Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering

Online Unsupervised Adaptation of Latent Representation

for Myoelectric Control during User-Decoder Co-Adaptation

Journal: IEEE Transactions on Neural Systems & Rehabilitation Engineering

Manuscript ID TNSRE-2024-00692

Manuscript Type: Paper

Date Submitted by the

11-Jun-2024
Author:

Complete List of Authors: Deng, Hanjie ; Southeast University School of Instrument Science and
Engineering
Wei, Zhikai; Southeast University School of Instrument Science and
Engineering
Hu, Xuhui; Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical
Engineering and Technology
Zeng, Hong; Southeast University School of Instrument Science and
Engineering
Song, Aiguo; Southeast University School of Instrument Science and
Engineering
Zhang, Dingguo; University of Bath
Farina, Dario; Imperial College London Department of Bioengineering

TIPS (OLD):

<b>Myoelectric control</b>, <b>decoder adaptation</b>,

Keywords: <b>unsupervised autoencoder</b>, <b>online manifold learning</b>,
<b>electrode shift</b>

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Page 1 of 10 Transactions on Neural Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering
IEEE TRANSACTIONS AND JOURNALS TEMPLATE 1

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2
3 Online Unsupervised Adaptation of Latent
4
5
6
Representation for Myoelectric Control during
7
8
User-Decoder Co-Adaptation
9
Hanjie Deng, Zhikai Wei, Xuhui Hu, Hong Zeng, Member, IEEE, Aiguo Song, Senior Member, IEEE, Dingguo
10
Zhang, Senior Member, IEEE, Dario Farina, Fellow, IEEE
11
12
13
14
15 Abstract—Myoelectric control interfaces, which map elec- I. I NTRODUCTION
tromyographic (EMG) signals into control commands for external
16
devices, have applications in rehabilitation technologies, such Simultaneous and proportional (SP) myoelectric control
17 as in active prosthesis control. However, the statistical charac- interfaces allow individuals to control external devices over
18 teristics of EMG signals change over time or across sessions
multiple degrees of freedom (DoFs) in a natural and intuitive
19 (e.g., because of changes in the electrode location), which makes
way [1]. They have demonstrated potentials for functional
20 interfaces based on static mapping unstable. In these conditions,
a user-decoder co-adaptation is needed during online operations. restoration of movement in clinical applications, such as in
21 However, online decoder adaptation presents several practical the control of active prostheses [2], and for robotic and
22 challenges, such as expensive data labeling and slow convergence. virtual reality rehabilitation systems [3], [4]. However, surface
23 Thus we introduce an unsupervised decoder adaptation method
electromyographic (EMG) signals are non-stationary, due to
24 that converges rapidly. We use an autoencoder to extract motor
variations in limb position, electrodes placement, and user
25 intent representation in the latent manifold space rather than the
sensor space, and further introduce an online unsupervised adap- muscle activation [5]. Conventional fixed decoders, which do
26 tation scheme based on Moore–Penrose Inverse, a noniterative not adapt to these non-stationarities, may result in uncon-
27 approach suited for fast network re-training, to track the evolving trollable interfaces [5]. Despite the possibility for the user
28 manifold. A validation experiment first showed that the conver-
to adapt to these non-stationarities with a fixed decoder [6],
29 gence time of the proposed adaptation scheme was reduced by
approximately 50% compared to state-of-the-art methods. Online [7], which is naturally enabled by the instantaneous sensory
30
experiments further evaluated cursor and prosthetic hand control feedback provided by closed-loop myocontrol interfaces [8],
31 by the proposed myocontrol interface, where perturbations were the considerably long adaptation time and great user efforts
32 representatively introduced by shifting the electrodes. Results needed may not be acceptable for online operations [8], [9].
33 showed that our scheme reached comparable improvements
Thus, there is the need for interfaces that reactively adapt to
34 in robustness as supervised counterparts. Moreover, in a cup
relocation test with a prosthetic hand, the completion time in the user while also facilitating the user adaptation to control
35
the post-adaptation phase with electrode shift was comparable to the interface [8]. In this way, the user and the decoder would
36 that in the baseline phase without shift. These results suggest that co-adapt during the online closed-loop interaction, so as to
37 our method effectively improves the accessibility and reliability recover proficient control under unstable conditions.
38 of myocontrol interfacing, which has the potential to reduce the
The decoder adaptation consists in updating its parameters
39 translational gap of myoelectric control interfaces by effective
co-adaptation during operation. by learning from new activation patterns after an initial calibra-
40
tion, once the system’s performance deteriorates [10]. While
41 Index Terms—Myoelectric control, decoder adaptation, unsu- user adaptation cannot be directly controlled, recent studies
42 pervised autoencoder, online manifold learning, electrode shift
highlighted that decoder adaptation could progressively shape
43
user adaptation and in turn, influence the co-adaptive interface
44
performance [11], [12]. Various decoder adaptation approaches
45
have been developed, falling into offline and online categories.
46
This work was supported in part by the National Natural Science Foundation Although offline decoder adaption methods exhibit robust-
47 of China under Grant 62173089 and Grant 62303453, in part by the Joint Fund ness to electrode shifts and limb position variations [13]–
48 Project 8091B042206, in part by Jiangsu Province Key R&D Program Projects
[17], the offline protocols involve disruptive and lengthy data
49 under Grant SBE2023020386, and in part by the European Research Council
Synergy Grant NaturalBionicS (contract 810346). (Hanjie Deng and Zhikai acquisition processes for capturing signal variabilities, which
50 Wei contributed equally to this work. Corresponding author: Hong Zeng.) increase the burden on the users and limit the consolidation of
51 Hanjie Deng, Zhikai Wei, Hong Zeng and Aiguo Song are with the
myocontrol strategies [18]. To address these limitations, online
52 State Key Laboratory of Digital Medical Engineering, the Jiangsu Province
Key Laboratory of Robot Sensing and Control, School of Instrument Sci- decoder adaptation methods have been recently developed by
53 ence and Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China (e-mail: adjusting the decoder during closed-loop control via non-
54 hzeng@seu.edu.cn).
disruptive adaptation schemes [18]–[22].
55 Xuhui Hu is with the Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and
56 Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou 215011, China. Though the performance of current online decoder adapta-
Dingguo Zhang is with the Department of Electronic and Electrical Engi- tion approaches are of high level, there remain two critical
57 neering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K.
58 Dario Farina is with the Department of Bioengineering, Imperial College shortcomings. First, most approaches [19]–[22] rely on super-
59 London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K. vised machine learning which is costly and impractical for
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2 accurately labeling new EMG patterns in real-world applica-
3 tions. Since the user movement intent is often unknown during
4 online operations, these methods are challenging to implement
5 in commercial devices. Second, decoders are updated with
6 iterative optimization methods that require relatively long time
7 (≥ 120 s) to converge, e.g., block-coordinate descent [18],
8 exponential recursive least squares [19], [21], recursive Gauss-
9 Newton [20], mini-batch gradient descent [23]. When a non-
10 stationarity has a sudden onset, the slow convergence may
11 obstruct fast adaptability to perturbations, and thus frustrate
12 the user [24].
13 To overcome these shortcomings, we developed an online
14 unsupervised decoder adaptation method that rapidly tracks Fig. 1: Block diagram of our co-adaptive myocontrol system. EMG signals are translated
via the decoder to control the velocity of a cursor or a prosthetic hand. The visual
15 the evolving latent manifold of non-stationary EMG during
feedback from the closed-loop interaction leads the user to adapt. Once data drift is
16 online, closed-loop use. This was achieved through the use of detected during real-time operations, the history batch stored in the buffer is fed to
update AE for tracking the evolved manifold.
17 a non-linear autoencoder (AE) trained online by non-iterative
18 blockwise Moore–Penrose (MP) inverse [25]. The non-linear
for the cursor or prosthesis. The real-time visual feedback
19 AE is well suited for learning low-dimensional curved man-
enables user learning and adaptation. If data drift is detected
20 ifold that is more consistent with the variance structure of
due to EMG instabilities, the AE is updated with online
21 EMG signals compared to a linear approximation [26]. As
sequential batch data to enhance performance and robustness.
22 a non-iterative neural network training approach, the low-
While the non-iterative online manifold learner dynamically
23 memory blockwise MP inverse learning updates parameters
adjusts for instabilities, the parameters of manifold-to-velocity
24 of the network only once, enabling a fast re-training with-
mapping are held fixed over time.
25 out penalizing performance. Using the tracked non-stationary
26 manifold representations, a fixed mapping function calibrated
27 only once at system initialization then produces the intended A. Initial offline training of AE
28 SP motor commands. To prevent frequent triggering, our Our approach leverages the scientific finding that a low-
29 online decoder adaptation is reactive, i.e., it is only updated dimensional latent manifold structure is present in EMG
30 when a drift characterized by a large reconstruction error via signals, which probably reflects neuromuscular constraints on
31 AE is detected, indicating a defective decoder. Then, the EMG group of muscles involved in the interaction [27]. Thanks to its
32 decoder and the user co-adapt to correct errors online. high variance capture and unbiased variance allocation across
33 To validate the effectiveness of our online unsupervised latent dimensions, AE has been demonstrated as a powerful
34 decoder adaptation in restoring control following instabilities, tool for extracting such a nonlinear manifold representation
35 three experiments were carried out, all with perturbations in- [28], [29], with which accurate myocontrol could be further
36 duced by electrodes shift, as a representative example of rapid obtained.
37 variation in signal characteristics. The first experiment showed In this study, we used a single-hidden-layer AE (Fig. 2).
38 that the proposed approach converged on a 1-min time scale. In Given the d-dimensional current activation pattern x(t) as an
39 the second study, a virtual target reaching task was conducted input, the m-dimensional (m < d) hidden latent representation
40 in multiple sessions to investigate progressive co-adaptation. is obtained with an encoder layer
41 In this study, our unsupervised decoder adaptation (UDA)
42 scheme was compared with the supervised counterpart (SDA). h(t) = fE (x(t)) = g(x(t)WE + bE ), (1)
43 The third study involved the application of the proposed
44 UDA applied to the control of an emulated robotic prosthesis
45 worn by able-bodied users, with redonning of the prosthesis.
46 To the best of the authors’ knowledge, our proposed online
47 updating method of a myoelectric decoder demonstrates the
48 state-of-the-art convergence time among counterparts without
49 any supervision for co-adaptive SP myocontrol.
50
51 II. M ETHOD
52
53 Fig.1 shows the block diagram of our myocontrol system,
54 where the user and decoder co-adapt during closed-loop in-
55 teraction. The decoder consists of a manifold learner based
56 on an autoencoder (AE) and a manifold-to-velocity mapping.
57 Following initial AE training and decoder calibration with
58 offline batch data, it extracts the latent manifold from EMG
signals and maps it to continuous velocity control commands Fig. 2: The structure of the single-hidden-layer autoencoder.
59
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2 which encodes commands for the control of the external After the initial training with offline batch data X0 , we have
(0)
3 device. h(t) is further fed into a decoder layer that outputs WD according to Eq. (5):
4 the d-dimensional reconstructed vector,
(0)
5 WD = (H⊤
0 H0 + (Im×m )/c)
−1 ⊤ −1
H0 g (X0 )
x̂(t) = fD (h(t)) = g(h(t)WD + bD ), (2)
6 = K−1 ⊤ −1
0 H0 g (X0 ). (7)
7 where g(·) is an invertible nonlinear activation function (this
8 study used leaky ReLu: g(x) = 0.01x for x < 0, and g(x) = x Upon the arrival of the second training mini-batch training
9 for x ≥ 0), WE ∈ Rd×m and bE ∈ R1×m denote the weights data X1 , via the concatenation, we get
10 and bias of the encoding layer, respectively; WD ∈ Rm×d  ⊤  −1 
11 and bD ∈ Rm×1 are those for the decoding layer, respectively. (1) −1 H0 g (X0 )
WD = K1 , (8)
12 Parameters for AE are determined by solving the problem that H1 g −1 (X1 )
13 minimizes the mean squared error between x(t) and x̂(t).
where
14 In this study, m was set to twice the control DoFs. Given
 ⊤  
15 a set of activation patterns X of size n × d pertaining to a H0 H0
K1 = (Im×m ) /c +
16 set of constrained motions (see section III-C), we trained an H1 H1
17 initial AE with a non-iterative MP inverse learning method
= (Im×m ) /c + H⊤ ⊤
0 H0 + H1 H1
18 [25]. This reduces the training time without penalizing perfor-
19 mance, compared to the more commonly used gradient descent = K0 + H⊤
1 H1 , (9)
20 methods.
and
21 1) Step 1: Randomly initialize the orthogonal matrix and
 ⊤  −1
22 vector WE , bE , where they satisfy

H0 g (X0 )
23 = H⊤
0g
−1
(X0 ) + H⊤
1g
−1
(X1 )
⊤
WE WE = Im×m , b⊤ H1 g −1 (X1 )
E bE = 1, (3)
24 = K0 K−1 ⊤ −1
(X0 ) + H⊤ −1
0 H0 g 1g (X1 )
25 and Im×m denotes an m × m identity matrix. Then the (0)
26 encoding layer outputs H by = K0 WD + H⊤
1g
−1
(X1 )
27 = (K1 − H⊤ ⊤ −1 (0)
H = g(XWE + bE ). (4) 1 H1 )WD + H1 g (X1 )
28 (0) (0)
29 = K1 WD − H⊤ ⊤ −1
1 H1 WD + H1 g (X1 ).
2) Step 2: Calculate the parameters for the decoding layer
30 (10)
as in [30], [31] :
31 Then Eq. (8) can be rewritten as follows:
32 WD = H† g −1 (X)
33 = (H⊤ H + (Im×m )/c)−1 H⊤ g −1 (X),
h i
(5) (1) (0)
WD = WD + K−1 ⊤ −1 (0)
(X1 ) − H1 WD .
1 H1 g (11)
34 bD = rmse(HWD − g −1
(X)), (6)
35 By generalizing from Eq. (11), the update rule for WD
(i+1)
can
36 where H† represents the pseudo-inverse of H, c is a
positive constant (125 in this study) and g −1 (·) is the be derived as:
37
38 inverse function of g(·), rmse(·) is the root mean square
h i
(i+1) (i) (i)
WD = WD + K−1 ⊤
i+1 Hi+1 g
−1
(Xi+1 ) − Hi+1 WD ,
39 error.
(12)
40 The offline batch training was repeated 20 times with
41 different initial parameters for encoding layer, resulting in 20
and bD
(i+1)
can be obtained according to Eq. (6):
42 AE networks. The optimal initial AE was selected as that
43 corresponding to the minimum reconstruction error. Afterward, (i+1)
bD = rmse(Hi+1 WD
(i+1)
− g −1 (Xi+1 )), (13)
44 the encoding layer projects new data onto the latent manifold
45 identified from the training data. where
46
B. Online unsupervised adaptation of AE (i+1) (i+1)
47 Hi+1 = g(Xi+1 WE + bE ), (14)
48 To implement unsupervised online adaptation of AE, a ⊤
Ki+1 = Ki + Hi+1 Hi+1 . (15)
49 buffer of length l is used to store the sequentially arrived
data (see Fig. 1). When the buffer is filled, the drift detection Subsequently, to facilitate the AE tracking the evolving latent
50
is conducted on such a mini-batch in the buffer (see section manifold, the parameters of the encoding layer are copied from
51
II-B1), and AE gets updated with this mini-batch once drift is the decoding layer for processing the next incoming block:
52
detected. Such a process repeats during the online myocontrol
53 (i+2) (i+1)⊤ (i+2) (i+1)
operation. WE ← WD , bE ← bD . (16)
54
We use Xi to denote the ith (i = 0, 1, 2, . . .) mini-batch
55
training data. Accordingly, Hi represents the output of the en- It can be seen in Eq. (12) and Eq. (15) that previously
56 (i) (i) (i) (i)
57 coding layer for the input Xi , {WE , bE } and {WD , bD } learned knowledge is retained in Ki+1 . From Eq. (15), one
58 are the parameters for the encoding and decoding layers can observe that the space complexity for storing Ki+1 is
59 updated with the ith mini-batch training data, respectively. O(m2 ), being independent of the block length l.
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2 1) Adaptation trigger
3 We have adopted a self-diagnosed strategy, where AE is
4 adapted when new emerging features are substantially dis-
5 criminant from the current ones, i.e., data drift is detected.
6 In specific, each time a buffer is filled, i.e., when a new
7 block (i.e., Xi+1 ) is ready, we calculated the value of variance
8 accounted for (VAF), defined as [32]:
9 Pl
||Xi+1 (t) − X̂i+1 (t)||2
10 V AFi+1 = 1 − t=1 . (17) (a) (b)
||Xi+1 − mean(Xi+1 )||2
11
Fig. 3: (a) The space layout for the virtual target reaching paradigm. The target is shown
12 It reflects the goodness-of-fit (ranging from 0 to 1) of current as a circle in red while a blue circle is displayed as the cursor. EMG signals recorded
13 AE for the new block of data. The higher VAF is, the better during wrist motions (flexion/extension and ulnar/radial deviation) are mapped to SP
velocity commands. (b) Experimental setup for the virtual target reaching paradigm.
14 tracking ability of AE towards user’s latest muscle activation
15 patterns is. During the online operations, VAF is continuously SP velocity commands v(t) = fV (h(t)) for devices. This
16 monitored, once it is below the pre-determined threshold, the manifold-to-velocity mapping function is determined follow-
17 adaptation of AE is triggered. The pseudo-code of the AE ing [34], resulting in control signals with appropriate range
18 adaptation is shown in Algorithm 1. of movement in the respective DoF, determined during the
19 calibration phase (see Section III-C). After the calibration of
20 Algorithm 1: Pseudo-code of the AE adaptation such a mapping function, its parameters are held fixed over
21 (0) (0)
Input: WD , bD , K0 , buffer length l, trigger time. This type of velocity-based SP control allows users to
22 threshold ϵV AF scale the speed of the device motion by modulating their EMG
23 (i+1) (i+1)
Output: {WE , bE } and {WD , bD }
(i+1) (i+1) activities, as well as to minimize fatigue.
24 for i = 0, 1, . . . do
25 # 1. Updating buffer: III. E XPERIMENTS
26 Xi+1 =append(Xi+1 , x(t)) A. Subjects
27 if length(Xi+1 )> l, pop(Xi+1 [0]) The experimental procedures conducted under ethical ap-
28 # 2. Updating AE: proval from the Ethics Committee of Southeast University
29 Calculate V AFi+1 with Eq. (17) (2022ZDSYLL038-P01). Nineteen right-handed able-bodied
30 if V AFi+1 < ϵV AF then subjects with no history of neurological impairment (14 males
31 WE
(i+1) (i)⊤
← WD , bE
(i+1)
← bD
(i) and 5 females, aged 26.5 ± 5 years), who had no prior
32 Calculate Hi+1 with Eq. (14) experience with myocontrol, were recruited for the study.
33 Calculate Ki+1 with Eq. (15) Subjects were randomly split into three groups, each group
34 Update WD
(i+1)
with Eq. (12) participated in one of three experiments (Experiment I, II and
35 (i+1) III).
Update bD with Eq. (13)
36 end
37 end
B. Data acquisition and processing
38 EMG signals were recorded from the dominant forearm
39 using a Myo Armband (Thalmic Labs, Canada). The device,
40 2) Setting of hyper-parameters equipped with eight bipolar EMG electrodes, sampled EMG
41 The proposed AE adaptation procedure involves two hyper- signals at a rate of 200 Hz with an 8-bit resolution. We used
42 parameters: the adaptation trigger threshold ϵV AF and the the root-mean-square (RMS) values of the 8-channel EMG as
43 buffer (new block) size l. According to [23], VAF higher the input vector of AE, which were obtained using moving
44 than 0.8 indicates a satisfactory goodness-of-fit of AE on windows of 100-ms duration with a step of 20 ms. A custom
45 testing data, thus default ϵV AF was set to 0.8 unless specified program in Matlab (2013a 64-bit) was developed for the real-
46 otherwise. For the buffer size l, a larger l could better capture time processing of EMG signals, online AE adaptation and
47 instabilities in signals, promoting more accurate updates of control of the cursor or prosthetic hand.
48 AE. In addition, a larger buffer size helps to reduce the
49 differences in distribution among blocks of data, mitigating C. Initial calibration for decoder
50 the discontinuity of the interface at the moment of AE update During the calibration phase for our initial decoder, par-
51 (known as the catastrophic forgetting problem for online ticipants were instructed to execute movements in a prede-
52 learning [33]). Ultimately, to reach a speed-memory trade-off,termined order without the kinematic labeling. Specifically,
53 l = 1500 was chosen which corresponds to a block of data with visual cues shown on a monitor, single-DoF full-range
54 from the last 30s. wrist motions were performed. The designated motions were
55 wrist flexion/extension and ulnar/radial deviation, respectively.
56 C. Manifold-to-velocity mapping EMG signals collected during four repetitions of such motions
57 After the m-dimensional latent manifold vector h(t) is were used to train an initial decoder. The calibration of an
58 extracted from current activation pattern x(t) via the encod- initial decoder for the compared supervised adaptation scheme
59 ing layer of AE, it is further mapped into a 2-dimensional in Experiment II followed the method described in [34].
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2 ability of the co-adaptive myocontrol system to overcome the
3 perturbation caused by electrodes shift.
4 1) Experimental procedure
5 10 subjects from Group 2 took part in Experiment II. Each
6 subject finished an experimental session with the unsupervised
7 decoder and another session with the supervised decoder on
8 the same day, the order of these two experimental sessions was
9 randomized across the participants. Each experimental session
10 included three consecutive phases: “Baseline”, “Perturbation-
11 On”, and “Perturbation-Removal” as depicted in Fig.4, where
12 each phase involved several blocks of trials. Participants were
13 allowed to rest between blocks as long as needed to reduce
14 fatigue.
15 Baseline phase: An experimental session commenced with
16 the calibration of the initial baseline decoder (see section
17 III-C). Following this, a block of 32 trials (denoted as B-
Fig. 4: The trial sequence of Experiment II. The fixed decoder used in the evaluation UID/B-SID in Fig.4) was then run to evaluate the baseline
18 trials is specified and marked in gray.
19 myocontrol performance using the initial decoder in the ab-
20 D. Experiment I: convergence of decoder adaptation scheme sence of perturbations.
21 A simulation was conducted to verify whether the AE Perturbation-On phase: We then introduced a perturbation
22 models adapted via the proposed unsupervised adaptation by transversally shifting electrodes 2.5cm from their original
23 scheme could converge after instabilities onset, using the EMG positions. After this, a block of 32 trials (denoted as O-UID/O-
24 signals recorded during virtual target reaching tasks. SID in Fig.4) were performed to evaluate the performance
25 1) Task description following introduction of perturbation with the initial decoder.
26 The virtual target reaching paradigm, well-established in During the next block of 64 adaptation trials (denoted as O-
27 evaluating myocontrol methods [23], [35] was employed for UA/O-SA in Fig.4), the adaptation scheme (UDA or SDA)
28 guiding user’s wrist motions. Sixteen target circles, evenly updated the decoder parameters when triggered while the
29 distributed in a ring, were displayed one by one in a random subject continued the target reaching task with the myocontrol
30 order. For each trial, the subject maneuvered the cursor from interface. For UDA, the adaptation was enabled once failures
31 the ring’s origin to the target within 5 seconds, dwelling within for AE to track the manifold of latest muscle activation
32 the target for at least 250 ms. Each round consisted of 16 patterns were detected (see Section II-B1). For SDA, the
33 trials, and the round ended after all the 16 targets had been decoder was updated in a supervised fashion every 16 trials
34 tested. The chosen task parameters followed previous studies (a round of reaching tasks), using the data labeled by oracle
35 [23], [35], allowing to distinguish between accurately directed knowledge of user intent [37] during the adaptation trials, as
36 movements and those merely brushing the target. Target loca- proposed in [10]. At the end of this block, the decoder updates
37 tions ensured a mix of single and multiple degrees of freedom were stopped, and an adaptation evaluation block of 32 trials
38 (DoF) control. Participants were seated comfortably with the (denoted as O-UAD/O-SAD in Fig.4) was performed to assess
39 forearm supported by an armrest. performance in the presence of perturbation, with the final set
40 2) Experimental procedure of adapted decoder parameters.
41 Group 1 consisting of three subjects participated Experiment Perturbation-Removal phase: With the same decoder in
42 I. After subjects familiarized with the myocontrol for the O-UAD/O-SAD, a final evaluation block of 32 trials (denoted
43 virtual reaching task, a perturbation condition was introduced as R-UAD/R-SAD in Fig.4) was conducted with removed
44 by transversely shifting electrodes approximately 2.5 cm (a perturbation (transversally shifted electrodes back to original
45 distance of single sensor pod) from their initial positions in positions) at the end of each experimental session. This was to
46 line with past works [17], [36], and then subjects continued assess whether there were transient differences in performance
47 the task following visual cues. EMG signals during the task with the same decoder under two electrode conditions (un-
48 after the perturbation were recorded for further analysis. shifted and shifted), which may be attributed to user learning.
49 3) Evaluation metrics It is noteworthy that the decoders were administered to all
50 After the perturbation onset in the task, the evolution of AE participants under identical perturbation settings, and subjects
51 models via our adaptation method throughout the following were not informed of the type of current decoder.
52 200s was quantified, in terms of VAF and relative model 2) Evaluation metrics and statistical analysis
53 disparity at each time instance. The relative model disparity We employed several metrics commonly used in past studies
54 was calculated as the difference between parameters of the (e.g., [26], [35]) to evaluate myocontrol performance in the
55 encoding layer before and after each update. virtual experiments. The Completion Rate (CR, [%]) quantifies
56 the ratio between the number of targets reached and the total
E. Experiment II: co-adaptation in virtual target reaching task number of targets. Completion Time (CT, [s]) represents the
57
58 Using the same virtual target reaching task in Experiment time needed to reach an intended target (5s is assigned to a
59 I, a set of online experiments was performed to assess the failure trial where user fails to reach the target during its 5s-
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2 an initial decoder. In the perturbation phase, the EMG
3 sensor band was rotated by 2.5cm from its original position
4 to emulate the real-world case when amputees re-don the
5 prosthesis. Then the user performed the task again with the
6 initial decoder. In the adaptation phase, our automatic online
7 unsupervised decoder adaptation scheme was applied for 4
8 minutes to facilitate the co-adaptation of user and decoder. In
9 the post-adaptation phase, the task was conducted again with
10 Fig. 5: Experimental setup for Experiment III. the fixed decoder that was obtained in the last phase. There
11 was no time limit for finishing the task, unless the user gave up
appearance). The Path Efficiency (PE, [%]) measures the ratio
12 because of inability to control the interface. The completion
between the straight-line distance from origin to target and time of successful six-cup relocations was employed as the
13
the length of actual cursor trajectory. Throughput (TP, [bit/s]) evaluation metric, whose values in the baseline, perturbation
14
gauges the information transfer capabilities of the human- and post-adaptation phases were reported.
15
machine interface, considering task difficulty and execution
16
time [38].
17 IV. R ESULTS
Metrics obtained from 10 subjects were subjected to a two-
18 A. Results of Experiment I
factor repeated measures analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA),
19 The evolution process of AE models throughout a 200-
where one factor is the electrode condition (levels include
20 second adaptation after the onset of perturbation is shown in
unshifted and shifted) and the other is the myocontrol decoder
21 Fig. 6. The normalized model disparity between AE models
(levels include UID, UAD, SID, SAD). Prior to this, the
22 from sequential updates rapidly decreases near zero within 50s
Shapiro-Wilk’s test of normality and the Mauchly’s test of
23 (about a half duration of a single round), and remains close to
sphericity were conducted. Results from adaptation trials were
24 zero afterwards. On one hand, such results have verified the
not included in the analysis, as the myocontrol decoder was
25 fast convergence of our unsupervised adaptation scheme after
updating and the target reaching were machine-assisted during
26 sudden perturbations in EMG signals. On the other hand, the
those trials. If a significant interaction between factors was
27 stability of AE models obtained via our adaptation scheme is
detected from the two-way RM-ANOVA, a focused one-way
28 also validated by these results. Accordingly, the average VAF
RM-ANOVA was conducted for each level of both factors,
29 continued to increase in the first 50s until stabilizing around
otherwise only the main effects were analyzed. If the non-fixed
30 0.8 afterwards, suggesting that the AE model online updated
factor was found to have significant effects, multiple pairwise
31 quickly and stably tracked the manifold of novel EMG signals
comparisons with Bonferroni correction were carried out to
32 after the perturbation.
identify statistically significant differences. All analyses were
33
performed in IBM SPSS Statistics.
34 B. Results of Experiment II
35 1) Evolution of performance over phases
F. Experiment III: cup relocation with prosthetic hand
36 For block B-UID in the absence of perturbation, perfor-
The proposed method was applied to myocontrol of a
37 mance was acceptable (Fig. 7, B-UID, CR: 99% ± 2%; CT:
custom-designed robotic prosthetic hand. This cable-actuated
38 1.67 ± 0.32 s; PE: 76% ± 4%; TP: 0.37 ± 0.08 bit/s), with
prosthetic hand, weighing approximately 700 g, featured a
39 cursor trajectories being nearly straight to each target (Fig.
freely rotating wrist. Able-bodied participants were mounted
40 8(a)).
the robotic hand using a customized socket interface on their
41 Following introduction of the recording perturbation, per-
forearms (Fig. 5). EMG signals from wrist flexion/extension
42 formance in block O-UID degraded (Fig. 7, O-UID, CR:
controlled the velocity for hand opening/closing, while ra-
43 43%±15%; CT: 4.20±0.37 s; PE: 39%±4%; TP: 0.19±0.01
dial/ulnar deviation signals controlled the velocity for wrist
44
rotation.
45
1) Task description
46
A cup relocation task was tested with six subjects from
47
group 3. Six cups were originally placed on a desk (3 face
48
up and 3 face down), the subject was instructed to place a
49
upward-facing cup, turn a downward-facing cup upward and
50
place it, on each tier of a three-tiered shelf, where the tier
51
located at waist, chest, and head level, respectively. This task
52
was chosen for several reasons: its simplicity allows the user
53
to quickly learn and master the task; its short duration allows
54
several trials to be completed rapidly, which minimizes muscle
55
fatigue.
56 Fig. 6: The evolutions of VAF and relative model disparity (MD) over time after the
online unsupervised decoder adaptation scheme was applied. MD was calculated as the
2) Experimental procedure
57 difference between the parameters of the encoding layer before and after each update,
58 The experimental procedure consisted of four phases. In normalized by the maximum one throughout the process. Shaded areas indicate the
59 the baseline phase, the subject first conducted the task with standard deviations.
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2 bit/s), and some targets could not be reached anymore (Fig. quit the experiment. Fig. 10 reports the completion time in
3 8(b)). During block O-UA, updates of the decoder progres- each phase for the remaining three subjects. As can be seen,
4 sively improved the performance (Fig. 7, O-UA), and the after shifting the electrodes, the completion time increased
5 cursor trajectories were uniformly distributed toward 16 targets greatly in perturbation phase (274.61 ± 31.56 s) compared
6 with continual updates (Fig. 8(c) and Fig. 8(d)). With the to that in baseline phase (137.67 ± 12.22 s). After 4-minute
7 final decoder obtained in block end of O-UA, acceptable- application of our online unsupervised adaptation scheme,
8 performance myocontrol was restored in block O-UAD (Fig. which promotes co-adaption of user and decoder for fully SP
9 7, O-UAD, CR: 98%±5%; CT: 1.93±0.65 s; PE: 62%±11%; myocontrol of the combined two DoFs, the completion time in
10 average TP: 0.34 ± 0.07 bit/s), and cursor control (Fig. 8(e)) the post-adaptation phase (161.16 ± 7.94 s) returned to values
11 was comparable to that of block B-UID. comparable with the baseline phase. A video of Experiment
12 After shifting the electrodes back to their initial positions, II and III is provided in the supplementary materials.
13 performance in block R-UAD (Fig. 7, R-UAD, CR: 99%±3%;
14 CT: 1.82 ± 0.33 s; PE: 72% ± 7%; TP: 0.33 ± 0.05 bit/s) was V. D ISCUSSIONS
15 close to that of block O-UAD, so was cursor control (Fig.
16 8(f)). A. Online unsupervised adaptation increases interface acces-
17 2) Differences in performance across conditions sibility
18 Fig. 9 summarizes the results for different conditions. Signal instabilities remain one of primary causes for my-
19 Significant interaction was observed between the decoders ocontrol performance degradation [5]. We demonstrated that
20 and the electrode conditions in all metrics (CR: F3,27 = the proposed method quickly restored control after sudden per-
21 69.47, P < 0.001; CT: F3,27 = 104.35, P < 0.001; PE: turbations by electrode displacement mimicking a real-world
22 F3,27 = 42.85, P < 0.001; TP: F1.4,27 = 60.65, P < 0.001). setting associated with amputees doffing and donning the pros-
23 Focused one-factor RM-ANOVA revealed significant differ- thesis, which results in a near-complete loss of control. Our
24 ences in CR (P < 0.001, effect size = 0.55), CT (P < 0.001, approach leverages the scientific finding that the representation
25 effect size = 2.53), TP (P < 0.001, effect size = 0.22), and of movement intent tends to lie on a low-dimensional latent
26 PE (P < 0.001, effect size = 0.37) at electrodes unshifted and manifold space [27], which de-emphasizes the role of sensor
27 shifted conditions for UID. These findings suggest that the userspace in myocontrol. Thus, after electrode displacements that
28 adaptation alone, without the aid of decoder adaptation, was misaligned the activation patterns in sensor space, we updated
29 unable to overcome deleterious consequences due to electrode an AE with block data online collected to track the latent
30 shifts. manifold while the user continued the task. In this way, we
31 When fixed on the shifted electrodes level, significant obtained consistent intent representations across data blocks,
32 differences in all four metrics were detected between de- leading to accurate output of the EMG decoder aligned with
33 coders (CR: F1.70,27 = 55.942, P < 0.001; CT: F1.61,27 = the intended movement. The users’ burden is then mitigated
34 95.125, P < 0.001; PE: F3,27 = 60.212, P < 0.001; TP: as their control strategies do not demand sharp changes after
35 F3,27 = 91.404, P < 0.001). O-UAD had better performance sudden perturbations. Experimental results showed that user
36 than O-UID, and the post-hoc analysis showed that differ- adaptation alone with fixed initial decoder often failed to
37 ences in their performance were statistically significant: CR compensate sudden perturbations within the allowed time (see
38 (P < 0.001, effect size = 0.54), CT (P < 0.001, effect Fig. 7 and 10). In this way, our adaptive decoder helped to
39 size = 2.27), PE (P < 0.001, effect size = 0.226) and increase the interface accessibility.
40 TP (P < 0.001, effect size = 0.19). Moreover, significant Moreover, the proposed approach offers distinct accessi-
41 differences in all four metrics were also observed between bility advantages over other state-of-the-art interfaces, as it
42 SAD and SID: CR (P < 0.001, effect size = 0.46), CT avoids common constraints. First, compared to [5], a large
43 (P < 0.001, effect size = 2.33), PE (P < 0.001, effect set of initial calibration data, including those collected under
44 size = 0.42), and TP (P < 0.001, effect size = 0.24). Such perturbation conditions, is no longer needed. The proposed
45 method requires only a small amount of initial calibration data
results indicate that the signal variability caused by electrodes
46 offset can be mitigated by both unsupervised and supervised that can be collected within minutes. Second, our approach
47 continual decoder adaptation. avoids interrupting the operation of the device with offline data
48 For UAD, no significant difference was found in collection, which is required in [13]–[17]. In the meanwhile, a
49 CR/CT/PR/TP between electrodes unshifted (R-UAD block) decoder recalibrated offline does not guarantee its performance
50 and shifted (O-UAD block) conditions. This indicates that during online operation [39], which further highlights the
51 the online co-adaptation process may have encouraged the benefits of our online decoder adaptation. Third, although the
52 user to form a stable internal model generalizable to different online supervised adaptive decoder produced greater average
53 electrodes conditions. metrics in O-SAD than its unsupervised counterpart in O-UAD
54 (see Fig. 9), the supervised approach relies on information
C. Results of Experiment III about the state of task (or intended task goals), which poses
55
56 After shifting electrodes in the perturbation phase, three challenges in the translation to real-world control tasks. In
57 subjects from group 3 found that the myocontrol interface with contrast to online supervised decoder adaptation approaches
58 the initial decoder was too uncontrollable to conduct the task, [19]–[22], the proposed method did not need measurements
59 no matter how hard they tried, and thus got frustrated and of kinematics or forces neither for the initial calibration, nor
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2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21 Fig. 7: Cursor control performance for all participants with unsupervised initialized and adaptive decoders. For CT and PE, the black dot represents the averaged value across
22 participants for each trial, the gray shadow refers to the standard deviation. For CR and TP, the average and standard deviation across participants are depicted as black square and
error bar at each round, respectively.
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35 (a) B-UID (round 2) (b) O-UID (round 2) (c) O-UA (round 1)
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47 (d) O-UA (round 4) (e) O-UAD (round 2) (f) R-UAD (round 2)
48
Fig. 8: Cursor trajectories during selected rounds from a representative experimental session. Trajectories for successful trials are marked by “o”, and those for failed trials by “x”.
49
50 for the adaptation. Lastly, several recent studies on robust my- B. Decoder adaptation time-scale facilitates reliable control
51 oelectric decoding [40], [41] propose to estimate the electrode restoration
52 shift online and compensate for it accordingly. However, they
53 heavily rely on the initial electrode positions, and can only deal In a related field, i.e., brain-machine interfaces (BMI), two
54 with the non-stationarity due to electrode shift. Conversely, our studies [24], [42] have shown that the close-loop decoder adap-
55 method does not rely on the initial electrode positions, and tation time-scale may be of particular importance when the
56 may be applied to handle other signal variations in addition initial performance is relatively poor. Those studies concluded
57 to electrode shift. that user learning may be negatively influenced if updates of
58 the decoder fail to converge on an intermediate (1–2 min)
59 timescale.
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2 By contrast, recent adaptive interface studies in myocon-
3 trol [18], [20] and IMU-based body-machine interfacing [23]
4 report that decoders updated block-wisely with iterative opti-
5 mization methods (i.e., recursive Gauss-Newton [20], block-
6 coordinate descent [18] and gradient descent [23]) reach the
7 convergence within around 120s, 120s and 159s, respectively.
8 Compared to [18], [20], [23], a shorter convergence time of
9 our decoder adaptation may better alleviate user’s burden and
10 frustration on using the degraded interface, by more efficiently
11 recovering a consistent mapping between the intended and
(a) (b)
12 actual motions with which to practice and learn. Experimental
13 results (Section IV-B and Section IV-C) demonstrated that
14 the myocontrol performance was reliably restored from signal
15 instabilities following electrode shift, with the application of
16 our decoder adaptation scheme during online operations.
17
18 C. Stability of the user-decoder co-adaptation
19
20 During the period when our online unsupervised decoder
21 adaptation scheme was applied, gradual improvements on the
22 decoder progressively shaped user learning, i.e., the decoder
(c) (d)
23 and the user co-adapted in a two-learner setting. The stability
Fig. 9: Summary of results for Experiment II. The performance differences with statistical issue for such concurrent adaptations is a major concern for
24 significance P < 0.001, 0.001 ≤ P < 0.01 and 0.01 ≤ P < 0.05 are marked by
25 “***”, “**” and “*”, respectively. co-adaptive learning systems. A few past theoretical studies
26 [43] have concluded that the co-adaptation may be stable if
27 one learner adapts faster than the other.
28 On one hand, our experimental results showed that the
29 adaptation of the decoder converged on the 1-min time scale
30 (Fig. 6), which is apparently faster than the time that a user
31 generally may need for adapting the control strategy (from
32 minutes to hours [9]). On the other hand, the user unlikely
33 changed substantially the control strategy in this time scale.
34 Thereby, the decoder was sufficiently fast to adapt to the
35 strategy that the user adopted. From the view of decoder
36 adaptation, the user is quasi-stable; from the view of user
37 adaptation, the decoder is also quasi-stable (since the decoder
38 adaptation finishes much faster compared to the user adapta-
39 tion). As such, a stable co-adaptive myocontrol system was
40 achieved. Note that since the impacts of user and decoder
41 adaptation were unable to be thoroughly separated in task
42 evaluation metrics, we did not quantify the user adaptation
Fig. 10: Results for Experiment III. The completion time by each subject, mean and
43 standard deviation across participants, are plotted for each phase.
in this work, which is only possible for studies focusing on
44 user adaptation only, with non-adaptive decoders (e.g., [9]).
45 In our AE adaptation scheme (Algorithm 1), we employed
46 a non-iterative MP inverse learning method, which has been
47 verified to be able to reduce training time compared to iterative D. Limitations and future work
48 ones [25], for obtaining the parameters of decoding layer In our study, we primarily introduced electrode displace-
49 with the current data block. Moreover, such parameters were ment as a perturbation, without considering other sources
50 transferred to seed the encoding layer of the AE model in of signal instability. Future work will validate the ability of
51 the next update, which projects the new coming data on the the proposed method to compensate for other EMG signal
52 same latent manifold derived from the last block. To reach instabilities. This study was conducted over a single day,
53 a trade-off between being prone to overfit (decoders abruptly and future research will extend validation to verify robustness
54 change during online operations) with a short history block and across multiple days. While our scheme theoretically identifies
55 being computationally expensive with a long one, we adopted new latent manifolds under any instability and across days, it is
56 a 30s-long batch for our closed-loop myocontrol system. In the unclear if hyperparameter adjustments are needed for a robust,
57 simulation with buffer length comparable to [18], [20], [23], generalizable myocontrol interface. Moreover, the applicability
58 results showed that the proposed adaptation scheme smoothly of our adaptation scheme for the targeted amputee population
59 converged within 50s (on a 1-min time scale, see Fig. 6). will be tested in future studies.
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