Cooling Towers

MODULE IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
RELIANCE INDUSTRIES LIMITED

PATALGANGA TRAINING SYSTEM
PLANT - UTILITIES
Topic: Cooling Tower MODULE NO. :UTI-PR-P-017
Category : B Level : JMC LOCATION : UTILITY
Available Learning Validation

S. CONTENTS Author RESOURCES Y/N Method Hrs# Method Hrs# Trainer*
No.
1 Introduction to Chapter 1.0 and Self study 2 Discussion 1/2
cooling towers and ND 2.0 of the training y and
various terms and module Inhouse
definitions faculty
2 Types of Cooling ND Chapter 3.0 and Self study 2 Quiz 1/2
Water Systems and 4.0 of the training y and Plant
Cooling Towers module Visit
3 Problems and ND Chapter 5.0 from Self study 1 Discussion 1/2
uncertainties in training module y
Cooling Towers
4 Details of Cooling ND Chapter 6.0 and y Self study 6 Quiz and 1
Towers in Utilities 7.0 of the training and Plant Discussions
and their Operation module visit
5 Design of Cooling ND Chapter 8.0 and y Study and 1 Quiz 1/2
Tower and Safety 9.0 of the training inhouse
Consideration module faculty
12 3
* To be finalised
# Estimated Hours
Reliance Industries Limited
Training Module
COOLING TOWER
( Module No. UTI-PR-P-017)

Category Reliance Industries Limited Module No.
A Patalganga Training System UTI-PR-P-017
Cooling Tower
INDEX
Page No.
1.0 Introduction 1
1.1 Need of Cooling Tower 1

1.2 Principle 1
1.3 Mechanism of Cooling 3
2.0 Terms and Definitions 5
3.0 Cooling Water System 10

3.1 Once Through System 10
3.2 Recirculating Cooling System 10
4.0 Construction, Types and Selection of Cooling Tower 15

4.1 Elements of Cooling Tower 15
4.2 Material of Construction 19
4.3 Types of Cooling Tower 23
4.4 Selection of Cooling Tower 28
5.0 Problems and Uncertainties in Cooling Tower 31

5.1 Environmental Problems 31
5.2 Wind Loads 31
5.3 Dry Cooling Towers 31
5.4 Corrosion 32
5.5 Deposits and Scales 32
5.6 Microbiological Growth 32
6.0 Details of Cooling Tower in Utility Plant 34

6.1 Specifications of the Cooling Tower 34
6.2 Cooling Water System Description 35
6.3 Chemicals Used 37
7.0 Operation and Maintenance of Cooling Tower 39

7.1 Winter Operation 39
Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By: BKJ

Rev: 00 Date: 06/22/2024
Category Reliance Industries Limited Module No.
A Patalganga Training System UTI-PR-P-017
7.2 The Standard Operating Condition for Cooling Water 40
8.0 Design of Cooling Tower 42

8.1 Location 42
8.2 Size of Cooling Tower 42
8.3 Recirculation 43
8.4 Orientation and Spacing of Cooling Towers 43
8.5 Specifying Atmospheric Condition 45
8.6 Types of Packings 45
8.7 Mechanical Equipments 46
8.8 Cooling Water Basin 49
8.9 Foundation 49
8.10 Estimation of Size of Cooling Tower 50
9.0 Safety Considerations 52
Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By: BKJ

Rev: 00 Date: 06/22/2024
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 NEED OF COOLING TOWER
Basically all chemical processes involves reaction it may be exothermic or

endothermic. Exothermic reaction gives away large amount of heat energy, a part
of which is to be converted into useful work producing steam, or pre-heats other
process fluids, but if still further cooling is to be done it has to be cooled by using
an another cooling medium or by other means. Generally, water is used as
cooling medium in industry. In this cooling process, the cooling water
temperature increases. In early days this hot water was generally drained in the
river or sea. The growth of industry and population makes it necessary to
preserve this water. This applies particularly to cooling water, therefore it is
required to cool this return hot water in order to reuse it for the cooling purpose.
For this purpose the need of ‘Cooling Tower’ arises, where heat is removed from
water and transferred to the atmosphere. This is schematically explained in figure
1 and 2.
1.2 PRINCIPLE
Cooling tower virtually is a heat exchanger that removes a certain amount of heat
from the cooling water. This heat is transmitted to the atmosphere and the water
is returned at a lower temperature that is recycled back for cooling. The air is
used as a cooling medium via the physical phenomenon of evaporation. The
transfer of heat from the water to the air is carried out by convection and
evaporation.
Water cooling consists in placing its surface in contact with air, in order that this
absorbs heat from the water. It is made in part by sensible heat transmission,
because of the temperature difference between air and water, but the amount of
heat transferred in this manner is very small. The main amount of heat transfer is
done by the evaporation of a small quantity of water that takes the necessary heat
to accomplish the change of state (latent heat of vaporisation) from the rest of the
water, cooling it in this manner. The steam formed in this process, is drawn by
the air stream humidifying it. Thus the prime function of cooling towers is to
reduce the temperature of a stream of hot water to as low a value as practicable
by exchanging it with air. The cooling water in the cooling tower can be cooled
down nearest to wet bulb temperature of air entering tower. Thus the cooling
towers have been widely used to dispose the waste heat from industrial process as
it is more convenient to reject heat to atmosphere rather than to water in a nearby
river, lake, or ocean. So large cooling towers were build depending upon the load
and type of process. Cooling towers were developed from spray ponds, in an
effort to obtain a system that takes up less space. Heat dissipation capacity per
unit area of a small pond can be increased about 20 times by installing a simple
spray system and about 1000 times by building a cooling tower. It reduces the
water
Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

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EVAPORATOR HOT WATER
EVAPORATOR
COOLING
TOWER PURGE
TO
PROCESS
DRAI
COOLIN
MAKE UP N
WATER
G WATER
COLD SYSTEM
WATER
DRAI
N
REFORMED
COLD GAS QUENCH
COOLERS
WATER
PUMPS
HEAT
EXCHANGERS
COLD WATER
OTHER
EQUIPMENT
Figure 1 GENERAL BLOCK DIAGRAM
M/C to
be
cooled
HE
fresh
air
consumption for given heat load by a factor of about 5 because they can makebe
designed to eliminate the loss of water carried off by the wind in droplet form.
up
water
Figure
1.3 MECHANISM 2: SCHEMATIC PROCESS CONTROL LOOP
OF COOLING

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Cooling towers are designed so that the air passes through it or fans may be
provided to create force circulation. Some form of energy is required for any
movement or change in matter. The molecules that break away in an evaporation,
first have a higher amount of heat energy that they take with them. The
molecules that remain have a lower level of heat energy as it moves slower.
These slower molecules are to be accelerated and this is done by cooling tower
involving partial evaporation where molecules breaks in to smaller particles,
which provide larger surface area in contact with air. Due to partial evaporation,
the water get cooled. The more water molecules that leave a body of water at a
given time the faster the rate of evaporation from the body of water to air. As air
acquires moisture its humidity rises. Air can hold only a certain amount of water
molecules. It becomes saturated, it will no longer absorb water molecules. The
higher the humidity of air in contact with the water, slower the rate of
evaporation.
The cooling is accomplished practically by raising the temperature of the

surrounding air and partially by evaporating a portion of the stream of hot water.
The relative amount of heat going into increasing the temperature of air and into
evaporating the water depend on the humidity of air entering the cooling tower.
The extend to which the water exit temperature approaches the wet bulb
temperature of the entering air is the minimum temperature to which the water
could be cooled in an ideal installation. Although no cooling tower attains wet
bulb temperature. Approach temperature varies with the entering air wet bulb
temperature, the water flow rate and heat load.
Taking into account the condition of air when it enters the cooling tower, only 10
to 15 % of the heat is generally removed by convection. Evaporation is thus the
pre-dominant phenomenon. Hence the exchange surface consists either of
droplets of water themselves (splashing types) or by films of water trickling over
the surfaces (film type). The enthalpy of moist air is almost solely a function of
the wet bulb temperature. i.e., only Wet Bulb Temperature lines are ordinarily
drawn on psychometric charts. The W.B.T. for the inlet and outlet gives measure
of the enthalpy rise.
The Dry bulb temperatures are mainly significant from the standpoint of water
consumption. Hence cooling tower is considered analogous to a heat transfer
matrix with a water film surface area that depends on the water and air flow rates
and on the characteristics of the packing or fill, heat will be given up the air by
two mechanisms as mentioned earlier Convection heat transfer and vaporisation
of water.
When water is cooled by the effect of vaporisation, it transfers approximately

1000 Btu per pound of vaporised water to air. In other words, the evaporation of
one pound of water in a cooling tower, cools 100 pounds of water, with a
decrement of 1000F and using the metric system we can say as rule of thumb, that

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the evaporation of 1 kg of water cools 100 kg of water, with a decrement of
5.500C.

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2.0 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS.
Various terms / terminologies used in cooling towers are as follows:
1. Air Flow: It is the total quantity of air including the associate water vapour
flowing through the tower expressed in cub. m. per sec or kg per sec.
2. Fan Power: The power input to the fan in kilowatts.
3. Drift Loss[W]: Water loss caused by liquid drops carried away by the outlet
air stream. Drift should be minimised because the water carried by it can cause
staining on buildings at some distance from the tower. Drift is about 0.1 to 0.2%
of circulation rate. Evaporation loss[E] accounts to about 1 % of circulation rate
for each 1.00C drop.
4. Inlet Water Flow: The quantity of hot water flow measured in m3 / sec or per
minute, flowing into the water distribution system.
5. Blowdown[B]: In cooling tower pure water is lost to the atmosphere due to

evaporation. Due to this the dissolved and suspended impurities in circulating
water get concentrated. These impurities when concentrated beyond certain
desired level will cause massive problems of scaling and corrosion. To maintain
the most desired level of impurities in circulating water, a certain amount of
water is intentionally removed from the system. This intentional removal of water
is termed as blowdown. The blowdown calculation is critical in determining
treatment feed rates and cost.
6. Make-Up (M) : Water added to circulating water system to replace leakage,

evaporation, drift loss and blowdown.
M(m3/hr) = E + W + B + Loss in the system.
Depending upon the water quality, optimum operating parameters and selected
water treatment procedure, a certain maximum concentration of total dissolved
solids (TDS) of chloride ion (Cl-) or total hardness (TH) in circulation is fixed.
This in turn will determine the desired concentration cycle on which the cooling
tower is to be operated. The quantity of make up water needed for the blow down
and windage loss is then calculated using the following equation:
M = E x CR x 24/(C-1) x 100;
where, CR = Circulating rate, E= Evaporation rate, C = Concentration cycles. M
= Make up water per day for blowdown and windage loss.
7. Concentration: When water evaporates, dissolved solids and other impurities
are left behind leading to an increase in concentration of these impurities in
circulating water.

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8. Concentration Ratio: Ratio of the total mass of impurities in the circulating
water to the corresponding total mass in the makeup water. Water circulates
through the heats exchangers and over the cooling tower at a rate referred to as
the recirculation rate. Water is lost from the system through evaporation and
blowdown. For all calculation purpose blowdown is defined as all non
evaporative water losses (windage, leaks, and intentional blowdown). As pure
water evaporates minerals remains in the circulating water, making it more
concentrated than the make up water. The blowdown has the same chemical
composition as circulating water. Varying blowdown from the cooling tower
control the degree of concentration of impurities in circulating water. This is best
defined as,
Concentration of Mg hardness in circulating water (ppm)

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Concentration of Mg hardness in make up water(ppm)
Cycle of concentration can also be calculated by taking ratios of chloride ion

concentration or silica. Choice of proper cycle of concentratrion for cooling
tower is detemined by its design, water quality, operating Parameters and water
treatement Programme.i.e.,
Cycles of Concentration = Concentration in BLOWDOWN / Concentration on

MAKE UP(MU/ BD).
MU = E + BD. For blowdown BD = E 1 (CYCLES-1)
As water dissolved solid level increases, corrosion and deposition tendencies

increase because corrosion is an electrochemical reaction, higher conductivity due
to higher dissolved solids increases the corrosion rate It becomes progressively
more difficult and expensive to inhibit corrosion as the specific conductance
approaches and exceeds 10,000 mho.
Some salts have inverse temperature solubility i.e. they are less soluble at higher
temperature and thus tend to form deposits on heat exchanger tubes. Many salts
are less soluble at higher pH. As cooling tower water is concentrated and pH
increases, the tendency to precipitate scale increases. With or without chemical
treatment of cooling water, cycles of concentration are eventually limited by an
inability to prevent scale formation.
Increasing blow down to limit cycles of concentration is an effective way to

reduce the scaling potential of circulating water. Operating at 2 cycles of
concentration the make up water requirement for this 50,000 gpm system is 2000
gpm. Increasing from 2 to 8 cycles decreases the make up requirement by 43 %
to 1140 gpm. Make up water savings at higher than 8 cycles are negligible. The
reduction of blowdown at higher cycles is more significant because chemical
treatment and waste disposal costs relate directly to blowdown. Increasing cycles

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from 2 to 8 reduces the blowdown by 86% Further increase have a much smaller
effect on the blowdown rate.
9. Water Loading: Flow of water related to the cross sectional area of packing
normally expressed in kg/s or kg/min per m 2 of cross section of packing. It also
relates to amount of water to be handled for cooling per pass. It is also called
circulation rate which relates to amount of water pumped per unit time and an
important parameter for calculation purposes. Usually it is the designed rating of
the circulation pump or pumps in the cooling water system. Expressed in Nm 3/ hr.
10. Wet Bulb Temperature: Cooling towers are designed to cool water to a
certain temperature under a given set of conditions. The wet bulb temperature is
the lowest temperature to which water can be cooled by evaporation. It is not
practical to design a tower to cool to the wet bulb temperature. It is the
temperature as measured by a wet bulb thermometer. In dry air the wet bulb
temperature readings is always lower with the dry bulb reading. Evaporation
causes cooling, cooling tower performance is lowest when wet and dry bulb
temperature are equal. Even when air is saturated in the tower sonic cooling
occurs by convection and conduction.
11. Ambient Air Wet Bulb Temperature: Wet bulb temperature measured on
the windward side of the cooling tower and free from the influence of the tower,
or surrounding air wet bulb temperature.
12. Inlet Air Wet bulb temperature: It is the average wet bulb temperature of
the inlet air including any re circulation effect measured at the entrance of cooling
tower.
13. Nominal Inlet Air Wet Bulb Temperature: An arithmetic average wet bulb
temperature based on measurement taken within 1.5 m of the air inlets and
between 1.5 m and 2.0 m above the basin kerb elevation on the both sides of the
cooling tower.
14. Hot Water temperature: It is referred to as inlet hot water temperature inlet
to cooling tower which is distributed over top of the tower.
15. Re-cooled Water Temperature: It is average temperature of water at the

discharge point from the cold water basin excluding the effect of any make up
entering the basin.
16. Approach: The difference between the cold sump temperature i.e. exit water
temperature and the wet bulb temperature of the inlet air to the cooling tower is
called as approach. It is impracticable to cool the water to the inlet air level WBT.
The smaller the approach the more complicated the tower design becomes. The
minimum reasonable approach temperature is 200 0C. However 4 to 6 0C is more
usual.

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17. Hold Up Capacity: It is the capacity relating to the basin hold up volume
which should maintain a constant level at times and to hold all the water when the
system is under shut down. It also denotes total system capacity which is the sum
of total of basin capacity, plus water contained in the piping and equipment. Most
of the water is in the basin or sump of the cooling tower, an extra about 25 to
30% is contained in piping and system.
18. Humidity: The relative amount of heat going into increasing the temperature
of the air and into evaporating the water depends on the humidity of the air
entering the cooling tower. In order to know how much evaporation can takes
place it is necessary to know how much more water the air can absorb.
Humidity is expressed as a percentage of the maximum saturation by water. Max.

humidity at a given temperature is given by relative humidity. if air holds all the
water vapour it can hold any temperature it is said to be saturated. The relative
humidity of air at the point of saturation is 100% As relative humidity increases
evaporation decreases, performance decreases. Thus in a cooling tower humidity
as evaporation occurs the air in contact with what water becomes more saturated
and the rate of evaporation decrease. so if this is continuously changed of new air
in the tower by means of mechanical draft tower which employees induced and
forced draft cooling tower efficiency increases.
19. Recirculation: It is that portion of outlet air which re-entry the tower. The
phenomenon of recirculation is almost absent in case of natural draft towers
basically because of a tall stack and the round shape of the tower. Among the
mechanical draft towers, recirculation is more pronounced in case of forced drift
tower.
Recirculation is the phenomenon in which a portion of the saturated air

discharged from the tower on the leeward side under the influence of the force
and direction of the wind blowing over and around the tower. The amount of
recirculation depends upon man). factors like the wind velocity, the stack height,
the ambient temperatures, the shape and the size of the tower The effect of the
recirculation is to adulterate the ambient air entering the tower by increasing its
wet bulb temperature, thereby causing a considerable loss in its efficiency. The
does not always recirculate, the behaviour of recirculation being erratic due to the
quick variations in the atmospheric conditions.
Recirculation is measured by means of inlet wet bulb temperature. This inlet wet
bulb temperature is higher than the ambient temperature by the amount of
recirculation. The rational value of inlet wet bulb temperature can be arrived at if
we are to determine the rational values of ambient wet bulb temperature and the
recirculation allowance. Usually while designing the cooling tower recirculation
allowance can not be determined so it is practice to give stress on inlet wet bulb

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temperature abler taking into account 70% of the recirculation allowance as
recommended by CTI code.
20. Heat Load: Rate of heat removal from the water flowing through the tower
expressed in KW.

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3.0 COOLING WATER SYSTEM
Lot of water is used for the cooling purpose in vaious processes. In the cooling
process the water becomes hotter, its effectiveness as a coolant decreases. In order
to provide for further cooling two thingsExchanger
are possible. The hot cooling water can
be discharged and replaced with fresh water or the hot cooling water can be
cooled by some means and reusedHotfor further cooling. A cooling water system
fluid Cold fluid
comprises of heat exchange equipment, cooling tower basin, circulation pumps,
piping, valves and water supply system.
There are two types of cooling systems in use, singly or in combination. Those
are:
1. Once through cooling system.
2. Recirculating cooling system.
A) open recirculating cooling water system.
B) closed recirculating cooling water system.
Figure 3. ONCE-THROUGH SYSTEM
3.1.ONCE THROUGH COOLING SYSTEM
In early days of continuous processing, no attempt was made to cool process

water. Cool water is taken into the plant from outside, then discarded when hot to
the source. Such a system where the cooling water passes through the heat
exchangers only once is called as once through system as shown in figure 3. This
Expansion
system is used mostly by large plants, thermal power stations, refineries etc. with
Vessel
abundant water supply. The system is the simplest but uses and contaminates
Hot fluid
large water volumes since warm Hotwater
Water
is discharged often to its original source.
Occasional make up
The plant should be situated on lakes, large rivers or sea. Since these use large
volume of water their problems are difficult to treat effectively and economically.
Moreover they alter the sink capacity of the source and affect the marine life.
Air - Exchangers
3.2.RECIRCULATING COOLING
Water SYSTEM
exchanger
The amount of water needed for cooling in process plants is in the range of
millions of barrels per day. Drawing millions of barrels of water per day from the
Cold water
Circulating
water supply would be extremely costly and uneconomical. Even if usedColdthe
Pump fluid
discharge water handling and treatment is not feasible. Thus cooling the hot water
and reusing the same using various cooling medium is found to be mere
economical. This type of system is called recirculation system.
Figure 4. CLOSED RECIRCULATING
SYSTEM.

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3.2.1. CLOSED RECIRCULATING SYSTEM
A Closed Recirculating system is actually a cooling system as shown in figure 4.

The water containing the heat transferred from the process is cooled for reuse by

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means of an exchange with another fluid. Water losses from this type of system
are usually small. The cooling water circulates in a totally closed system. The
system loop is equipped with a cooling point e.g. water-water or water-air heat
exchanger. Thus in this system water circulates in a close cycle and is subjected
to alternate cooling and heating without air contact. Heat absorbed by the water in
the closed system, is normally transferred by a water-to-water exchanger to the
recirculating water of an open recirculating system, from which the heat is lost to
atmosphere.
Closed systems meet small volume cooling needs, as diesel engines, chillers,
generators, refrigeration unit etc. These have fewer water treatment problems.
This system also provides a reliable method of industrial process temperature
control. These are totally sealed systems and therefore relatively little water is
needed for make up which is due to leakage. The most serious problem of these
systems is corrosion. In such system the heat is generally dissipated by air
cooling.
Advantage of closed system: Closed system provide better control of temperature

in heat producing equipment's, and their small make up water requirements
greatly simplify control of potential water side problems. Make up water is
needed only when leakage has occurred at the pump packings or when water has
been drained to allow the system for repair. Scale deposit problem is also
minimised. Thus use of high quality of water also minimises the dangers of
cracked cylinders, broken heads, fouled exchangers and other mechanical
failures. They are also less susceptible to biological fouling from slime and algae
deposits, corrosion problems than in open system as in closed system water
circulation is not continuously saturated with oxygen. An increase in corrosion
results from increase in water temperature. In vented system this tendency is
reduced by decreasing the solubility of oxygen at higher temperatures
(mechanical deaeration), however in many closed system the dissolved oxygen
entering the system in the make up water cannot be freely vented, resulting in the
release of oxygen at points of high heat transfer which may cause severe
corrosion. Closed cooling system which are shut down periodically are subjected
to water temperatures that may vary from ambient to 850 0C or higher. During
shutdown oxygen can enter the water until saturation limit is reached. When the
system is returned to high temperature operation, oxygen solubility drops and the
released oxygen attacks metal surfaces.
3.2.2. OPEN RECIRCULATING COOLING SYSTEM
The amount of water needed in large process plants for cooling is very large. The
best way to handle hot water is to cool in small cooling towers open to
atmosphere and reuse it again and again. This type of cooling system is called
open recirculating cooling system.Refer figure 5. The basic difference between
closed and open recirculating system is that the later system is open to air in
cooling tower, where air is the heat transferring medium.

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In this system the water moving through the heat exchanger / condenser under
goes increase in temperature. Heat absorbed from the process must be dissipated
to allow releasing the water. Cooling towers, spray ponds, and evaporative
condensers are used for this purpose. The heated water is returned to cooling
tower where it gets cooled by evaporative cooling process. The evaporative
cooling brings about the evaporation of pure water and thereby concentrate the
E The
impurities present in cooling water. E make up water is added to replace the
v water that is discharged intentionally (by
losses due to evaporation, and to replace
blowdown) to maintain an acceptable level of impurities inQrecirculating water.
Open recirculating cooling system save a tremendous amount of fresh water
compared to the alternative method, once through cooling system. The quantity
of water discharged to waste is greatly reduced in this system Hot and fluid
chemical
treatment is more economical.
Open recirculating system are inherently subject to more treatment related

problems than once - through system: Heat exchanger
1. Cooling by evaporation increases the dissolved solids concentration in the

water raising corrosion and deposition tendencies. Cold fluid
2.The relatively high temperature significantly increase corrosion potential
3. The longer the retention time and warmer the water in an open recirculating
system the tendency for biological growth is increasing trend.
A = Make up (m3 . h-1) t = Temperature at tower outlet (*C)
4.Airborne gases such as sulphur dioxide ammonia or1 hydrogen sulphide can be
Q = Recirculated flow (m . h )
3 -1
t = Temperature at tower inlet (*C)
absorbed from the air3 causing higher corrosion rates. 2
E = Evaporation (m . h-1) D = Total blowdown (m3 . h-1)
Ev = Drift (m3 . h-1) C = Concentration rate
5.Micro-organisms, nutrients and potential foulants can also be absorbed into the
P = Deconcentration blowdown (m3 . h-1)
water across the tower.
The open recirculating cooing tower systems are used in chemical,

petrochemicals, Fertilisers, Petroleum refineries, steel plants, paper mills and
thermal power stations
Figure etc. Typically
5 OPEN large cooling SYSTEM.
RECIRCULATING water systems features
hyperbolic natural draft stations. The mechanical draft cooling towers are either
forced draft or induced draft towers. The draft in both types is created by large
moving fan.

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4.0 CONSTRUCTION,TYPES AND SELECTION OF
COOLING TOWER
4.1. ELEMENTS OF COOLING TOWER
Cooling tower usually have following components in general design common

through out the industries:
1. Cells.
2. Fan.
3. Drive Assembly.
4. Fan Stack.
5. Distribution basin.
6. Flow Control Valves.

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7. Drift Eliminators.
8. Filling Packing.
9. Louvers.
10. Hot Well.
11. Frame Work.
12. Mechanical Equipment Supports.
13. Circulation Pumps.
14. Metering Pumps.
15. Instruments.
16. Side Stream Filter.
4.1.1. CELLS
A complete unit consisting of all above mentioned elements in a defined
enclosure is called as cell. A Cooling tower consists of one or more cells,
depending upon the capacity of the plant and the amount of cooling water to be
handled it is divided in to compartments. Each of these compartment are termed
as multi-cell cooling tower. Each cell is further divided by partitions.
Based on amount of water to be handled and the required approach temperature

number of cells and their dimensions are decided. Additional cells are added to a
single unit for providing larger surface contact area for the hot water molecule,
thus increasing rate of heat transfer and the efficiency of cooling tower. These are
basically termed for Mechanical type of cooling tower. Cells add to the greater
flexibility in operation of cooling towers since they can be operated
independently and can be loaded to any variable amount of hot water flow. Each
cell contains one or more fans, which also provide greater control in adjusting the
approach temperature. Thus Mechanical cooling Tower is always specified by no
of cells for its specification.
4.1.2. FANS
Fans are those equipment which increase the rate of cooling by increasing the
movement of air through the tower. Based on location of it in the orientation of
cooling tower they are called as induced draft fan or forced draft fan. Induced
draft fans are placed on the top of the cooling lower which alters the movements
of air flow by sucking air through the tower from bottom to top. In forced draft
fan is usually a blower which forcibly forces the air placed at the bottom of the
cooling tower upwards.
Various types of fans are used depending on the design of cooling tower, such as:
a. Propeller Fans,
b.Automatic Variable-Pitch Fans,
c. Centrifugal Fan.
a) Propeller type fans are very common in cooling tower industry because of their
ability to move vast quantities of air at relatively low static pressure encountered.

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They are comparatively inexpensive, can be used on any size tower, and can
develop high overall efficiencies when system designed to complement a specific
tower structure, fill, fan cylinder configuration. Mostly diameters range from 24
inches to 10 meters operating at horse powers from 1/4 to 250 BHP. Fans of 49
inches and larger in diameter are equipped with adjustable pitch blades, enabling
the fans to be applied over a wide range of operating horsepowers. Thus the fan
can be adjusted to deliver the precise required amount of air at the least power
consumption.
The rotational speed at which a propeller fan is applied is inverse proportion to its
diameter. The smaller fans turn at relatively high speeds whereas the larger ones
at slower. The applied rotational speed of propeller fans usually depends on the
efficiency and some fans operates routinely at the blade tip speeds approaching to
14,000 feet per minute. The increased emphasis on reducing cooling tower
operating costs has resulted in the use of larger fans to move greater volumes of
air more efficiently. The intent of good propeller fan design is to achieve air
velocities across the effective area of the fan, from the hub to the blade tips, that
are as uniform as possible.
·
· b) Automatic Variable - Pitch Fans:
These are propeller fans in which a pneumatically actuated hub controls the pitch
of the blades in uniform orientation to horizontal axis. These fans have ability to
vary air flow through the tower in response to a changing load or ambient
conditions. At the same time these fans does the energy savings and are having
better control.
·
· c) Centrifugal Fans:
These are usually of the double inlet type used predominantly on cooling towers
designed for indoor installations. Their capability to operate against relatively
high static pressures makes them particularly suitable for that type of
applications. However their inability to handle large volumes of air and their
characteristically high input horsepower requirement (approx twice that of a
propeller fan), limits their use to relatively small applications. Three type of
centrifugal fans are available: 1) Forward curved blade fans, 2) Radial blade fans,
3) Backward curved blade fans. The characteristics of forward curved blade fan
make it more versatile in use in most type of cooling towers service. By virtue of
the direction and wind velocity of the air leaving the fan wheel, it can be
equipped with a comparatively small size housing, which is desirable from a
structural standpoint. Also because the required velocity is generated at
comparatively low speed, forward curved blade fans tend to operate quieter than
other types of centrifugal fans.
4.1.3 DRIVE ASSEMBLY

The drive assembly consists of electric motor, which drives the driving shaft
through speed reducers and flexible couplings. The name of the parts are self
explainatory.

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4.1.4 FAN STACK :
It helps to blow upward the air coming from the tower, in order that such air is
able to reach the natural atmospheric air stream. It also avoids and minimises the
recirculation effect.
4.1.5. DISTRIBUTION BASIN :

The space above the cooling tower where the hot water is received and distributed
in a uniform manner, over the whole upper area by means of removable nozzles is
called Distribution Basin.
The requirements of the water distribution system are:-
1. The system should spread the water equally over all the packings.
2. It should be capable of prolonged operation.
3. Flow should be adjustable.
For a splash type of packing a spray type of water distribution system is
preferred.
4.1.6. FLOW CONTROL VALVES

These valves are placed in the main pipe line distributing hot water from the
branched pipe lines over the distribution basin in a controlled way.
4.1.7. DRIFT ELIMINATORS

Drift is a term used to describe droplets of water entrained in the air leaving the
top of the tower. Because drift has the same composition as of the circulating
water it should not be confused with evaporation. Drift should be minimised
because it wastes water and can cause staining on buildings and autos at some
distance from the tower. Drift eliminators abruptly change the direction of
airflow, imparting centrifugal force to separate water from the air. Thus droplets
are removed by inertia and impingement.
Drift Eliminators are required for all splash packings. Film packings require
eliminators only if flow rates are high.
4.1.8. FILLS AND PACKINGS

The fill Section is the most important part of the tower. Packings or fills of
various types are used to keep the water distributed evenly and to increase the
water surface area for more efficient evaporation. Originally fill consists of
splash bars made of redwood. Other type of fill include plastic splash grid,
ceramic brie and film fill. Film fill has more use as it consists of closely packed
corrugated vertical sheets, which cause the water to flow down through the
tower in a very thin film. Film fill provides more cooling capacity in a given
space than splash fill. Splash fill can be partially or totally replaced with fill to
increase the capacity of an existing cooling tower. Because of the very close
spacing , film fill is very susceptible to various types of deposition, which
severely reduces the cooling efficiency of the tower. Film type of packing
requires less tower height as compared to the splash type packing. A good

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packing is that which provides maximum contact surface area, maximum
retention time and causes a least pressure drop. Splash type packing generally
have less pressure drop, are less prone to clogging as compared to film flow
packings, but suffer from the effect of sagging and channelling. Since the air
water interface is also the heat and mass transfer surface, the use of fill increase
the performance of the tower. The fill thus increases the interfacial area by
retarding the fall of the droplet or by spreading the liquid over a greater surface.
4.1.9. LOUVERS
Louvers are used to help direct air flow into the tower and minimise the amount
of windage loss i.e. avoiding water being splashed or blown out of the sides of
the tower. Louvers are adjustable type to have flexibility of wind flow and their
velocity.
4.1.10. COLD WELL

It is the reservoir which receives cold water coming from the collector. Collector
is a basin placed at the bottom of the tower which collects water coming front the
Filling 1 packing. Basically cold water basins are designed to hold sufficient
volume of water to meet emergency situations that may arise when ever the
circulating water conduit or water distribution system breaks, the tower can be
exhaust the water supply in the basin in a short time. Thus the basin is an
important component of the cooling tower.
4.1.11 FRAME WORK

It is a structure designed to support the loads developed during design on which
various equipment’s or components of cooling tower placed. It is to take the full
load while operation.
4.1.12. MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT SUPPORTS
It is the structure which supports fans and the speed reducers at the top of the
cooling towers.
4.1.13. CIRCULATION PUMPS

These pumps feed cold water at the flow and pressure required for the cooling
water system, which in turn feed to various heat exchangers, coolers, condensers
and other heat transfer equipment.
4.1.14. METERING PUMPS

These are used to dose required quantities of chemicals to maintain the quality of
cooling water during circulation.
4.1.15. INSTRUMENTATION
On line pH analyser and hazardous gas emission of the stack are installed to
monitor acid and alkali content , or to suspect explosive gas leak to the system.

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4.1.16. SIDE STREAM FILTER
It is used for continuous removal of suspended matter to maintain the turbidity
level under control thus avoiding corrosion and fouling of the equipments.
4.2. MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
In a cooling tower practically all the parts are exposed to water and air. Iron and
carbon steel are used to a very limited extent in cooling tower construction
because it is corroded. In considering material of construction of various elements
of cooling towers, larger emphasis had been dealt to have a balance between
durability and cost. Excluding the mechanical equipment, the main selection is
for packing material and the frame work of the structure. Initially timber was
almost the only material used for construction. It had the advantages of
convenience and flexibility of fabrication. However it is extremely prone to
attack by bacteria and alkaline water. There is also risk of fire.
The best grades of California redwood are used because they resist corrosion
caused by water and air. Metals may also be used in construction specially if it is
a small packaged tower. Mild steel is used for casings and aluminium or
galvanised steel for packings. The advantages are high surface to volume ratios in
packing, durability, and strength. However, costs are higher for metallic
constructions. Metals which resist corrosion are used in certain parts of redwood
towers. Copper coated nails are used for joining the slabs and various assemblies.
Cast Iron is used in anchoring members that hold the tower on its concrete basin,
but it does corrode and has to be replaced occasionally. Brass bolts, washers and
nuts are used because they also resist corrosion and rust. Fire wood is used as
well as redwood because it resists rot due to moisture. Like fire wood synthetic
materials such as tensile fibre glass and other plastics resist moisture rot well.
Plastic have found use in cooling tower because of a natural resistance to

aggressive atmospheres and operating conditions. Normally P.V.C, Polystyrene,
Polypropylene etc. are used. They are inerted in a large range of conditions and
do not support scale formation. However, they have certain disadvantages mainly
non wetting nature and susceptibility to oil. They also undergo slow degradation
with time.
Wood continues to be widely used for the construction of the cooling tower.
Wood deterioration can shorten the life of a cooling tower from an anticipated 20
to 25 years to 10 years or even less. Cooling tower operation becomes inefficient
and repair and replacement cost are excessive. Earlier redwood was selected for
the use in cooling towers because of its high strength to weight ratio, availability,
ease of use, low cost and natural resistance to decay. Nowadays pressure treated
Douglas fir and Similar types of wood are replacing redwood due to cost and
availability factors.

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4.2.1. LOUVERS
They are used in cooling towers to increase the effective air water interface area.
since the air water interface is also the heat and mass transfer surface, the use of a
fill increase the performance of the tower. The fill increases the interfacial area
by retarding the fall of the droplet or by spreading the liquid over a greater
surface. They are usually staggered so that droplets can fall only a few feet before
striking the surface. They are framed as grids or decks made of redwood slats
placed horizontally, inclined in vertical or inclined manner.
4.2.2. FILLS
The two major types of packing or fill arrangements are Splash packing and Film
packings. In general, film type packing occupy less volume and require less tower
height as compared to the splash type packings, however it is subject to clogging.
Splash fills are easier to repair and replace. Each fill provides a particular
interfacial area of contact. The mass and heat transfer coefficients for the system
also depend on the type of the fill. Originally fill consists of splash bars made out
of redwood or pressure treated fir. Splash bar are mostly available in Plastic film
fill having closely packed corrugated vertical sheets is typically made of plastic.
Polyvinylchloride(PVC), is commonly used for system with a maximum water
temperature of 1300F. Chlorinated PVC (CPVC) can withstand to approximately
1650F.
4.2.3. PACKINGS
An ideal material for the packing will be one which is easy to be moulded in
desired shape, is strong durable, light in weight and low cost. Apart from more
common packing materials of ACB (Asbestos cement boards and RCC, various
kinds of plastics have now been introduced. These comprise PVC, Polypropylene,
and Polystyrene etc. among tile various kinds known of plastics so far PVC is
reported to have most popular in other countries. However since none of these
plastics is fire proof their use in Indian industry is seen to be quite limited
4.2.4. DRIFT ELIMINATORS

Drift eliminators change the direction of air flow, imparting a centrifugal force to
separate water from air. Eliminators are required for all splash packings. Film
packings require eliminators only if flow rates are high. The eliminator blades
may be of wood, metal, plastic or asbestos. Droplets are removed by inertia and
impingement. They also prevent erosion of the leading edge of the fan blade.
Earlier drift eliminators were made of redwood in herringbone structure. Modern
drift eliminators were made of plastics and come in many different shapes. They
are more effective in removing drift than the early wood version, yet causes less
pressure drop.
4.2.5. WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

It consists of spray nozzles impinged on the floor of distribution deck which
breaks the hot water flow at the top of the lower in smaller droplets. Spray
nozzles are made of PVC or Polystyrene.

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4.2.6. FANS:
Cooling tower fans move large volumes of air therefore they must be designed to
do it economically. In addition fan operation must be smooth. The material of
construction not only must be compatible with their design but also capable of
withstanding the corrosive effects of their environment. Both propeller and
centrifugal type fans are in general use on cooling towers, with propeller type fan
installation dominating the industry.
The intent of good propeller fan design is to achieve air velocities across the
effective area of the fan from hub to the blade tips, that are a uniform as possible.
The most effective way to accomplish this is with tapered and twisted blades
having an airfoil cross section. Cast aluminium alloys are used in production of
this blade, because of their low cost, good internal damping characteristics and
resistance to corrosion in most cooling tower. Currently lighter blades of
exceptional corrosion resistance are made of fibreglass reinforced plastic, cast in
precision moulds. These blades may be solid formed around a permanent core, or
formed hollow by the use of a temporary-core having an aerodynamically
induced vibration resonance design.
Fan hubs must be of a material that is structurally compatible with blade weight
and must have good corrosion resistance. Galvanised steel weldments, grey and
ductile iron castings, and wrought in cast aluminium are in general use as hub
materials where hub and blades are of dissimilar metals they must be insulated
from each other to prevent electrolytic corrosion. Smaller diameter fans are
customarily made of galvanised sheet metal construction with fixed pitch non
adjustable blades. These fans are matched to differing air flow requirements by
changing the design speed. Centrifugal fans are usually of sheet metal
construction having protective coating being hot dip galvanisation.
4.2.7. DRIVE SHAFT

Drive Shaft are fabricated of carbon steel, hot dip galvanised after fabrication,
tubular stainless steel or epoxy coating wound with carbon filament.
Flexible Coupling : A suitable material for use in the saturated effluent air strewn
of a cooling tower is neoprene, either in solid grommet form or as neoprene
impregnated fabric designed to require no lubrication and relatively little
maintenance. These couplings arc virtually impervious to corrosion and provide
excellent characteristics.
Fan Stack : Are made of asbestos sheet or Fibre reinforced plastic (FRO) which
are cast together to have stack geometry.
4.2.8. MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT AND FRAME

All mild steel parts should be either hot dipped galvanised or plastic coated. All
fasteners should be made of stainless steel. Since fans have to continuously work
with moist air, these should be made of good corrosion resistant material. The
conventional cast aluminium fans have now been replaced by fibre glass

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reinforced plastic. A good fan design should be able to produce as far as possible
uniform air velocity from the hub to the tip.
4.2.9. COLD WATER BASIN

Cold water basin are the emergency reservoirs for cooling water circulation
system. The foundation is an important factor in the performance of a tower and
certain precautions should always be taken for its proper design and construction.
If the foundations provided are not sufficiently strong . These can be constructed
with the help of reinforced cement grouting.
4.2.10. NATURAL DRAFT TOWER

Natural draft cooling tower stack are of reinforced concrete having a wall
thickness of only two to six inches. The geometry figure is a hypoid so that two
layers of straight steel reinforcing rods can be arranged so that they are inclined
in opposite direction from the vertical to form a network. This arrangement
facilitates fabrication and gives strong structures.
4.3. TYPES OF COOLING TOWER
Growth of industry and population places an increasing demand on water supply

and hence some form of water conservation is necessary. This applies particularly
to water used for cooling. Since cooling tower system recover heat with minimum
water loss. They are being increasingly used especially where water supply is
limited. Various types of cooling towers are employed for this purpose. The
various types of cooling towers are as shown in fig. 6.
4.3.1 ATMOSPHERIC COOLING TOWERS

It is advanced type of spray pond system, here louvers at different angles are
inserted into the passage of air current and filling the space in between with
packings to increase the residence time, breaking the water molecule into smaller
particles when they are sprayed from the top of cooling tower. This type of
cooling tower is called Atmospheric cooling tower and is as shown in fig. 7.
Atmospheric cooling tower working depends on the wind velocity and the
relative humidity of the air. Sonic or the wind entering the tower is carried
upward, but most of the wind blows straight through the tower that are
interrupted and changed by the louvers and splash bars. The louvers help direct
wind and also prevent water loss. The hot air and water vapours leaving the top of
the tower have to pass through the drift eliminators which are adjustable to aid in
the control of air flow. The main function of splash bars is to slow down the fall
of water and to break it up into smaller drops. The longer contact of water with
air causes quicker evaporation and faster cooling than in a spray pond. Due to
evaporation and drift, there is some water loss, which has to he replaced with
make - up water. The longer air remains in a cooling tower, the more moisture it
absorbs. The more moisture the air contains the slower it accepts moisture, thus
reducing the efficiency of cooling tower.

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COOLING
In order to get maximum evaporation in a cooling tower, the air should pass
through quickly. For best TOWER
operational results cooling towers should be placed so
that the prevailing wind blows through the shortest dimension of the lower. In
SPRAY ATMOSPHERIC NATURAL MECHANICA

POND DRAFT L
INDUCE FORCED
D
CROSS COUNTER
FLOW FLOW
FIGURE 6. TYPES OF COOLING TOWER
HOT
WATER
MAKEUP
WATER
WATER COOL
BASIN WATER
FIG 7 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF ATMOSPHERIC COOLING TOWER

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atmospheric cooling tower, a 10 mile per hour wind will cause more cooling than
a 1 mile per hour wind. Without wind an atmospheric cooling tower operates less
efficiently. If wind velocity is much higher than normal there will be a higher
than normal loss of water due to drift. High winds will cause water to be blown
from atmospheric cooling towers, such towers are placed so that water blown
from them will not cause damage to surrounding buildings or equipments. When
cooling water 100F by evaporation 1% of the water is lost due to evaporation.
Drift loss is usually about 0.2% of the water flow. Loss due to evaporation is 1
%. Cooling towers can be divided into two basic types, such as Natural draft and
Mechanical draft towers, depending on the methods used to accomplish the air
movement, through the tower. Natural draft tower relay on chimney effect to
induce air movement. The density difference between the hot air and cold air
creates the required draft for air flow. Mechanical draft towers achieve the air
movement through the cooling towers with the help of fans. Depending on the
orientation of the fan they are classified as Induced Mechanical type, and Forced
Mechanical type. In induced type the fan is placed on the top of the cooling
tower as it pulls the air from the cooling tower. In forced type the fan is placed at
the bottom of cooling tower where the sides above are enclosed, it forces the air
through the packing upward having countercurrent passage with down coming
droplets of water.
Cooling towers can also be further classified by the motion of air in relation to
hot water. Towers where air and water move in parallel with air moving vertically
upwards and water moving downwards through the tower are called counter flow
towers. Towers where air flow is at 900 to the water flow and with air flowing
horizontally are called cross flow towers. Single flow tower is one where air entry
to the tower is from one logititudinal side only. Double flow towers are those
where air entry to the tower is from both the longitudinal sides of the tower.
4.3.2 NATURAL DRAFT COOLING TOWERS
Natural draft cooling tower uses a chimney or a stack effect to induce air
movement through the tower. They operate on the same principle as a furnace
chimney, where heat in a furnace causes hot fine gas to flow up through the slack
causing draft. When the hot water is sprayed in above the splash bars it breaks the
falling water into fine drops in order to provide better air to water contact. Some
of heat in water transfers to the air as the air heats up when it cools the hot water
it becomes lighter, which lowers the density of air. This creates a difference in
density of warmer air inside and outside cool air entering the tower, causing the
draft.
Thus the heated air is replaced with cold air entering at the bottom and rejecting
less dense moist air at the top. Thus the tower must be tall for sufficient buoyancy
and must have larger cross sectional area, because of the flow rates at which air

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circulates and to have adequate air flow for proper cooling. These are sonic time
called Hyperbolic towers due to the distinct shape and the function of chimney.
Although they consume more pumping power, they eliminate the cost of fan
power and are more reliable than atmospheric cooling tower in same area.
Because of its design, a natural draft tower does not depend as much on the wind
direction as the atmospheric tower. The temperature of the air inside the chimney
is always higher or warmer than atmospheric temperature. This difference in
temperature causes a constant draft or flow to exists from bottom to top of
cooling tower, taking away the heat from hot water. Thus in natural draft cooling
tower primary consideration is given to the temperature characteristics of air. If
the air rises to high temperature relatively to water temperature the tower will
cease to operate.Thus tower can be designed for both cross and counter type of
flow.In cross flow design the fill is external to the shell forming a ring around the
base. In counter flow design the fill is inside the shell.
The large cooling capacity they are built with hyperbolic shape. They do not
require drift eliminators. Make up water is needed to replace water loss due to
leaks and evaporation losses. Louvers or baffles are installed around the air inlet
of the natural draft tower that can be used to regulate and control the amount of
air entering the tower, which is required for cooling by evaporation empty
chimney accounts for the most of the tower height.
4.3.2. MECHANICAL DRAFT COOLING TOWER
In Atmospheric cooling tower, air contacting the water is at same humidity and
depends solely on prevailing wind velocity that enhances the rate of cooling. As
evaporation occurs the air in contact with the water becomes more saturated, thus
decreasing the rate of evaporation. For this reason the movement of air through
the tower should be increased and this is done by inducing and forcing the
cooling medium.
Thus cooling of water in all towers depends mainly on the amount and humidity
of air passing through it. In mechanical type of cooling towers fans are used to
move air through the tower and thus affect the mechanism of cooling. The degree
of cooling can be adjusted by controlling one or more of the fans and the rate of
water flow to it. It uses either single or multiple fans to provide flow of a known
volume of air through the tower. Thus their thermal performance tends towards
greater stability and is affected by fewer psychometric variables than that of
atmospheric towers. The presence of fans also provides a means of regulating air
flow, to compensate for changes in atmospheric conditions, by fan capacity
manipulation and or cycling. Depending on the position of the fan, these towers
are classified as
1. Forced Draft Cooling Tower.
2. Induced Draft Cooling Tower.

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4.3.2.1. FORCED DRAFT COOLING TOWER.
Forced draft cooling tower is similar in construction to atmospheric cooling
tower, but the sides are closed. A opening is made at the bottom of the cooling
tower where the Motor - driven fans is placed in the path of ambient air stream
entering into the tower which, forces or pushes large amount of air with a low
velocity through it. They are usually provided with relatively large ineffective
height and volume of the tower space. The air distribution is relatively poor, since
the air must take a 900 turn while at high velocity.
Forced draft tower are characterised by high air entrance velocity and low
discharge velocities. Under these conditions, the air possesses a small velocity
head and tends to settle in the path of intake stream. This means that the fresh
intake air is contaminated with partially saturated air and is known as
recirculation and reduces the performances of the tower. Forced draft fans can
become subject to severe icing (with resultant imbalance) when moving air laden
with either natural or recirculated moisture.
They are equipped with centrifugal blower types fans, which although requiring
considerably more horsepower than propeller type fans which have an advantage
of being able to operate against the high static pressures associated with duct
work. Therefore they can either be installed indoors or within a specially
designed enclosure that provides significant separation between intake and
discharge locations to minimise the effect of recirculation. The degree of cooling
can be adjusted by, controlling one or more of the fans and the rate of water flow.
Almost all the forced draft towers are counterflow designs.
4.3.2.2. INDUCED DRAFT COOLING TOWER

In induced draft tower, the air is sucked in by a fan placed at the top of the tower.
The air enters along a louvered length of the cell and inlet velocity is low.
Therefore the height of the tower required for entry is small. The problem of
recirculation is avoided since the fan discharges the air at high velocity three to
four times higher than their entrance velocity. Therefore there is little or no
tendency for a reduced pressure zone to be created at the air entrance by the
action of fan alone.
The potential for recirculation on the induced draft tower is not self-initiating and
therefore can be more easily quantified purely on the basis of ambient wind
conditions. Location of the fan within the warm air stream provides excellent
protection against the formation of icing on the components. The discharged air is
driven up into natural air current which prevents it from settling at the air intake.
However in these towers the pressure drop is on the intake side of the fan which
increases the fan power requirements. The higher velocity of discharge also uses a
greater drift loss of water droplet carried away by the air stream.
These towers are further classified as ,

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1) Induced Crossflow Cooling Tower, and
2) Induced Counter Current Flow Cooling Tower.
1. Counter flow Cooling Tower

In counter flow towers air moves upward directly opposed to the downward flow
of water. This design provides good heat exchange because the coolest air
contacts the coolest water. Headers and spray nozzles are usually used to
distribute the water in counterflow towers.
In this type the largest part of the tower has enclosed sides from the top. The air
travels most of the time in an opposite direction from the falling water spray.
Their side louvers are-movable to regulate the air intake. The air volume flowing
through the tower is controlled by the speed of the fan and the amount of opening
of the side louvers. The air passes from the bottom to the falls, contacting
droplets of water spray.
2.Cross flow Cooling Tower

In cross flow tower air flows horizontally, across the downward flow of water. The cross flow
design provides easier path for the air, thus increasing the amount of airflow contacting the
water spray thus high rate of heat transfer. for a given fan horsepower. Cross flow towers
usually have a gravity feed system a distributor deck with evenly spaced metering orifices to
distribute the water, breaking the whole water body into smaller particles naturally at the top it.-
self, thus increasing the rate of cooling.
4.4. SELECTION OF COOLING TOWER
4.4.1. SPECIFICATION OF COOLING TOWER
The emphasis for a proper specification for a cooling tower is needed, apart from
covering all the technical requirements also provides a common basis for
comparison of all the various designs available in selecting a cooling tower. The
following are some of the important aspects which need consideration while
drawing cooling tower specification.
1. Design Parameters.
2. Space Restriction.
3. Number of Cells and Fan diameter.
4. Pumping Head.
5. Wind Velocity.
6. Evaluation Factors.
7. Fan Power Consumption.
8. Pumping Head
9. Tower Length.
10. Performance Test.
1. DESIGN PARAMETERS

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The cooling water flow, hot and cold water temperatures are fixed by the
requirements of the particular system in which the cooling tower is included. The
other design parameter which governs the cooling tower design is the air wet bulb
temperature (WBT). The WBT required for the design of the cooling tower is the
WBT at the air inlet louvers of the cooling tower. The difference between the
inlet WBT and ambient (atmospheric) WBT is termed as 'Re-circulation
allowance’. In the case of natural draft cooling towers, because of the larger
height the recirculation allowance is zero and hence the inlet WBT be same as
atmospheric WBT.
In case of induced draft cooling tower, however some amount of recirculation

allowance should be considered. The recirculation is dependent on many factors
like tower length, height, type of tower (counter flow or cross flow) and
atmospheric air velocity. The recirculation allowance is calculated based on curve
available to the similar design of operating towers.
2. SPACE RESTRICTIONS
The design of a cooling tower and hence its performance is governed by
availability of adequate free air space around the cooling tower. The cooling
tower will have to be located at a certain minimum distance from adjacent
cooling towers and/or buildings/structures so that its performance is not affected
by the adjacent cooling towers and/ or building/structures. Where it is not
possible to maintain this minimum distance then it will be necessary to modify
the design of cooling tower to take in to account the effect of adjacent cooling
towers. In case cooling tower which is situated very, close to a building it may be
necessary to have a single flow tower, for this, it is therefore necessary to
stipulate in the specification,the space available for installation of cooling towers
and also size of any building in the vicinity of it.
3. NUMBER OF CELLS AND FAN DIAMETERS

Large capacity induced draft cooling towers, needs multi-cell cooling tower. The
number of cell is normally governed by, requirement for a spare capacity and fan
diameter. Requirement for a spare capacity is defined as earlier in project stage
itself keeping in view for future capacity expansion of plant.Designers basically
go for larger fan sizes (between 7m to 10 m) to reduce the number of cells and
also it affects the overall size of the tower. During the selection of design, care
has to be taken for maintenance and operational trouble shooting in respect to
overall load on the respective cells. It should clearly mention the limitation during
selection of the same.
4. PUMPING HEAD
In large cooling water system as in a power plant, the pumping head forms a
major part (more than 50 %) of the total cooling water pump head. Any reduction

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in the cooling tower pumping head would result in the reduction of the total head
resulting in reduced capital investment and leads to lower power consumptions
and hence reduced operating costs. It directly depends on type of packings and
fills used. Splash type fills have been in use in some cooling towers giving
moderate pumping head decrement,however film type claim to be having low
pumping head almost about 3 m than that for splash type packing. This factor
leads to system operating problems and unsatisfactory pump performances if not
considered during the design stage of cooling towers. Thus a tower with low
pumping head will reduce the cooling water pumps head and hence the power
consumption.
5. WIND VELOCITY
Wind velocity is one of the parameters that affects the performance of a cooling
tower. A cooling tower designed for zero wind velocity is not expected to give
the same performance at higher velocities. Since the cooling tower is normally
required to operate continuously throughout the year, it is necessary to take in to
account the normally occurring wind velocity in the design of the tower. These
aspects sometime indirectly govern the dimension and size of the tower.
6. EVALUATION FACTORS
In the case of large capacity induced draft cooling tower, the fan power
consumption is quite larger (of the order of about 75OKW for the cooling tower
of 210 MW unit) which leads to a continuous recurring expenditure. It is
therefore advantageous to have a cooling tower with lower fan consumption that
is dictated by the loading factor.
7. PERFORMANCE TEST
After the cooling tower is constructed normally performance test is conducted on
the tower to prove the performance of the tower thus accepting the various
required factors that are being laid down in quality assurance and terminology
list. The parameter that are measured during the test are cooling water flow rate,
temperature (inlet & outlet), Ambient air temperature, W.B.T of air entering the
cooling tower, Dry bulb temperature, Humidity, Wind Velocity, Distribution
range, drift loss, wind loss, evaporation loss and concentration ratio, quality of
cooling water, pump head, Fan power and its performance, recirculation effect,
etc. All the parameters except cooling water flow can be measured by means pilot
tube that requires provision of nozzles on the cooling water pipe line with
adequate free lengths on the upstream side and downstream side.

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5.0 PROBLEMS AND UNCERTAINITIES IN COOLING
TOWER
.
The cooling tower operations basically face following problems frequently.
1. Environmental Problems
2. Wind Loads.
3. Dry Cooling Towers
4. Corrosion.
5. Scale and Deposit formation.
6. Microbiological Fouling.
5.1. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
The water vapour emitted from the stacks of cooling towers may, cause
difficulties such as hazardous patches of fog on the roads, and fine droplets
entrained from the water sprays may be troublesome immediately downwind of
the tower. This plume of water vapour mainly due to temperature inversion effedt
the inlet Wet Bulb Temperature thus creating conditions towards recirculation.

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This can be reduced by installing high speed fans, by varying the pitch of the fan
blade and designing optimum stack design.
5.2. WIND LOADS
In view of the fact that many competent problems of cooling tower are predicted
with limited success, it is usually suspected that unpredictable variations in flow
distribution may be responsible. It is more predominant in natural draft cooling
towers than in forced draft cooling towers, because of the dynamic head of the
wind represents a substantially greater fraction of the pressure drop through the
natural draft than forced draft. Not only can the changes in the wind velocity and
direction change both the draft and the amount of recirculation but they can also
change the flow pattern inside the cooling tower. so at large segments of the fill
may lie in eddies which make that region ineffective because of low air velocity
or even internal recirculation.Wind effects are reduced by designing optimum
stack height of natural draft ranging from 40 ft to 300 ft.For large installation
cooling towers are placed side by side in long row at right angles to the direction
of the prevailing wind.This arrangement is prevailing in coastal regions.
5.3. DRY COOLING TOWERS
Cooling tower design depends upon the quantity of water to be handled. Enough
quantity of water is required for a wet cooling tosver to keep all the parts in the
soakedconditions. Normally wet cooling tower consumes about 10,000 gpm.
Based on these cooling tower is selected. Although the cost of dry cooling towers
is roughly four times that of wet cooling towers so that their use leads to an
increase in the capital cost of a steam plant by about 30%. Dry cooling towers are
basically installed where acute shortage of water even for domestic purpose, for
small installations and service.
5.4. CORROSION
Corrosion of iron and steel is highly complex though widely accepted as

electrochemical phenomenon. According to electrochemical theory a difference
in potential between points canbe caused by several factors which include
difference in composition, crystal size, crystal orientation , irregular in corrosion
resistance film.A number of characteristic of cooling water influence the
corrosion rates among them are presence of dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide,
amount of solid, water velocity, temperature presence of microbial growth and
degree of acidity and alkalinity of water.
Corrosion is controlled by using inhibitors which are broadly classified as anodic

or cathodic depending upon weather they produce anodic or cathodic
poladzation.They form a protective film on metals and cliemisorbs them on metal
surface.Poly phosphate of glassy type are good inhibitors for steel because of
protective iron orthophosphate film formed at the local anodes.

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5.5. DEPOSITS AND SCALES
Deposits in circulating water are of two types: Scales and foulants.coatings of

inorganic materials such as calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate foms hard dense
scales.Silicate scales are also formed when water becomes saturated with silica.
Scale in cooling water system is controlled by suitable phosphate control in
combination with ommusually non scaling forming materials like suspended
solids in water, due to the presence of silt or iron, particulate matter scrubbed
from the atmosphere, natural occuring organic in make up water.They are
controlled by having a side stream filter attached to cooling tower basin which
continuously filter about 5% of the hold up volume.Use of dispersant which
breaks up the foulants into smaller particles and keeping them suspended in the
cooling water is recommended. This prevents their deposition and enable
removal from the system either by blowdown or filtration.
5.6. MICROBIOLOGICAL GROWTH
Microbiological contamination enter a cooling water system either by make up

watcr or by being scrubbed from the air passing through the cooling tower. The
scrubbing action also introduces airborne silt, dust, wood fragrant and dissolved
gases.In addition leakage of chemicals, oil, Greases etc., enter the cooling tower
providing nutrients to microorganisms.This directly effects the performance of
the cooling tower operation.This is minimised by having effective chlorine
treatment as chlorine is an effective oxidising biocide which reacts with water to
form hypochlorus acid which attacks the microorganism.Also non-oxidising
biocides are also dosed once in a week.Methyl thiocyanate is most effective
biocide against the sulphate reducing bacteria.

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6.0 DETAILS OF COOLING TOWER IN UTILITY
PLANT
6.1.SPECIFICATIONS OF THE COOLING TOWERS
S.NO. PARAMETER NEW COOLING OLD COOLING

TOWER TOWER
1. Make Paharpur Paharpur
2. 9000 2400
Capacity(m 3 /hr)
3. 597-9V-05 473-204
Model
4. Induced Draft Induced Draft
Type
5. 6 4
No.of cells
6. 6706 4267
Fan Dia(MM)
7. Cooling Water Supply 33 33
Temperature
8. Cooling Water Teturn 41 41
Temperature

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9. Circulating Rate 12000 2800
(Design)m 3 /hr
10. Total Hold-up Capacity,m 3 3600 1500
11. Evaporation loss(1% of 120 30

C.R) m 3 /hr
12. Drift loss(0.1% of C.R) 12 3
m 3 /hr
13. Concentration Cycle 4 4
14. Blowdown (for C=5) 960 300

m 3 /day
6.2. COOLING WATER SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Cooling water is mainly classified as

a) Offsite cooling water and
b) Process coolingwater.
Quality-wise and specifications-wise both are same.Also return water of both the
systems are connected to a common header and reaches the cooling tower.
6.2.1. OLD COOLING TOWER
a) Old offsite cooling water :This is mainly used in

1) Intercoolers of KGK compressors
2) Diesel Generator House to cool the jacket cooling water
3) Boiler House for the feed pump bearing cooling, for sample
coolers and for cooling the motor of Dow circulation
and feed pumps.
4) T.E.G. House coolers
b) Old process cooling water :

This is mainly used in CP-1 of PFY plants for,
1) Dow pump cooling
2) Vacuum jet cooing water
The circulating pumps connected to old cooling tower are,
a) Old offsite pumps:

No of units -3 (1 pump kept running and the remaining 2
pumps are s/by)

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Make - Mather + Platt India Ltd
Model - 10/12 cme
Capacity - 1000 M3/hr
H.P - 215
Type - Centrifugal
KW - 160
RPM - 1490
Working Pressure - 5.1 Kg/cm2
b) old process pumps:

No of units - 2(1 pump kept running and the other s/by)
Make - Kirloskar Brothers Ltd
Model - 6UP4
HP - 150
Type - Centrifugal
RPM - 1490
Working pressure - 6.83 Kg/cm2
c)Emergency D.G. Cooling water pump:

No of un its -1
Make - Akay pumps Ltd
Model - 6x4-9
Total Head - 36.4 Mtr
KW - 30
RPM - 2950
6.2.2. NEW COOLING TOWER
a) New offsite cooling water :This is used in

1) Intercoolers and oil coolers of IHI air compressors
2) Condensers of Refrigeration compressors
3) Nitrogen plant oil coolers.
b) New process cooling water :This is used for,

1) Dow pump cooling and as Vacuum jet cooling water in
CP-2 ,3,4,5.
2) PSF reactor condenser for cooling a mixture of glycol vapour
and water vapour.
The circulating pumps connected to New cooling tower are,
a) New offsite cooling water pumps

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No of units - 4 ( 3 pumps kept running and 1 s/by)
Model - 10/12 cme
H.P - 215
Type - Centrifugal
KW - 160
RPM - 1490
b)New process cooling water pumps:
No of units - 4 ( 3 pumps kept running and 1 s/by)

Model - 8/10 CME
Head - 58.4 Mtrs
H.P - 215
Type - Centrifugal
KW - 160
RPM - 1490
6.2.3. AUTO START FACILITY:
· Pumps:
One old offsite cooling water pump is kept on auto.When old offsite
cooling water pressure drops below 3.5kg/cm2 due to excess
consumption,leakage etc, the auto standby pump will start on auto.Similarly one
old process cooling water pump is on auto.
Also one old offsite pump,one old process pump and one new process
pump are kept on HVSB-2 ,(as they are critical equipments) which is on DG
power.
· Fans:
In New cooling water system,two coling tower fans are kept on auto. One
fan will start on auto if the cooling water temperature raises above 27.5 deg C and
the other if the temperature raises above 29 deg C.
6.3.CHEMICALS USED
6.3.1. KEM WATREAT - 101 (CORROSION INHIBITOR)
The compound is added to maintain the net total inorganic phosphate in the
cooling water to about 8 - 10 ppm. If river water is having phosphate then
considering the concentration cycles the phosphate due to raw water is to be

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deducted to get total inorganic phosphate. 5 Kgs are added in new cooling tower
per day and 2.5 Kgs are added in old cooling tower (quantity of dosing is
monitored on the basis of Phosphate content in the cooling water).Phospate forms
0.2 to 0.4 mm thickness layer film inside the pipe to prevent corrosion.
6.3.2.KEM WATREAT - 301/304 ( SLIME / ALGAE AND BACTERIA

CONTROL)
KW-301 and KW -304 are added in alternate weeks(once in a week).The
purpose of alternate dosing is to eliminate immunity of bacterias towards the
KW-301 and KW-304. 350 lts and 150 lts of KW-301 added in new and old
cooling tower respectively,whereas 360 lts and 160 lts of KW-304 added in new
and old cooling tower respectively.
A side stream filter of 480 M3/hr for new cooling tower and 110 M3/hr for old
cooling tower are provided for continous turbidity control.
6.3.3. KEM WATREAT - 1002 (SCALE / DEPOSIT CONTROL)
The concentration of Kem Watreat - 1002 to be maintained in cooling water is

about 10-15 ppm. The organic phosphate at 15 ppm dosage will be 15 - 20 ppm
in cooling water.15 lts/day are added in New cooling tower and 5 lts/day in old
cooling tower. Excess Chlorination will increase the chloride content in water and
also it is harmful to the wooden parts. It is also corrosive to metals. Avoid
excess chlorination above 0.5 ppm.Non - oxidising Biocides when added then for
next 12 hours no chlorination to be done. Also 12 hours heavy blow down given
then start chlorination to get the desired free chlorine specified.
6.3.4.KEM WATREAT-BD (BIO-DISPERSANT):

Three and 1.5 litres of Kem Watreat-BD is addded in new and old cooling towers
respectively to break up the foulants into smaller particles and keep them
suspended in the cooling water to prevent their deposition .
6.3.5. pH CONTROL:
PH is adjusted with NaOH and Hcl to maintain between 6.5 to 7.5.

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7.0 OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF COOLING
TOWER
7.1. WINTER OPERATIONS
The degree of cooling in cooling towers depends on the amount of air passing
through the tower.In addition if the air is hot and humid, the degree of cooling is
1% less than when the air is cold and dry, low air temperature may result in too
much cooling, thus in winter lot of temperature may cause broken small particles
of cooling water to freeze on parts of cooling tower. Ice formations may block the
passages between splash bars.As ice starts to build up around the fans, it may shut
off the flow of air it reduces the cooling characteristics and ice formed at the
blades may cause overloading of the fan motor.
This can be prevented by limiting the quantity of cold air entering the tower
by,
1. By adjusting the louvers in atmospheric cooling towers.
2. By selectively slowing down the speed or by slowly switching off the
fans of induced and forced draft cooling tower.
3. By decreasing the pitch of the fan blades which also reduces the air intake.
Fans which do not have variable pitch blades are usually equipped so that the
direction of rotation can be reversed, thus on reversing the pitch the force draft
fan blades causes hot air to be sucked out of the tower instead of pushing into the
tower which helps in melting an ice build-up.
The operator must check the condition of gear box, motor, fan blades, valves,
distributors on the deck for lubrication, vibration, choking, maldistribution of
water on the deck and timely corrective action to be taken. Because the water
circulate many times through pipes in exchangers, cooling towers, and basins it
picks up more solids from it, when water evaporates, it does not take the solids
with it which gets accumulated in the system where at one stage the circulating
water has more solids than the fresh make up water.If this is allowed the
suspended solid particles tends to settle out in sections of the cooling system
where the velocity of the water is slowed thus reducing the efficiency of heat
transfer of that equipment by forming scales or fouling the tubes and or build-up
of deposits.Hence to have good cooling properties of the water the solids are
removed regularly and make up done by fresh water to compensate the
requirements.
The following cleaning method is carried out for in service without shutting
down the system by adjusting the various parameters at the cooling tower itself to
increase the efficiency of the cooling water.

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1.Side stream filter(Sand filter) should be thoroughly backwashed whenever
pressure drop across the the filter increases above 0.5 Kg/cm2.
2. Lower the pH of the circulating water to about 5.5 and add the dispersant
to 1.00 ppm, circulate to about 8 hours, and then give heavy blowdown from
cooling tower sump.
3. Add biocides if microbiological fouling is suspected and carry out

blowdown after 8 hours.
4. Increase the phosphate to about 30 - 40 ppm and dispersant to about 25

ppm for 48 hours.
7.2. THE STANDARD OPERATING CONDITION FOR

COOLING WATER :
Cooling water supply temperature: 34 deg C max
pH : 6.5 to 7.5
Chlorides : 200 ppm max
Total Hardness(as CaCO3): 400 ppm max
Phosphate: 6-15 ppm
Iron: 1.0 ppm max
Conductivity: 1500 micro mhos/cm
Total Suspended Solids(TSS): 100 ppm max
7.2.1. CORRECTIVE ACTIONS
(a) pH :
- If pH is less than the specified limit then suitable quantity of
Monocyclohexylamine(MCHA) is added to bring it within limits.
- If pH is higher than the specified limit then suitable quantity of
Hydrochloric Acid (Hcl) is added to bring it with in limits.
(b) Cooling water Supply Temperature:

- If Supply Temperatuer is more , additional cooling tower fan is started
and temperature is watched.

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- If Supply Temperatuer is less , one cooling tower fan is stopped and
temperature is watched.
(c) Phosphate:
- If Phosphate is less than the specified limit then suitable quantity of Kem
Watreat-101 is added to bring it with in limits.
- If Phosphate is more than the specified limit then suitable quantity of
Kem Watreat-101 is reduced to bring it with in limits.
(d) Conductivity/Chloride/Hardness/TSS/Iron:
- If Conductivity/Chloride/Hardness/TSS/Iron is/are more than the
specified limits then Blowdown given to bring it within limit.
Tiny, microscopic plants sometimes thrive in cooling tower parts, water

system. These tiny growth, often green in colour, require light in order to grow.
They start growing on the walls of open parts of the system,which sometimes
break away and start floating in the water, suspended which can plug narrow
passages in the system and damage wood of the tower.These biological growths
are algae and slime cause fouling in the system,it also contains some dissolved
oxygen and carbondioxide which helps in corrosion and wear of the
system.Proper inspection has to be done to check for healthy operation of cooling
tower so that proper and efficient tower performance can be obtained.
8.0 DESIGN OF COOLING TOWERS
Laying down the essential design criteria in cooling tower specification helps in
effective way in developing more efficient cooling tower design. The essential
design criteria comprises orientation and the spacing of the towers, the

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atmospheric conditions, the simplification for mechanical equipments, the choice
of packing materials, the cold water basin design and the foundations. The
following are the points that are basically covered during the tower design.
1. Locating the towers.

2. Size of the towers.
3. Recirculation effect.
4. Orientation and Spacing of Cooling towers.
5. Specifying the atmospheric condition.
6. Type of packing.
7. Mechanical Equipment.
8. Cold water basin design and foundations.
8.1. LOCATION
Cooling tower should be located at a place where free air access is available from
the surroundings without any restrictions from the adjoining buildings and
structures. The location of the tower should be studied with reference to the
nearby chimneys and stacks effluents gases from the process particularly if these
are of hot or oily. While locating the towers on the upwind of switchyards,
sufficient distance should be provided so that the saturated vapour plumes do not
effect the electrical conductors. Space requirements for any future towers
required to be installed as result of the expansion of the thermal plant should also
be kept in view. The location of the cooling tower should not be too far from the
circulating water pumps and the main plant so that the piping and pumping cost
does not become excessive. Care should also be taken as it should not be located
nearness to any control room. housing software and computer networks.
8.2. SIZE OF COOLING TOWER
The size of the cooling tower for a given duty will differ depending upon the type
of the tower whether or counter flow. Water to air ratio used in the design, the
volume and characteristics of packing, approach temperature, Wet Bulb
Temperature at the inlet, prevailing wind conditions , geographical condition etc.
It is recommended to keep the ratio of length to width of the towers within 5 : 1.
No limitation should be put on the height of towers so that the selection of the
best height of tower gives best air circulation and movement through the tower,
keeping in view the plan area available. Only after selection of the tower is
complete that the pumping head of circulation water pumps should be finalised.
8.3. RECIRCULATION
Recirculation is the phenomenon in which a portion of the saturated air

discharged from the tower, is able to regain entry to the inlet of the tower on the
leeward side under the influence of the force and direction of the wind blowing
over and around the tower. The amount of recirculation depends upon many

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factors like the Vw
wind= velocity,
WIND VELECITY, Vo- EXIT
the stack height, AIR VELCCITY
the orientation of the tower, the
air exit velocity, the ambient temperatures, the shape and size etc. The effect of
WIND is to adulterate the ambient air entering the tower by increasing
the recirculation
its wet bulb temperature, thereby causing a considerable loss in its efficiency)
Vw
The tower does not always re-circulate the behaviour of recirculation being
erratic due Vto the quick variations in the atmospheric conditions. The
phenomenonoof recirculation is almost absent in case of natural draft cooling
towers basically because of tow reasons, A tall stack and the found shape of the
tower. Recirculation is more pronounced in case of mechanical forced draft
cooling tower.
8.4. ORIENTATION AND SPACING OF COOLING TOWERS
This aspect of design basically depends on the wind direction so that the
recirculation is minimised. When an plant consists of many cooling towers it
may be placed side by side with a specify distance between them in a long row at
right angles to the direction of the prevailing wind . This is a particularly
effective arrangement in coastal regions where the winds predominantly on shore
orFig.8 RECIRCULATION
offshore. Some time atINthe CASE OF INDUCED
interior the towersDRAFT TOWER
are best align AND ITS
in their
EFFECT ON ADJOINING COOLING TOWER.
longitudinal axis along the wind direction. Based on the CTI code No PFM - 1
10 where(Distance betweenthat
it recommended the towers
towers isless
notthan
drawn to scale)
approximately 250 ft in length
WIND
should be aligned with the prevailing summer wind direction and tower longer
than 250 ft. In length should be aligned perpendicular to the prevailing summer
wind direction. For orientation of a new cooling tower to be installed near an
existing tower, in order to reduce the recirculation effect the spacing between the
two cooling towers widely apart should be at a minimum distance of about 100
mts, basically to reduce the recirculation effect. This is coded in CTI code and BS
- 4485.
Fig 9. Recirculation does not takesplace incase of Natural Draft Tower

due to its tall stack and round shape.

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8.5. SPECIFYING ATMOSPHERIC CONDITION
The performance of mechanical draft tower, depends chiefly upon the wet bulb
temperature of the inlet entering air, whereas the performance of natural draft
cooling tower depends both upon the wet bulb temperature and dry bulb
temperature. The recirculation taking place in case of the mechanical draft
towers gives rise to a an important term, Inlet humidity. No recirculation takes
place in case of natural draft towers. This inlet wet bulb temperature is higher
than ambient wet bulb temperature by the amount of recirculation. In view of
this the atmospheric condition to be specified and detailed for different types of
towers. Fixing of recirculation allowance is not standardised to all type of
cooling towers as all cooling tower do not recirculate equally. Thus by adding a

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margin of 15% should specify the maximum layout area for each tower. It is thus
recommended that to keep the ratio of length to width of towers within 5:1. No
limitation should be put on the height of the towers so that the manufactures are
freely able to select the best height of the tower for better air movement.
Natural draft cooling towers depends both on the dry bulb temperature and wet
bulb temperature. The dry bulb temperature is measured to a high degree of
accuracy and is of major significance.
8.6.TYPE OF PACKINGS
A good packing is that which provides maximum contact surface area, maximum
retention time and causes a least pressure drop. Splash type packings generally
have less pressure drop, are less prone to clogging as compared to film flow
packings but suffer from the disadvantage of sagging and channelling. Whatever
be the type of packing, its spacing should be quite uniform so as to ensure equal
distribution of air and water. Both the water pumping requirements and the
capacity of the cooling tower per unit of base area can be improved by providing
horizontal surfaces within the cooling tower to reduce the average velocity of the
failing droplets and to increase the time that the droplets are exposed to the
cooling air stream in failing through the tower. Another advantage of this
approach is that it makes possible counterflow performance and hence a lower
temperature in the exit water stream. It has advantage by using low pressure
water sprays at the top, placing horizontal decks of latticework in the tower, and
arranging the wall , so that the air enters horizontally and is discharged vertically.
A desirable feature of this arrangement is that vertical upward movements of air
also slows down the fall of water droplets and thus increase the effective surface
area for any given water flow rate. More commonly ACB ( asbestos cement
board) and RCC , various kinds of plastics am used in modem construction of
cooling towers.
8.7. MECHANICAL EQUIPMENTS
All mild steel parts should be either hot dipped galvanised or plastic coated. All
fasteners should be made of stainless steel. Since fans have to continuously work
with moist air these should be made of a good corrosion resistant material. The
conventional cast aluminum fans have now been replaced by fibre glass
reinforced plastic. A good fan design should be able to produce as far as possible
uniform air velocity from the hub to the tip of the blades.
Cooling tower specifications usually limit the fan tip speed to a velocity not
exceeding 10,000 cfm. A high tip speed is desirable front the aerodynamics stand
point of view. So cooling tower fans are normally designed for the above
maximum speed. The most effective means to produce back flow is to keep
minimum clearance between the blades and the cylinder. Back flow is also

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reduced by the use of tips seals which are annular rings above or below the wheel
and extending from the cylinder inwards to a point beyond the blade tips. While
selecting the fan parameters, some allowance for the increased pressure due to
clogged packings should be taken into account. The gear boxes for the fans
should be designed for a life of 1,00,000 hours lie service factor should be as per
as CTI code 111. The lubricant to be used in the gear box should be of non -
hygroscopic nature, control interlocks should be provided to trip the fans in the
event of excessive vibrations or low oil level in the gear box.
Propeller type fans predominate tin the cooling tower industry because of their
ability to rnove vast quantity of air at relatively low static pressures encountered.
Most utilised diameters are in the range from 24 inches to 100 inches. Fans 48
inches and larger in diameter are equipped with adjustable pitch blades, enabling
the fans to be applied over a wide range of operating horse powers. Thus the fans
can be adjusted to deliver the precise required amount of air at the least power
consumption. The rotational speed at which a propeller fan is applied typically
varies in inverse proportion to the diameter. The smaller fans turn at relatively
high speeds, whereas the larger ones turn somewhat slower.However higher tip
speeds are associated with higher sound levels.
The increased emphasis on reducing cooling tower operating costs has resulted in
use of larger fans to move greater volume of air more efficiently. The nay
generation fans are light in weight to reduce the parasitic energy losses and have
fewer, but wider blades to reduce aerodynamic drag. Moreover, the characteristic
of air flow through the tower, front inlet to discharge, are analysed and
distribution adjustments to the structure are made to minimise obstructions. Fill
and distribution systems are designed and arranged to promote maximum
uniformity of air and water flow and drift eliminators are arranged to direct final
pass of air toward the fan .
Thus the intent of good propeller fan design is to achieve air velocities across the
eftecive area of the fan From hub to blade tips, that are as uniform as possible and
the most effective way to accomplish this is with tapered and twisted blades
having an aerofoil cross section.
· Automatic variable - Pitch Fan

These are propeller fans on which a pneumatically actuated hub controls the pitch
of the blade to vary air flow through the tower in response to a changing load or
ambient condition.This feature coupled with the resultant energy savings and ice
control - make them an optional feature much in demand.
· Centrifugal fans
These are usually of the double inlet type, used predominately on cooling towers
designed for indoor installations. Their capability to operate against towers
designed for indoor installation. Their capability to operate against relatively
high static pressure makes them particularly, suitable for that type of application.

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However, their inability to handle large volumes of air. and their
characteristically high input horsepower requirement approx. twice that of a
propeller fan, limit their use to relatively small applications. Three type of
centrifugal fans are available:
a) forward curved blade fans.
b) radial blade fans.
c) backward curved blade fans.
The characteristics of the forward curved blade fan make it most appropriate type
of cooling tower service. By virtue of the direction an velocity of air leaving the
fan wheel the fan can be equipped with a comparatively small size housing,
which is desirable from a structural stand point of view. It also generate the
required velocity at a comparatively lower speed.It tends to operate quiter than
other centrifugal types. Damper mechanism are also designed to facilitate
capacity control of the cooling tower.
· Fan Laws:
All propeller type fans operate in accordance with common laws.

1.The capacity, cfm varies directly as the speed (RPM) ratio, and directly as
the pitch angle of the blades relative to the plane of rotation.
2.The static pressure (hs) drop varies as the square of the capacity ratio.
Thermal performance of a cooling tower depends on a specific mass flow rate

of air through the fill expressed in cubic feet per minute (cfm). Since the
specific volume of air increases with temperature, it can be seen that a larger
volume of air leaves the tower than it enters it. The actual cfm handled by the
fan is the product of mass flow rate times the specific volume of dry air
corresponding to the temperature at which the air leaves the tower.
Average velocity of air through the fan is calculated by using following

equation:
V = Q/A x 60
V = Average air velocity at plane of measurement , ft per sec.

Q = Volume of air handled, cubic ft per min (cfm).
A = Net flow area, Sq. ft.
· Gear Reduction Units
The optimum speed of a cooling tower fan depends on the most efficient speed of
the motor. This dictates that a speed reduction, power transmission unit of some
sort be situated between the motor and the fan. In addition to reducing the speed
of the motor to the proper fan speed at the least possible loss of available power,
and the power transmission unit must also provide primary support for the fan,

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exhibit long term resistance to wear and corrosion and contribute as little as
possible to the overall noise level.
Speed reduction in cooling towers is accomplished either by differential gears of

positive engagement or by differential pulleys connected through V- belts.
Typically, gear reduction units are applied through a wide range of horse power
ratings, from the very large down to as little as 5 hp. V- belt drives, on the other
hand , are usually applied at ratings of 50 hp or less.
Gear speed reducers are available in a variety of designs and reductions to

accommodate the fan speeds and horsepower encountered in cooling towers.
Because of their ability to transmit power at minimal loss, spiral bevel and helical
gear sets are most widely utilised, although worm gears are also used in some
designs depending on the reduction ratio required and the input hp, a gear speed
reducer may use a single type gear or a combination of types to achieve staged
reduction. Generally two stage reduction units are utilised for large. slower
turning fans requiring input horsepower exceeding 75 hp.
The American Gear Manufacturing Association (AGMA) has established criteria

for the rating of geared speed reducers which are followed for its design all over
the word as the basic tool in manufacturing. AGMA - Standard 420 specifies the
code for gear reduction unit. The cooling tower institute CTI - 1 1 1 suggested
service factors for cooling toivers gears.
· V- Belt Drives
These are an accepted standard for smaller factory assembled cooling tower.
'They are much dependable in service, Belts wear and stretch and belt tension
must be periodically adjusted. Misalignment is one of the most common cause of
excessive belt wear.Manually adjustable pitch sheaves are occasionally provided
to allowe a change in fan speed .
· Drive Shaft.
The drive shaft transmits power from the output shaft of the motor to the input
shaft of the gear speed reducer. Because the drive shaft operates within the
tower, it must be highly corrosion resistant.Drive shaft are equipped ivith flexible
coupling attached at both ends. Flexible couplings transmit the load betiveen the
drive shaft and the motor or gear speed reducer, and compensate for minor
misalignment. It is very important that drive shafts be properly balanced.
Imbalance not only causes tower vibration, but also induces higher loads and
excessive wear on the mechanical equipment coupled to shaft. Cooling tower
drive shaft commonly operate at speeds approaching 1800 RPM, where at these
speeds, the shaft should be dynamically to reduce vibrational forces to a
minimum.

Rev: 00 Date: 06/22/2024 Page: 47 of 53
8.8. COLD WATER BASIN
Cold water basins would be designed with sufficient volume to meet emergency
situations that may arise. Quality of water which will provide at least fifteen
minutes of operation after such an emergency occurs will allow the operators
enough time to shut down the cooling water pumps before damage, can occur.
Basins, with such storage facility will give additional operating reliability in
providing enough water for several hours, Should the make up water system fail.
The water available in the basin can also be used to supplement the fire fighting
system in case of emergency. Other factors to be considered in sizing of the basin
are the hydraulic losses and the effect of the operating water level in the basin on
the circulating water pump submergence, Provision should be made in the basin
to incorporate a make up line, a blowdown line, an overflow line or weir and
sludge surnp.
8.9. FOUNDATION
The foundation is an important factor in the performance of a cooling towers and

certain precautions. If the foundations provided are not sufficiently strong , this
may lead to differential settlement which is quite serious to the life and
performance of the towers. These can cause cracks in the basin wall resulting in
the water leakage . The tower structure can get seriously weakened as distorted
structural member will not distribute their loads properly on them, overstressing
other members and causing failure. If the tower is tilted. it will result in unequal
distribution of water in the tower and the channelling may take place in the
packing resulting in the shortfall in the performance.
8.10. ESTIMATION OF SIZE OF COOLING TOWER
The following procedure are followed for preliminary estimation of size and
thereby cost of the cooling towers.
1. Choose the design conditions, that is the water inlet and outlet
teniperiture,water flow rate and the inlet air wet bulb temperature.
2. Prepare an enthalpy temperature diagram, choose the exit air endialpy

such that the slope of the line for the air enthalpy is equal to the slope of the curve
for the enthalpy of saturated air at the water outlet teniperature.This refers to
driving force required for minimum heat transfer at the bottom of the cooling
tower. The air enthalpy rise should be large as possible to minimise the air
pumping power requirement.

Rev: 00 Date: 06/22/2024 Page: 48 of 53
3. plot the curve for 1/ (Hs - Ha) as a function of water temperature.
4. Using simpson's rule detemiine the area under the curve obtain from above
plot, and from it the required value for the tower characteristic KaV/ L
Where ,
K=Coefficient of mass transfer
a =Area of transfer surface per unit tower packed volume
V=Effective packed volume per unit plan area of packing
L=Mass water flow per unit plan area of packing
G=Mass air flow per unit plan area of packing
5. Choose a fill matrix geometry and obtain the required principal data for it
characteristics front the standard data sheets for the same type of fill.
6 .Estimate the citect on the toiver characteristics KaV/L. of the deviation

from the 120 deg 'F
7. Using the air enthalpy curve as derived in step 2, determine L/G from heat
balance consideration. (L/G is equal to the slope of the air enthalpy line.)
8. Substitute the values obtained for KaV/LW , L/G to obtain the number of
decks N, and hence the height of the packed portion of the tower.
Packed Height = N * Type of spacing / 12
9. From L/G determine the air flow rate for a water flow of 2500 lb/hr (L).lf
the resulting air flow exceeds 1600 lb / hr, determine the water flow that
corresponds to an airflow of 1600 lb/hr. ' G = L/ 1.25.
10. Determine the cross sectional area of the tower using the water flow rate
per unit of area given in above step and the total water flow rate established.
11. Select the horizontal dimensions of the tower to give the area as obtained
from above step keeping the dimension in the direction of the prevailing wind to
no less than the packed height and no more than 40 ft. The overall height should
be the packed height plus about one and one half times the depth in the direction
of the prevailing wind.

Rev: 00 Date: 06/22/2024 Page: 49 of 53
9.0 SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS
· Fan cylinders less than six feet high must be equipped with suitable fan
guards for the protection of the operating personnel. Drive shaft must
operate within retaining guards to prevent the drive shaft from
encountering the fan if the coupling should fail. The motor shaft and
outboard drive shaft coupling should either be within the confines of
the fan cylinder or enclosed within a suitable guard.
· During long shut down, cooling Towers should not be left dry at any
moment tor the danger of catching fire to the elements of tower
physically and due the deposits of chemical reactants and their
characterstics.Thus it should be always water sprayed to keep the
wooden parts rnoist.
· Continuous contact with cooling water by the operating personnel has

developed a fear of getting accord with disease called Legionnaires
which attacks the skin and leads to dermatitis causing harmful effect
to the tissues of that organ.
· Minimising the risk of Legionnaires Disease:

There is greatest risk when water lies undisturbed between 20 deg
C and 45 deg C and where sprays of water droplets are generated
from water which is contaminated by legionella.Cooling owers must
be disinfected by high chlorine level (50 ppm free Cl2), stripped and
cleaned twice/year and additionally after any lengthy shut
down,check whether biocides are used.Keep basins
covered.Avoid heating cold water unnecesarily e.g.by sunlight. Locate
cooling tower walls away from buildings.
a) Always use protective clothings and wear while cleaning the

tower.
b) Avoid use of high pressure hoses which create spray.
c) Chlorinate to 5 ppm residual before cleaning.

Rev: 00 Date: 06/22/2024 Page: 50 of 53
d) Close windows and blanks off air inlets in the vicinity.
The safety procedures to be followed in handling the various chemicals used in

Cooling towers are briefly explained below,
·
·
· Hydrochloric Acid
It is a colourless liquid. Corrosive to skin, leads to dermatitis, irritating causes

total sight loss, ulceration of nose, bronchitis.Use safety goggles, rubber gloves
and rubber apron while handling. Wash with plenty of water , neutralise with
soda ash if it spills on body.Ensure fresh air, give lime water, milk of magnesia.
· Sodium Hydroxide
Irritation is frequently not evident immediately after contact, injury may result
before it is realised.It dissolves human hair and wool clothing. If it comes in
contact with eyes, blindness may result. Use of rubber gloves and splash proof
goggles while handling is recommended. Wash with plenty of water.
· KemWatreat-101,301,304,1002,BD.
They are non-hazardous,non-inflammable,non-explosive and safe against

fire.Use hand gloves,goggles and gum boots while handling.If come in contact
wash with sufficient water.Take medical advice.

Rev: 00 Date: 06/22/2024 Page: 51 of 53

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MODULE IMPLEMENTATION PLAN

RELIANCE INDUSTRIES LIMITED

Available Learning Validation

( Module No. UTI-PR-P-017)

1.1 Need of Cooling Tower 1

2.0 Terms and Definitions 5

3.0 Cooling Water System 10

4.0 Construction, Types and Selection of Cooling Tower 15

5.0 Problems and Uncertainties in Cooling Tower 31

6.0 Details of Cooling Tower in Utility Plant 34

7.0 Operation and Maintenance of Cooling Tower 39

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By: BKJ

7.2 The Standard Operating Condition for Cooling Water 40

8.0 Design of Cooling Tower 42

9.0 Safety Considerations 52

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By: BKJ

1.1 NEED OF COOLING TOWER

Basically all chemical processes involves reaction it may be exothermic or

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

Figure 1 GENERAL BLOCK DIAGRAM

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

The cooling is accomplished practically by raising the temperature of the

When water is cooled by the effect of vaporisation, it transfers approximately

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

Various terms / terminologies used in cooling towers are as follows:

2. Fan Power: The power input to the fan in kilowatts.

5. Blowdown[B]: In cooling tower pure water is lost to the atmosphere due to

6. Make-Up (M) : Water added to circulating water system to replace leakage,

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

Concentration of Mg hardness in circulating water (ppm)

Cycle of concentration can also be calculated by taking ratios of chloride ion

Cycles of Concentration = Concentration in BLOWDOWN / Concentration on

As water dissolved solid level increases, corrosion and deposition tendencies

Increasing blow down to limit cycles of concentration is an effective way to

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

15. Re-cooled Water Temperature: It is average temperature of water at the

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

Humidity is expressed as a percentage of the maximum saturation by water. Max.

Recirculation is the phenomenon in which a portion of the saturated air

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

In early days of continuous processing, no attempt was made to cool process

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

A Closed Recirculating system is actually a cooling system as shown in figure 4.

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

Advantage of closed system: Closed system provide better control of temperature

3.2.2. OPEN RECIRCULATING COOLING SYSTEM

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

Open recirculating system are inherently subject to more treatment related

1. Cooling by evaporation increases the dissolved solids concentration in the

2.The relatively high temperature significantly increase corrosion potential

The open recirculating cooing tower systems are used in chemical,

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

4.1. ELEMENTS OF COOLING TOWER

Cooling tower usually have following components in general design common

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

Based on amount of water to be handled and the required approach temperature

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

4.1.3 DRIVE ASSEMBLY

Prepared By: ND Revised By: CTS Approved By:BKJ

4.1.5. DISTRIBUTION BASIN :

4.1.6. FLOW CONTROL VALVES

4.1.7. DRIFT ELIMINATORS