an animal’s gastro intestinal

41
tract and appear in the faeces undigested. This may occur when a roaming dog or cat
ingests carrion that contains maggots.

6.1.0 SARCOPHAGIDAE
Sarcophagidae (flesh flies) Identification: Robust flies with grey & black colour (never
metallic) Striped thorax & checkerboard grey pattern on abdomen Arista plumose on
basal half 4 notopleural bristles

Sarcophagidae (flesh flies) Biology: Adults feed on decaying organic matter (mostly
animal) & faeces. Females deposit live larvae in above for further development. Also
involved in myiasis & develop in skin sores of vertebrates.

6.2.0 GASTEROPHILIDAE
Gasterophilidae (horse bot flies) figure 13. Identification: Adults are dull yellow & bee-
like Short-lived adults lack mouth parts & don’t feed; rarely seen. Genus Gasterophilus
associated with myiasis Larvae inhabit guts of large mammals. Larvae are barrel-
shaped & armed with rows of spines Gasterophilus sp.

Gasterophilidae (horse bot flies) Biology: Eggs laid on host’s fur; near mouth or on
forelegs Larvae enter mouth of host; Burrow through skin into mouth; Eggs are licked &
swallowed by host before hatching; Larvae move to stomach & attach to wall; Nourished
by horse’s blood; May damage guts & weaken animals; Mature larvae pass out in
faeces & pupate in soil

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Figure 20: horse bot fly

6.3.0 OESTRIDAE

Oestridae (warble flies, bot flies) Identification: Large, stout, hairy flies with large
inflated head & mottled grey colour; Adults don’t feed; short-lived & rarely seen Larvae
are involved with myiasis; Larvae are white, spiny, barrel-shaped & have black mouth
parts.

Oestridae (warble flies, bot flies) figure 14. Biology: Larvae are internal parasites of
mammals; Nasal cavities of sheep, horses, antelope etc Under skin of cattle, antelope,
rodents etc Skin parasites cause pus-filled boils (warbles) that damage animal hides;
Sheep nasal bot fly ( Oestrus ovis ); Living larvae deposited into nostrils; attach to sinus
membrane & feed on mucous; Sneezed out & pupate in soil; Other species of Oestrus &
Gedoelstia live in pulp cavity in horns of antelope & sheep Warbles on cattle .

43
Figure 21: oestrus ovis.

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7.0.0 HEMIPTERA
Hemiptera (true bugs) Diverse in appearance; Piercing & sucking mouth parts; When
present, two pairs of wings (hind pair reduced); Incomplete life cycle Immature stages =
nymphs are mostly small wingless replicas of adults ; No pupal stage; Of lesser medical
importance; Most are phytophagous or predators of arthropods. Few blood suckers =
two families

7.1.0 CIMICIDAE
Cimicidae (bed bugs) Identification: Small, apricot-coloured & wingless; Circular body &
flattened extensions of prothorax behind eyes ; Medical & veterinary importance: Most
species are ectoparasitic on rodents, poultry, birds & bats three species parasitic on
humans; Cimex lectularius occurs worldwide; Do not appear to vector any pathogens

Cimicidae (wingless) Biology: Adults & tiny nymphs hide in day; Any cracks & crevices
mattresses, clothing & under wallpaper; Emerge at night to feed on blood; Survive
without food for several months, but need blood to moult & lay eggs; Bites are painless;
no response during sleep; Many show allergic reactions (large red discs around bites;
swelling & irritation for days); High densities can cause anaemia in children; Adult &
nymphs feeding.

7.2.0 REDUVIIDAE
Reduviidae (winged) Identification: Large robust bugs = ambush predators of
arthropods Strong recurved mouth parts for biting; Inject paralytic toxin to subdue prey;
Bite very painful to humans; Feed on human & animal blood Transmit Chagas’ disease

Reduviidae (winged) Triatominae (kissing bugs). Live in woodland & forest habitats;
Colonized human dwellings; Live in ceilings, cracks & crevices etc. Behave like bed
bugs & attack humans at night; Spread protozoans which cause Chagas’s disease.
Most notorious species are Triatoma infestans & Rhodnius prolixus.

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8.0.0 PHTHIRAPTERA
Various species of biting or chewing lice (Suborder Mallophaga) and sucking lice
(Suborder Anoplura) infest domestic animals. Sucking lice infest mammals only, but
biting lice infest both mammals and birds. Lice are wingless, flattened insects, usually 2-
4mm long. The claws of the legs are adapted for clinging to hair and feathers. Anoplura
are blood feeders. The three mouth part (stylet) are retracted within the head when not
in use. Mallophaga have ventral chewing mandibles and live on epidermal products.
Some species of Mallophaga feed on blood and exudates when available.
Sub-order Anoplura (the sucking lice). There are three families of Veterinary
significance.
Family Genus Features
Pediculidae Pediculus phthirus have eyes, long head (human louse)
Haematopinidae Haematopinus spp ocular points
Linognathidae Linognathus spp no eyes, long nose

Sub order Mallophaga (biting or chewing lice). These lice infest birds as well as
mammals. They may or may not have eyes, but have short antennae and broad heads.
This sub-order has two sub-divisions:
Amblycera-which have wide heads, 4 segment antennae, separated mesothorax and
matathorax and have lightly development maxillary palps. Family Menoponidae and the
genera are Menopan gallinnae and Menacanthus spp
Ischnocera-have broad heads, visible antennae, lack maxillary palps and have fused
mesothorax and metathorax.

Families Genera
Philopteridae Cuclotogater heterographus
Trichodectidae Trichodects canis of dogs
Damalinia spp
Lice of different animals
Host species Sucking lice Chewing lice
Cattle Haematopinus Damalinia bovis and Linognathus
vituli
Horses Haematopinus asini Damalima equi
Pigs Haematopinus suis
Sheep Linognathus pedalis Damalinia ovis, L. ovillus, L. africanus
Goats Linognathus stenopsis Damalinia caprae and D.
crassipes

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Dogs Linognathus stetosus Trichodectes canis
Cat Felicola subbrostrata

Life cycle of a louse: Lice have hermimetabolous cycles. Louse eggs or “nits” are
glued to hairs and are pale, transluscent, and soboval. The eggs hatch into nymphs
(three stages). Nymphal lice are smaller than adults, but otherwise resemble them in
habits and appearance. About 3-4 weeks are required to complete one generation, but
this varies with species.

Veterinary Significance
Lice cause pruritus and dermal irritation with resultant scratching, rubbing, and biting of
infested areas. A general unthrift appearance, rough coat and lowered production are
common. Lice may also cause anaemia. Control is by use of an effective insecticide.

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9.0.0 SIPHONAPTERA
Fleas are wingless, ectoparasitic insects with laterally compressed bodies about 1.5-
4mm long and the abdomen has ten segments. The chitinous coverving is thick and
dark brown. Females are larger than males. They have a habit of jumping when
disturbed and the hindermost third pair (metathorax) of legs is long, strong and adapted
for leaping. In some species there are a number of large spines on the head and thorax
known as “combs” or “ctenidia”. On the cheek (genals) there may be genal combs on
the posterior border of the prothorax, pronotal combs. Either or both of these combs are
absent in some species. The lateral flattening and the other structures enables fleas to
move forward easily through the pelage or feathers of their host.

Life cycle:

 most (but not all) females lay eggs on host. Generally a few to up to 20 eggs
layed at a time, and over a course of a couple months to 6 months, depending
upon species, perhaps several hundred eggs may be layed. In some species,
egg laying strongly tied to humidity. Eggs usually fall to ground within a few hours
of drying
 eggs hatch within a few days, but sometimes take 3 weeks or longer to hatch
depending upon temperature
 Maggot-like larvae hatches and ingests detritis (i.e. decaying vegetation,
epithelial cells), usually within a nest; highly sensitive to humidity.
 most species have 3 larval instars, and each instar lasts about 1.5 -2 weeks.
However, low temperatures can prolong a stage for up to 200 days in some
species.
 larvae will seek out areas with appropriate humidity, within less than 1 meter from
hatching source
 pupa forms; much of pupal case formed from silk-like material derived from
salivary secretions, and detritis picked up from environment. Development in the
pupa generally lasts about 1 week. However, low temperatures can retard pupal
development for up to a year.

Feeding: Stimuli for detection of host include vibration, warmth and exhalation of
carbon dioxide or casting a shadow. The maxillae are used to penetrate the hosts skin
and the tip of the labrum epipharynx enters a capillary from which the flea imbibes
blood. Saliva is passed into the host by the salivary pump and appears as clear drops of
fluid outside the capillary.

Pathogenesis- Fleas are much less permanent parasites unlike lice. They come and
leave host. They not markedly host specific. Fleas infestation seems to be associated
with poor condition of the host as in a chronic debilitating disease. Infested animals
become restless, lose condition. Flea dirty is the partially digested blood that is passed
as faeces.

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Examples
Species Host Site
Pulex irritans man and other animals whole body
Ctenocephalides felis cat, dog and man whole body
Cleriocephalides canis dog whole body
Ceratophyllus gallinae chicken whole body
Tunga penetrans man foot and ankle
Echidnophaga gallinacean chicken head
Control is by us of acaricides

Fleas are often vectors of some diseases

 murine typhus (Rickettsia mooseri) transmitted by numerous species of fleas,

and rats tend to be the preferred host. In humans, the disease results in about 2
weeks of fever, chills, and pain
 bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis) transmitted by various fleas but most commonly
Xenopsylla cheopis. Rodents the primary hosts.
 myxomatosis (a virus that can kill old world rabbits) and is transmitted by various
arthropods, including ticks
 Dipylidium caninum (dog tapeworm) cysticerci can develop in some species of
flea

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10.0.0 ACAROLOGY
Class arachnida

Acarology is the study of mites and ticks, both belonging to subclass Acari or Acarina of
the class arachnida. There are two orders of or veterinary importance in the subclass
Acari. Order Acariformes has important families such as sarcoptidae, psoroptidae,
knemidoptidae and demodicidae comprising the mites of our interest. Order
parasitiformes comprises families; ixodidae ( the hard ticks) and Argasidae (the soft
ticks).

10.1.0 ANATOMY OF ARACHNIDS

Anatomy of arachnids
The mites and ticks have no distinct head and antennae. The adults have a distinct genital and
anal area on the ventral body surface. All the larvae have three pairs of legs while nymphs and
adults have four. The mouth parts are called chelicerae and are borne on the gnathosoma.
Ticks and mites have the same structure, but the former are larger than the latter.

10.1.0 THE MITES

The mites undergo four developmental stages, i.e the eggs, larval, nymphal (1-3 series-
protonymph, deutonymph and tritonymph) and adult stages. Nymphs look like the adults but
have undeveloped reproductive systems. Mites are permanent parasites, their life cycle is
completed on the host.
Suborder Astigmata:
Family Genera Characteristics
Sarcoptidae Sarcoptes spp Legs do not protrude/can’t be seen dorsally
Psoroptidae Psoroptes spp Long legs
Knemidokoptidae Knemidokoptes spp
Chorioptidae Chorioptes spp Legs not very long

Suborder Prostigmata:
Family Genera Characteristics
Demodicidae Demodex Elongated body, short stout legs
Cheyletiellidae Cheylletiella spp

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10.1.2 MITE INFESTATION IN VARIOUS ANIMAL SPECIES

Mite infestation is called cutaneous acariasis or mange, which is characterized by chronic

dermatitis, seen as crust formation, scaliness, absesses and in some cases pruritus. The effect
are weight loss, restrictive quarantine and damage to hide and skins.

Host species Mite species Condition caused

Cattle Sarcoptes scabiei Sarcoptic mange
Sheep Psoroptes Ovis Psoroptic mange
Cattle Chorioptes bovis Chorioptic mange
Cattle Demodex bovis Demmdectic mange
Sheep/goat Scarcoptes scabiei ovis Sarcoptic mange
Sheep Psoroptes ovis Sheep scab
Goat Chorioptes caprae, C.ovis Chorioptic mange
Sheep Demodexovis, D. caprae Demodectic mange
Horse Sarcoptes scabiei equi Scorcoptic mange
Horse Psoroptes equi
Horse Chorioptes equi
Trombiculus trambiculidiasis
Pigs Sarcoptes scabieisuis Sarcoptic mange
Dog/cat Sarcoptes canis Cannie scabies
Cat Notoedres cati Feline scabies
Dog/cat Cheyletiella blackei Walking dandruff
Dog Demodex canis Cannie demodicosis
Cat Demodex cati Feiline demodicosis

Veterinary importance of mites: production of dermatitis, exsanguinations of feeding on other

body fluids, transfer of pathogens and production of allergic reactions in hosts.

10.2 0 THE TICKS

10.2.1 FAMILY ARGASIDAE

In the soft ticks, the leathery dorsal surface lacks a hard plate (scutum). Males and female
argasids appear to be much alike, except for the larger size of the females and differences in
the external genetalia. The argasid capitulum (mouth-part) arises from the anterior of the body
in larvae but from the ventral body surface in nymphs and adults.

10.2.3 GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF SOFT TICKS

The argasid ticks are highly specialised for sheltering in protected niches or crevices of wall or
rocks, in vertebrate host nests, roosts, burrows or caves. Argasids use multiple hosts i.e. the
larvae feed on one host and drop to the substrate to moult. Several nymphal instars each feed

51
separately, drop and molt. Adults feed several times but do not moult. Nymphs and adults feed
rapidly, usually 30-60 minutes.

Adult argasids mate off the host several times; afterwards, females deposit a few hundred eggs
in several batches and feed between ovipositions. Examples of soft ticks include, Ornithodorus,
Argas (the fowl tick) and Otonius.

10.2.4 VETERINARY SIGNIFICANCE OF SOFT TICKS

 Vector of Borrelia anserine (avian spirochetosis) and rickettsia Aegyptianella pullorum

(aegyptianellosis) and a variety of arbovirusese.g. African swine fever virus.
 Some cause tick paralysis e.g Argas spp irritati

9.3.0 FAMILY IXODIDAE

The dorsal surface of the male hard tick is covered by a scutum. The scutum of the ixodid,
female, nymph and larva covers only the anterior half of the dorsal surface. The males therefore
do not enlarge (engorge) due to restriction of the scutum. The ixodid capitulum (mouth part)
arises from the anterior end of the body in each development stage.

figure 22: hard tick and soft tick

10.3.1 GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF HARD TICKS

Life cycles. The life cycle is hemimetabolus involving four developmental stages: eggs, larvae,
nymphal and adult stages. Each post embryonic developmental stage feeds only once but for a
period of several days. Males and females which parasitise livestock mate while on the host.
Males take less food than females but remain longer on the host and may mate with several
females. Males become sexually mature only after beginning feeding after which they mate with
a feeding female. Only after mating does the female become replete and fully sexually mature.
She then detaches, drops from host, and over a period of days deposits a single batch of
numerous eggs (1000-4000) on or near the ground in crevices, under stones or debris. Female
die after oviposition.

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One-host tick life cycle-examples include Boophilus spp, Dermacentor nitens and Hyalomma
scupense.
 Larvae hatch from eggs after 7-10 days then the larvae climb on vegetation and seek a
host
 Larvae attach onto a host, feed, engorge on blood 2-5 days and moult on the host. After
moulting the larvae change into 3-staged nymphs which take blood meal for 5-6 days
 The engorged nymph pass through a 2-day moult and an adult emerges. Mating and
fertilisation occurs on the host. The female takes a blood meal and engorges
 The engorged female drops onto the ground 20 or more days after larval attachment to
host. The female then lays her eggs and dies

Two-host life cycle – for example Hyalomma Spp

 Larvae hatch from eggs, seek a host (small animal e.g. rabbit) or birds or mammals of
any size
 Larvae attach onto a host and engorges on blood and then moult into nymphs which
also take a blood meal
 The engorged nymph drops to the ground to moult into adult which finds a large host
 The adult attaches onto a new host, often on the perineum. Mating and fertilisation take
place on the host
 The female takes a blood meal, engorges and drops to the ground for oviposition and
then dies

Three-host life cycle – examples include Amblyomma spp. and Rhipicephalus appendiculatus
 Eggs hatch into larvae and climb and climb onto vegetation to seek a host
 Larvae attach onto a host, usually on hairy parts of head or body and engorges with
blood
 Engorged larvae drop to the ground to moult into nymphs
 The nymphs attach onto another host, take a blood meal and engorge
 The engorged nymphs drop to the ground and moult into adults
 The adults find a host. Mating and fertilisation takes place on the host
 The female engorges and drops to the ground for oviposition and dies

10.3.2 IMPORTANCE HARD TICKS

1. Amblyomma spp – vectors of Cowdria ruminantium (a rickettsia) which causes heart

water. Their bites predispose to screw worm infestation
2. Boophilus spp are major vector of Babesia bigemmina, B, bovis (agent for red water)
and Anaplasma marginale (agent for gall sickness)
3. Rhipicephalus appendiculatus – biological vectors of Theileria parva (a protozoon)
which causes corridor disease or east coast fever
4. Dermacentor spp e.g. D. nitens transmits Babesia cabali in the horse

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 5. Haemaphysalis spp – cause tick paralysis and are vectors of agents of Q fever,
tularemia, brucellosis and babesiosis in dogs
6. Hyalomma spp

NB: Apart from being vectors of various disease agents, ticks cause direct damage to hosts by
introducing toxicosis (e.g sweating sickness, tick paralysis) cause by salivary fluids and toxins.
Skin wounds resulting from tick bites are susceptible to secondary bacterial infections and
screw worm infectation. Anaemia and death may occur as a result of tick infestation

10.3.3 COMMON NAMES OF TICKS AND THE DISEASES THE TRANSMIT

Tick
Diseases

Brown ear tick ECF, Red

water, gall sickness

Blue tick Red water,

gall sickness

Red legged or red tick ECF, red

water, Gall sickness

The brown dog tick or kennel tick Tick fever, gall

sickness

The bont-legged tick Sweating

sickness

Variegated tick or east African bont tick Heart water

The bont tick Tick bit fever

10.3.4 PREDILATION SITES OF EACH TICK SPECIES

Tick
Site

Brown ear tick Ear

Blue tick Body, dewlap, shoulder and

neck

Red legged or red tick All body but the adult on the
tail

Brown dog tick Ear

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The bont-legged tick Udder, scrtum, groin, anus and
tail-switch

Variegated tick or tropical bont-tick Udder, scrotum, belly, dewlap and

flanks.

The bont tick Udder, scrotum, groin, anus and

tail switch.

10.3.5 SIMPLE CRITERIA OF IDENTIFICATION OF TICK

Tick
Identification

Brown ear tick Colour

is brown

Blue tick Colour is bluish with

yellow legs

Red legged tick Dark body with orange-red legs, the edge of of the male’s body is
orange-red

Brown dog tick Redish brown

in colour

The bont-legged tick Dark brown body, white banded legs, shield is black and mouth parts
are long.

Variegated tick Conspicuous markings on its shield, the body of female is dark
brown, the legs have brown and white bands

55
11.0.0 GENERAL CONTROL OF TICKS
Tick control is practised in a wide variety of circumstances involving different tick and host
species. The main reasons for tick control are prevention of transmission of disease agents and
protect hosts from irritation and production losses, formulation of lesions that can becom e
secondarily infested, damage to hides and udders, toxicosis, paralysis. There are four major tick
control methods

11.1.0 CULTURAL CONTROL METHODS

Cultural Control methods – This method is directed against free- living and parasitic stages of
ticks. Control of free-living ticks is achieved by manipulation of the tick’s microclimate
 Removal of certain types of vegetation has been used to control
Amblyommaamericanum in recreational areas
 Control of Argasid ticks e.g Argaspericus and A. walkerae has been done by eliminating
cracks in walls and perches
 Control can also be done by removal of alternate hosts or definitive hosts of a particular
stage of the life cycle
 Rotation of postures or pastures spelling has been used in the control of one host ixodid
risk Boophilus microplus

11.2.0 BIOLOGICAL CONTROL METHOD

Biological Control Method-is aimed at both free-living and parasitic stages of ticks
 Preditors, including birds, rodents, shrews, ants and spiders, play a role in some areas in
reducing the numbers of free-living ticks. For example fire ants (Pheidolemegacephala)
are noteworthy tick predators, engorged ticks may also become parasitized by the larvae
of some wasps (Hymenoptera)
 Use of tick resistant cattle is becoming common in Africa and the Americas. The
crossbreeds between zebu, Bos indicus and Sanga and those between Bos indicus and
Bos Taurus are notably resistant to ticks after initial exposure

11.3.0 CHEMICAL CONTROL METHODS

Chemical Control Methods-done against the free-living in the environment of the parasitic
stages on the host, by use of acaricides
 Acaricides treatment of vegetation in specific sites e.g trails of recreational areas, to
reduce the risks of tick attachment to people has been used. This can not be used over
larger areas because of environment pollution and cost of treatment
 Dog kennels, barns and human dwelling may also require periodic treatment with
acaricides to control the free-living stages of ixodid ticks such as the kennel tick
(Rhipicephalussanguineus)
 Treatment of hosts with acaricides to kill attached larvae, nymphs and adults of ixodid
ticks and larvae of argasid ticks is the most widely used method. The commonly used

56
 acaricides are organochlorides, organophosphates, carbamates, amidines, pyrethroids
and avermectins
 Methods of acaricides application are:
- Dips or sprays. The former or the most effective and commonly used method
- Ear-tags impregnated by acaricides
- Slow release “pour-ons” are applied on the back from where they spread to the entire
body
- “Spot-ons” – similar to pour-ons but have less ability to spread
- Dusts may be applied on fowls and cats while dusts, washes or dip dogs

Vaccines – recent advances in biotechnology promise a vaccine against Boophilusmicroplus.

The vaccine stimulates antibodies that damage tick gut cells and kill the tick or drastically
reduces its reproductive potential. Prospects of developing similar vaccines against other ixodid
tick vectors of cattle diseases of major veterinary importance remain unclear.

11.4.0 CONTROL STRATEGIES

 Prevention-apply methods that eliminate change of the microclimate of ticks and
livestock e.g pastures without ticks
 Eradication – complete destruction of ticks on pastures or region
 Abate-complete elimination or diminish tick population levels to economically low levels
 Containment-holding tick population levels to within acceptable levels i.e to establish an
endermic stability

11.5.0 TICK BORNE DISEASES:

- Theileriosis
- Anaplasmosis
- Babesiosis
- Cowdriosis

57
PRACTICAL
Insect collection and identification
Insect collection location

58