Highway - Traffic - Monitoring - and - Data - Quality - (PG - 133 - 164)

Sampling 107
• The four seasons of the year;

• Sunny, clear-sky days;
• Overcast days;
• Heavy rain days and nights;
• Snowy days and nights;
• Fog and/or low cloud;
• Sun low on the horizon, at mid-height, and at noon;
• Advertising or street sign illumination;
• Sand storms if they occur more than three times per year;
• Smoke from forest fires or industrial fires if such occur more than three
times per year.
7.7 Deliberately Biased Sampling

Normally, the sampling plan is selected to produce random samples by one of
the methods described above. However, in some situations the client or supplier
might have evidence of when the equipment performs badly. In this case, if the
purpose of the sampling plan is to show compliance with a specification, the
supplier may elect to pick a nonrandom sampling plan designed to bring out the
worst in the equipment.
For equipment verification, where the machine (TMS) is thought to lie
well within its specification, the sample periods may be chosen to maximize the
error rates, if this makes the survey more convenient and/or less costly. In these
Copyright © 2008. Artech House. All rights reserved.
circumstances, great care should be taken to mark all such results as to the strata
selected so that the results are not used in any calculation involving the whole
population. For example, such results should not be used for calibration.
7.8 Sample Size Considerations

It is obviously advantageous to minimize the sample size in order to prove or ver-
ify performance. It is generally accepted that 12 samples is enough for any (i.e.,
unknown) distribution, while 6 samples is an acceptable number for a known
normal distribution. This could be lowered to nine samples if there is evidence of
a heap-shaped distribution not necessarily known to be normal.
Dalgleish, Michael, and Neil Hoose. Highway Traffic Monitoring and Data Quality, Artech House, 2008. ProQuest Ebook
Central, http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/utranscomm-ebooks/detail.action?docID=456896.
Created from utranscomm-ebooks on 2018-01-30 00:54:03.
108 Highway Traffic Monitoring and Data Quality
A 10 or 15 minute sample is generally a suitable minimum. This is because

that is the sort of time that corresponds to a normal traffic flow oscillation and
variation in flow cycle to see a full range of flow types at a site.
8
Validation and Verification
8.1 Introduction
This chapter considers the two different, but closely related, processes of valida-
tion and verification. Validation is used to quickly detect a failing TMS through
real-time analysis of data, usually by comparison of current reports with historic
data. Verification, the formal process of determining whether a TMS is within
specification by comparison to accepted reference values, is also described. Most
commonly, these processes are associated with shadow tolling payment systems
Historic data validation and patching is described later in the chapter. This
process is quite different and is commonly used to infill data from less reliable,
more error-prone equipment.
8.2 Online Validation

Validation is a continuous process designed to detect anomalies in the data be-
ing produced by each TMS and by the system as a whole. If validation limits are
exceeded, for example, by being outside certain limits for more than a certain
number of times in sequence, an investigation and assessment of this anomaly
109
is performed. Usually, an actual traffic event or other plausible explanation for

the anomaly is found. If no explaination is found, the equipment may be checked
and possibly replaced.
In this way, validation is the routine (and ideally automatic) monitoring of
the traffic monitoring system with the goal of detecting changes in the underly-
ing equipment process as soon as they occur. Validation is desirably a continuous
process, with parallels to statistical process control in a “production of data” set-
ting. It allows the client to have confidence that a “process is under control” and
thus allows the time between the more formal (and usually more costly) verifica-
tion processes to be increased, say, from three- to six-monthly intervals.
In other words, validation is a type of real-time quality control, where the
product is the data. The quality being monitored is preferably the actual mea-
surement error determined by comparison with a known or reference value. If
that is not possible, an indicator or surrogate of probable errors is substituted.
Thus, historic data is often a first choice. The tracking of a selected average pa-
rameter is another potential validation approach.
Figure 8.1 shows a typical site with permanent validation and/or verifica-
tion cameras.
Cameras and
illuminator
Folding
mast
Equipment
cabinet
4 reflective
markers
Figure 8.1 Typical layout for a permanent verification site.
Validation and Verification 111
8.3 Verification
Verification is the process whereby a sample of measurements from the system
under assessment is compared with independently determined accepted refer-
ence values. After adjustment for sampling error, the monitoring system error
rate is compared with the target specification and determined to pass or fail the
requirements. An evidential approach is required so that the evidence collected
fulfills audit quality requirements as being satisfactory proof of performance.
Any verification contractor is usually a separate entity to a monitoring system
supplier for that reason.
While data lies inside validation limits, reduced verifications (say, every
six-months) may be carried out.
8.4 Assessment Output

Assessment or verification is defined as the process whereby the TMU or TMS
(as specified) is certified by an independent and traceable means to be operating
in or out of specification. The result of a verification process is “comply” or “not
comply.” Verification comply can sometimes be given when a TMS is outside
limits by a small amount or with respect to a less important parameter. A typical
tolerance might be 10% to 20% over the nominal limit. Where such dispensa-
tion occurs, the report should be accompanied by the words “comply, but out-
side strict requirement specification,” or similar phrasing.
Verification tests are sometimes more convenient if done for a restricted
sample but at a time or under circumstances when errors are more likely. For
example, errors are generally more prevalent in high-traffic-density situations.
A test done for 1 hour at peak hour is more likely to fail than a test for a 12
hour representative sample including peak and nonpeak times. Therefore, the
verifying organization may select the quicker but more rigorous peak-hour test.
This may be done when there is confidence that the TMS will pass with a large
margin.
8.5 Manual Verification
8.5.1 Verification for Audit

Verification is the process whereby a sample of measurements from the system
under assessment is compared with independently determined accepted refer-
ence values. In the case of manual verification, the accepted reference values are
determined by an enumerator. A documented approach is required so that the

data generated will fulfill audit-level requirements as being a satisfactory proof of
equipment performance. This means that each enumerator decision should be
recorded in writing and available for later examination.
In order to ensure consistency of work and maintenance of quality as-
surance and control, manual verification should preferably be undertaken by
an organization accredited as an authority to ISO17025:2000 or registered to
ISO9001:2000. The accreditation scope must include traffic instrumentation,
traffic data, or traffic monitoring, and specifiy a minimum period of 5 years ex-
perience in traffic monitoring verification work for independent clients.
8.5.2 Process
The process of manual verification means that equipment reports are compared
with manual readings, and after adjustment for sampling error, the monitoring
system error rate is compared with specification and determined to pass or fail
the requirements. The actual process for a given project is dictated by the normal
working practices of the organization involved and any specific written instruc-
tions given by the client.
8.5.3 Enumeration
Enumeration is the process of data collection by a human operator. Preferably
enumeration occurs in an office environment using a video or MPEG file taken
from a CCTV camera on the site. This visual evidence is compared with appro-
priate output from the traffic data equipment, also recorded in a computer file or
on a printout. Alternatively, enumeration can occur in the field when live traffic
flow is counted manually. This is not preferred since there is no record of what
the enumerator saw. This method can be improved by taking a video recording
to be used later.
8.5.4 Enumerator Decisions

Enumeration results can be taken as accepted reference values when undertaken
by an organization accredited as an authority to ISO17025:2000 or registered
to ISO9001:2000 as described above. Enumeration tasks should be designed to
require minimum discretion and skill. When enumeration is used in a trial to
make an assessment of equipment performance and the enumerator is unable to
determine between events or classification beyond reasonable doubt, the equip-
ment under assessment is usually given the benefit of the doubt.
8.5.5 Multiple Enumerations

Normally, only one enumeration is made of a given video or MPEG video file.
If an enumeration is performed more than once and different enumerators make
different assessments, either set of data or an average of the multiple sets of ac-
cepted reference values may be used at the discretion of the responsible manager
of the firm performing the verification. In these circumstances, an investigation
of the variance between the different enumerators’ assessments of the (same) base
data may be undertaken at the discretion of the same responsible manager. As-
sessment of an enumerator’s skill can be made during training by using a known
reference video file that has been enumerated by several skilled personnel.
8.5.6 Vehicle Length

If a vehicle has a load projecting outside its normal length, it is conventional
to ignore this and regard the true length of the vehicle to exclude the load. An
example would be a piece of timber overhanging the rear of a vehicle. However,
in the case of an articulated vehicle with a metallic load connecting the tractor to
the trailer, the load is to be included in the definition of the true length.
8.5.7 Conditions of Work

Enumeration is a repetitive task often involving long hours of video viewing.
Care should be taken to ensure the following:
• The video monitor presents a flicker-free (i.e., a minimum of 100 Hz)

image with no streaking or bars.
• Seating is comfortable and suitable.
• Lighting is appropriate, and no reflections are visible to the enumerator.

• Breaks from work are taken for at least 5 minutes every hour.
• Video work should be limited to no more than 4 hours per day.
If these measures are adhered to, the productivity and accuracy of the enu-
merators should be of a high level.
8.6 Historic Data Validation and Patching

Historic data validation and patching is performed to infill data from less reliable
or more error-prone equipment. Many of the underlying methods of historic
data validation described are applicable to online data validation described ear-
lier in this chapter.
After data is collected in the field, it is subject to the process of calibration
in accordance with the methods outlined in other chapters. However, two other
processes are vital before the data is ready for use:
1. Data validation: The process where data is reviewed and determined to

be free from equipment failure (data is said to be “valid” or “invalid”);
2. Patching: The process where missing or damaged data is replaced or ac-
companied by alternate data generated automatically by rules or manu-
ally by human intervention (“by eye”).
8.6.1 Data Validation

Data validation consists of detecting outliers in the data and flagging the data
either for no action or for automatic or manual patching. Validation can be
done “by eye” or automatically. The distinction with online validation is that
the whole data set can be used to look at any one time period instead of only
being able to utilize data from the time periods preceding the time period being
examined.
Outliers can come from two causes:
1. Unusual circumstances that lead to a higher or lower true count or

parameter, which are to be identified for a decision to be patched,
excluded, or left alone;
2. Machine failure, either intermittent or continuous, for some
period.
This book is mainly concerned with the second situation, although in

practice the same software is used for both reasons at the same time.
8.6.2 Manual Data Validation

The “by eye” method relies on experienced operators, together with visual aids
such as graphics or paper overlays, to compare flows on consecutive weeks. The
data may be on a printout or from a PC program on a screen. The process of
validation may be combined with data patching if presented on a PC.
Data extremes (unexpected highs or sequences of running zeros) may be
changed with estimates, copied from previous weeks, or some similar combina-
tion. Extreme data with known causes (e.g., accidents and public holidays) may
be simply flagged for the next user’s information.
8.6.3 Automatic Data Validation

Validation determines if the traffic data is valid against a set of criteria, each of
which may be subject to parameter input and fine-tuning. For example, a day’s
data file might be deemed “validated” if the following are true:
• There are no negative values in the data.

• The total count in each hour of all vehicles in each trafficked lane (i.e.,
not including the hard shoulder) is greater than zero between specified
time periods. This time period may be defined as a parameter. An initial
setting might be 8:00 to 20:00.
• The file contains 24 hours of data.
• The data file contains hourly intervals of data containing the various
known items being collected at that site (e.g., length, speed).
• The data contains the correct number of lanes worth of data.
The daily traffic flow will be compared to a calculated ratio of previous data,
for example, the mean traffic flow for the same day of the week in the preceding
three weeks. The program can set a minimum and maximum percentage range
that the data must fall within to be valid, and each setting can be either positive
or negative. These values may be user adjustable and stored as parameters.
8.6.4 Data Value Window

The program may use the past data to calculate the mean traffic flow for the
same day of the week over the preceding three weeks. If data for the same day of
the week in one or more of the preceding three weeks does not exist, then these
days will be excluded from the mean traffic flow. If no data exists for any of the
preceding three weeks, then this test will be ignored.
There are more sophisticated models for this validation. These are split
into two types:
1. Invalid data identifiers (outliers);

2. Invalid data correctors (these correct or patch the data automatically).
Another family of models for this function is the autoregressive integrated

moving average (ARIMA) after Box and G. Jenkins [1]. This family is well suited
to detection and replacement in traffic counts.
8.6.5 Data Patching

Systems are designed to be reliable and robust, but inevitably there will be times
when data is not retrieved. A data analysis and patching facility can operate at
those times. These methods tie into captured data from previous weeks coupled
to other data from the day of lost data. In the long term, this patching methodol-
ogy will tend to underestimate flows very slightly and to overestimate speeds. On
balance, the accumulated error over real data is likely to be very small.
However, data patching is undesirable, and the need to patch should be
kept to a minimum. The size of that minimum depends on the application that
the data is being used for and the cost of maintaining the system. Data patching
is an acceptable way of dealing with an unfortunate and hopefully rare event but
should not be regarded as the norm. The maximum amount of time that data
patching is allowed per unit time period, for example, hours per month per site,
may be included in the data collection performance specification.
It is preferable in all cases of patching to keep the original data. Should the
patching be improved or new information come to light about the outliers, then
this allows the data to be more properly corrected.
8.6.6 Patching of Count-and-Classify Data

The most common loss-of-data scenario is the failure of a single machine. In this
case, count-and-classify data from all lanes will be lost for the period concerned.
One patching method is to automatically replace the lost data with averaged data
from two adjacent or nearby stations, scaled according to the ratio of flows for
the week at hand compared to the forecasted flow based on data from the previ-
ous three weeks, for the day of the week concerned.
A more frequent, but less important, common failure is that of a single
loop. The machine itself will continue to count from the single loop in the lane.
The classification counts will fail, but these can be patched using the data from
the adjacent lanes, scaled according to lane flows on the same day of the previous
week. If the loop-based speed measurement is adopted, however, no data will be
lost if the data is taken from the next up- or downstream station.
Note that disruption to traffic that causes a lane or carriageway to be closed
for a period of time will have a similar appearance in the data. If the data is
being used for historical analysis, then these abnormal conditions will need to
be replaced with more representative data to prevent undue distortion of trend
values.
During normal system operation, these techniques may be assessed by ar-
tificially removing sensors and data sources. In that way, the techniques may be
enhanced and modified.
8.6.7 Patching of Loop-Based Speed Measurement Data

The most common loss-of-data scenario is the failure of a single machine and its
replacement after the maintenance response period. In this case, the speed data
from all lanes will be lost for the period concerned. A patching method in this
case is to automatically replace the lost speed data with averaged data from the
two nearby stations, scaled according to the ratio of flows for the last three weeks,
for the day of the week concerned. In the case of the failure of a single loop, the
data can be patched using the data from the adjacent lanes, scaled according to
lane speed profile on the same day of the previous three weeks.
8.6.8 Patching of ANPR-Based Speed Measurement Data

The most likely failure of the ANPR sites is failure of a complete camera or site.
This, in effect, will stop all observations from that point, preventing journey
time measurements for the two adjacent sections. A method for patching is to
apply an automated technique as above. The vehicle tracking will automatically
shift to measuring the time taken over the whole of the two adjacent sections.
The times so derived will be split between the two sections according to the ratio
of the two times for the same time of day and day of the week from the previous
week. This requires the instation to retain this information for the period con-
cerned to be ready to make the patch as necessary.
A further issue to note is that as the distance between the stations increases,
the number of successful matches decreases. Therefore, care needs to be taken to
ensure that the number of matches in the patched data is sufficient to ensure the
data is still robust and has not become distorted by bias or by a small number of
outlying values.
Reference
[1] Box, G. E. P., and G. Jenkins, Time Series Analysis: Forecasting and Control, 3rd ed, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1994.
9
Traffic Monitoring Technologies
9.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the basic features of the equipment and technology used
to collect data about traffic. It deals mainly with those technologies in most
common use—axle sensors and inductive loops—with some additional mate-
rial on technologies where the sensor elements are not on or in the road surface.
The general principles of quality assurance and statistical techniques are data
rather than technology driven, so the differences in performance are down to
the different sources of error. No comparison of the worth of different technolo-
gies is intended; rather, the chapter is intended to raise the reader’s awareness
of the typical types of error associated with a selected range of more common
technologies.
9.2 Traffic Monitoring Stations, Sites, and Equipment

Traffic monitoring equipment (TME) is typically comprised of a processor, mem-
ory, and communication system that connects to sensors in order to monitor
highway traffic. It may be likened to a signal processing unit in control and instru-
mentation. It is also known as a traffic counter, traffic classifier, or outstation. The
Marksman 660, manufactured by Golden River Traffic, Ltd., is an example of a
119
TME (see Figure 9.1). The entire system at a location is called a traffic monitor-
ing station (TMS) and comprises the TME, the sensor installation, connecting
cables, communication devices, cabinet, solar panel, and so forth. An example of
a station is shown in Figure 9.2. If there is a cluster of more than one station, the
group is known as a site. This is often the case on a motorway where more than
one device may be required at a location or site.
When the TMS is discussed, it implicitly includes the traffic stream and
individual vehicles that pass through the sensing area. The functional perfor-
mance of the TMS can only be considered in terms of the entire combina-
tion of the TME, its configuration, the sensors, the site, and the traffic stream
characteristics.
The TME is defined by its serial number, manufacturer’s name, code,
specification, hardware build, service modifications, and software version. These
details should always be recorded in detail in connection with any normal use,
experiments, or trials. In summary, the TME is the equipment, and the TMS is
an entire station including sensors.
9.3 Measurement Types

There are two general types of traffic observations or measurements:
Figure 9.1 Golden River Traffic Marksman 660 TME. (Courtesy of Golden River Traffic, Ltd.)
Traffic Monitoring Technologies 121
Figure 9.2 Traffic monitoring station. (Courtesy of Golden River Traffic, Ltd.)
1. Quantitative measurements: Measurements that result in a numeric value

being reported, for example, a vehicle traveling past a site being reported
by the TMS as traveling at 58.5 mph;
2. Categorical measurements: Measurements that result in category count
data being reported, for example, a bus passing a site being reported as
a long vehicle.
In traffic monitoring, some quantitative measurements are reported as cat-

egorical measurements via a process of “binning” (see Chapter 5). For example,
a vehicle with a wheelbase of 2.30m will be classified as a car after a table of car
wheelbases is referenced.
9.3.1 Traffic Data Types

Traffic data falls into three classes:
1. Traffic stream data (TS data);

2. Individual vehicle data (IV data);
3. Link traffic data (LT data).
Traffic stream (TS) data is data about the continuous stream of traffic at
a survey point. It is often expressed as a time series. Examples include loop oc-
cupancy, interval counts, average speed, and 85th percentile speed. Most traffic
data is traffic stream data. IV data is data about vehicles that pass a survey point.
IV data is usually one record (or line of data) per vehicle. Each record contains
one or more items of information about the vehicle, for example, the vehicle
type, speed, and license plate. IV data is increasing in popularity due to fall-
ing communication and storage costs. LT data is data about a link in the road
network. It is usually expressed in a time series. Examples include average travel
time and average travel time by vehicle type. LT data is in demand for congestion
measurement.
Traffic measuring instruments measure this data by direct or indirect meth-
ods. For example, travel time may be measured directly by license plate match-
ing or derived from a suitable number of spot speed measurements along the
link. Traffic data can also take the form of “time-tagged sensor events,” where
later processing derives TS or IV vehicle data. This data is unusable without
significant, possibly proprietary, processing and is not discussed in depth in this
book.
9.4 Typical Traffic Monitoring Sensing Devices
9.4.1 Axle Detectors

The most popular sensor devices for counting axles and measuring speed be-
tween successive axle sensors are tube sensors and piezoelectric detectors. Optic
fibers are also now finding their way onto the market but are relatively rare, so
they will not be described here.
A tube sensor is a small, hollow, rubber tube that lies on the road surface.
The tires of the vehicle squash the tube and send a pressure wave along it to a
detector in the TME. Tube sensors are usually used for temporary traffic surveys.
Errors can occur if the pressure wave cannot reach the sensor because the tube
is blocked or, more commonly, the tube is broken or has a hole in it. Errors in
speed measurement can be caused by discrepancies between the actual distance
separating successive sensors and the distance entered into the TME and when
the successive sensors are not parallel.
Axle sensors based on the piezoelectric effect comprise two conductive ele-
ments separated by a special material that exhibits piezoelectric behavior. When
a force is applied to the material, an electric charge is generated, which can be
measured across the two conductive elements. The device is normally a central
conductor surrounded by the piezoelectric material and then the second conduc-
tive element. The sensors can be mounted on the road surface, but they are usu-
ally installed as permanent fixtures in a shallow channel cut into the road surface
and backfilled with a suitable material. The most common problem with sensors
is the ingress of damp into the feeder cable, particularly the joint with the sens-
ing element, which prevents proper detection of the change in electrical charge.
Problems can also occur if the backfill in the channel is left hollow such that a
tire can roll over it without putting significant force onto the sensor.
9.4.2 Inductive Loops

A loop sensor consists of a coil of wire buried in the road. An oscillating cur-
rent is applied to the cable, and circuits in the TME sense the change as a ve-
hicle passes through the oscillating magnetic field established by the loop. The
electronics can detect the leading and trailing edges of the metallic parts of the
vehicle. Figure 9.3 shows the zone of detection, which often spreads beyond the
periphery of the loop.
Problems can occur as a result of damage to the road surface, damaging the
loop itself or distorting it and causing the cable insulation to fray. Damp ingress
into feeder cables and joints is also a common source of errors. In most cases, a
single oscillator will drive up to four individual loops, and there will be two, four,
or eight oscillation circuits within a TME. Each oscillator must have its own
frequency and be sufficiently separated from the other oscillation frequencies so
that adjacent loops do not detect each other by mistake.
An individual oscillator circuit will switch between each of the loops it
is attached to, spending between 5 and 30 ms on any one loop. Oscillating an
individual loop for a longer period increases the certainty of detecting a vehicle
but reduces the granularity of the “on” and “off ” times. This reduces the accuracy
with which speed and metallic length can be measured, so a trade-off has to be
achieved by the engineer. Achieving better speed and length measurement may
Zone detection area
Sensors
Figure 9.3 Zone of detection for induction loop sensor.

result in too low a sensitivity, and vehicles with high-chassis elements, such as
articulated lorries or vehicle and trailer combinations, may be detected as two or
more vehicles instead of a single, longer entity.
Loops can obviously be influenced by the presence of large metallic objects
(e.g., a skip) and by the use of reinforcement steel in the road construction.
These generally have the effect of suppressing the field and making the loops less
sensitive to passing vehicles.
9.4.3 Above Ground Detectors

As the name implies, these devices are mounted on poles, bridges, or gantries
above the road. They are of two types: “active,” which emit a beam or pulse
of energy and measure the reflected signal, and “passive,” which collect energy
within their zone of detection.
A microwave transceiver is an active device that emits a beam of low-power
microwave energy. The beam is reflected back to an integral sensor as vehicles
pass the site. Microwave sensors can measure vehicle count, speed, and length,
as well as direction. A number of different devices are available from simple
Doppler radars that measure the shift in frequency caused by a moving object to
frequency- and pulse-modulated radars that can determine presence and range
from the reflected signals.
An active infrared detector is similar in concept but uses energy in the
infrared part of the spectrum. The spread of the output beam can be controlled
using special optics such that a device mounted over a traffic lane and looking
vertically down can place a virtual loop on the road surface. Focused beam and
scanning lasers can also be used for traffic monitoring. Using a pulse-modulation
technique, the range from the source to the target can be very accurately measured
at relatively high frequency such that the profile of the vehicle can be measured.
A passive infrared detector can be used to determine the (moving) presence of a

vehicle or pedestrian by detecting changes in the background infrared signature
as a moving object passes in front of the detector. These are generally only used
as presence devices in control systems and not as data collection devices.
There are a number of generic issues with these types of detector. The
source device is effectively a point in space, and a cone of detection radiates from
it. Objects nearer the source can obscure fully or partially those further away (an
effect sometimes referred to as “occlusion”). This is a particular problem if the
device is looking along and across a carriageway. Vehicles nearer to the detector
and in the nearest lane will cast a “shadow” behind them. The size of the shadow
depends on the height of the detector, the plane and angle of the detector rela-
tive to the road, and, of course, the size and shape of the vehicle. The interaction
between the emitted wave and the vehicle materials can also create issues. For
example, infrared may not be reflected by glass windows, and the laser receptor
can be oversaturated by highly reflective surfaces.
9.4.4 Image Processing

There is a range of traffic detection devices based on the signal processing of
digital images in the visible part of the spectrum. These are essentially passive
devices and use advanced computer processing to extract data from real-time
image streams. The applications range from close-focus reading of vehicle license
plates to queue detection and vehicle tracking in images that cover several hun-
dred meters of highway.
Image-processing devices have the same issues with occlusion between ob-
jects as other above ground detectors. Because they operate in the visible part of
the spectrum, they are also influenced by current ambient lighting conditions
and, hence, by time of day and weather effects. License plate reading systems,
also known as automatic number plate reading (ANPR) systems, deal with these
problems by having carefully selected mounting positions to minimize occlu-
sion and by using infrared light emitters to enhance the contrast of the plates.
Low-angle sun, deep and quickly moving shadows, and visible artifacts caused by
reflections of lights are all factors that can degrade the performance of an image-
processing system.
10
Detector Occupancy
10.1 Introduction
Detector occupancy is a popular measurement for traffic control systems and is
particularly associated with inductive loops, for example, in MIDAS, the U.K.
Highways Agency queue-detection system. The term occupancy refers to the pro-
portion of the time that a loop is occupied, (i.e., has a vehicle above a part of it).
To the layman, this is rather a confusing term, and most people would expect it to
refer to the number of people in a vehicle. This confusion has been compounded
by the introduction of high-occupancy vehicle (HOV) and high-occupancy toll
(HOT) lanes, where the occupancy term does refer to people. However, we do
not discuss HOV or HOT systems here, so the term occupancy can be taken as
shorthand for detector occupancy as defined above.

Occupancy gives a measure of congestion and is typically collected, record-
ed, or transmitted every 5 minutes. The first and most common way to measure
occupancy is by timing the period that the loop detector is “on” for each vehicle
and summing those time intervals for every vehicle that exits the loop during a
time period. A second way of viewing occupancy per individual vehicle is
vehicle _ length + loop _ length

Occupancy = (10.1)
speed
However, most TMU devices use the first method of signal analysis.
127
Occupancy is sometimes quoted in percentage terms. In these cases, it is

the percentage of some unit time, typically 1 second. In the case of MIDAS,
several successive seconds of 100% occupancy are used as the determinant of
queuing traffic and generate an alarm message from the outstation to the central
computer.
Occupancy is also used in traffic signal control. SCOOT samples its loops
every quarter-second to determine whether they are occupied and uses the bi-
nary string of “on-off ” data to estimate the number, type, and speed of platoons
of vehicles.
In general, only loop detectors provide occupancy information. However,
video and active infrared detectors may also provide this traffic parameter.
10.2 Occupancy Rate Error Assessment Methods

In order to calibrate the TMS, we can use only one method to get the true mea-
sures of occupancy, the video frame count method. The site is video-recorded,
then manually enumerated to count the number of frames that a vehicle is over
the loop and the total number of full frames in 5 minutes (7,500), checking these
against the TMU output.
Sampling is a more difficult issue with occupancy assessment. It is not suf-
ficient to pick one time of day. An occupancy error survey needs to include data
from a random selection of occupancy rates, say, from dense, congested traffic
through to open, free-flow conditions.
10.3 Occupancy Error Rate

Occupancy error rates are usually quoted as “of 100% occupancy,” in other
words, as a percentage of the full range (i.e., 100%). If the reported value is
33%, then an uncertainty of ±6% will mean a confidence interval of 27% to
39%. This type of reporting is unique to occupancy.
10.4 Video Frame Count Method

An error survey is performed to observe the loop occupancy on a video recording
and compare the result with the TMU output. The survey needs to collect a mini-
mum of six samples for analysis. Each sample must be of the same duration as that
specified for the test or the TMU device, for example, 1, 2, 5, or 10 minutes.
Detector Occupancy 129
A video camera is set vertically and as high as possible above the loop sen-
sor under assessment. A check is made to ensure that the TMU and video clocks
are synchronized. A video recording is made for 30 to 40 minutes superimposed
with the data collected from the TMU.
After the survey, the video is fast-forwarded or stepped through on a frame-
by-frame basis. The basic method is to count the number of video frames during
which a vehicle covers any part of the loop. A tally counter is used to count the
number of frames. This process is repeated for each sample. Table 10.1 illus-
trates the result. The figure of 7,500 comes from the number of frames in a 5
minute tape recording. (This applies to the European PAL 50 Hertz system. In
the Americas and in certain other countries where the NTSC 60 Hertz system is
used, the corresponding figure is 9,000.)
The column headed “Errors” is calculated by
Error = % occupancy − TMU report (10.2)
In the example, the average error is –0.21%, and the standard deviation
(SD) is 0.93%. (These are “of 100%” uncertainty percentages). This means that,
on average, absolute occupancy in the survey of 5 minute samples for the par-
ticular loop is underreported by 0.21%. These results apply to the survey, not to
all the possible time intervals that might be surveyed.
10.5 Confidence Interval for Individual Sample Period Intervals

Having taken a survey of five 5 minute samples and knowing the error for each
sample, we can estimate the confidence interval for all such 5 minute samples.
Table 10.1
Example of Video Frame Count Method
Percentage
Sample Covered Total Occupancy TMU (%) Errors (%)
1 1,300 7,500 17.30 16.00 –1.30
2 1,254 7,500 16.72 16.00 –0.72
3 1,382 7,500 18.49 18.00 –0.49
4 1,312 7,500 17.51 18.00 0.49
5 1,353 7,500 18.02 19.00 0.98
Average 6,601 37,500 17.61 — –0.21
Rates
Standard — — 0.68 — 0.93
Deviation
Refer to (2.8) and assume that a 95% confidence level is required. The standard
deviation of the percentage error of all the samples is 0.93%. Thus, the confi-
dence interval for individual occupancy reports is estimated as follows:
CII 95% = ± z 95% × SD = ±2.78 × 0.93% = 2.59%
This means that, assuming continuing occupancy samples of about 5

minutes,
• In 95% of cases, the true occupancy will lie within (−0.21% − 2.59%)
to (−0.21% + 2.59%) (i.e., between −2.80% and +2.38%) of what was
reported.
• Individual raw occupancy rates, if multiplied by 1.0021, will be accurate
to ±2.59% with a confidence level of 95%.
The central limit theorem implies that longer sample periods will have
smaller individual error variations. It would therefore be conservative to vary
the qualification above thus: “assuming continuing occupancy samples of at least
5 minutes.” It is a common view that the individual report confidence interval
(CII) reduces by 1/√2 every time the period doubles, and vice versa.
10.6 Confidence Limits for the Mean Occupancy

Often the requirement is to calculate the mean occupancy for all periods, not
just the error survey period. The mean occupancy from the survey may be used
as an estimate of the mean occupancy of all periods if confidence limits are cal-
culated using (2.4) as follows:
SD 0.93%
CIM 95% = ± z 95% × = 2.78 × = ±1.16%
n 5
We can express this result (for all periods, that is, the population) in a
number of ways. For example,
• The mean occupancy for all vehicles will be between –0.21% – 1.16%
and –0.21 + 1.16% (i.e., between –1.37% and +0.95%) of the survey
mean occupancy with a confidence level of 95%.
• The error of the population mean occupancy estimate is –0.21% ± 1.16%
at a 95% confidence level.
dalg_CH10_1.indd 4 7/22/2008 2:25:36 PM

Detector Occupancy 131
Based on our survey of five samples, the mean systematic error (or bias) was
-0.21%. This means on average that each reading should be increased by 0.21%
to better estimate the true occupancy of periods.
10.7 Other Occupancy Time Periods

It is unusual to perform occupancy assessment in other than the target intervals.
Clearly, data can be accumulated into any interval if the error survey is per-
formed in 1 minute intervals. Therefore 1 minute intervals should be used if the
occupancy time period is unknown at the time of the error survey.
11
Speed
11.1 Definition of Speed

Speed is an important traffic attribute for at least three reasons:
1. Speed is the most important dynamic parameter about a vehicle.

2. Accident rates and traffic management measures are strongly linked to
speed.
3. Congestion is often measured by the decrease in average speed over a
link.
Speed at a point along a link can be defined as either:

• The average velocity of the vehicle as it passes through the TMS’s detec-
tion zone (in a stated direction or directions). In this case, speed is deter-
mined by a known distance traveled divided by the time of travel.
• The instantaneous velocity of the vehicle at some point in the TMS’s
detection zone (in a stated direction or directions). In this case speed is
determined by a Doppler shift of some type.
The manufacturer is free to say which points in the zone of detection de-
termine the instantaneous speed or the points for time of flight measurements.
133
Should a vehicle stop over the sensors or its speed drop below 1 kph or mph,
then the TMU may report zero speed or no speed at all.
11.2 Measurement Methods

Determination of speed always requires at least two sensors, two timed images,
or a Doppler sensor. Typically, two loops are used in each lane, as the diagram
to estimate speeds in Figure 11.1 shows. Alternatively, two tube sensors may be
used for temporary surveys. Many speed cameras use two pairs of piezoelectric
sensors.
11.3 Calibration and Rounding

Most TME devices use speed for other measurements, such as length and wheel-
base. It is therefore important that any speed calibration is done first, since the
adjustments necessary for speed calibration will most likely affect length and
other calibrations.
Prior to performing speed tests, it is also vital to determine whether the
TMU and speed calibration device (e.g., the speed gun) outputs are rounded
down, rounded up, or “4/5 rounded,” where the latter rounds the final decimal
place up if the final numeral is greater than four, or down if it is less than or
equal to four. Speed reports from each device must then be incremented by 0.5
units of rounding, decremented by 0.5 units of rounding, or left as reported,
respectively.
Figure 11.1 Typical layout of loop detectors for speed measurement.
Speed 135
11.4 Determining the Accepted Reference Values for Speed

There are many methods to obtain accepted reference value (ARV) vehicle speeds.
The first 5 are all portable and are listed in order of popularity and accuracy:
• Strip sensor method: Metallic tape switches, or piezosensors, are positioned

over or very near the sensors of the SUT (either temporarily or perma-
nently). A calibrated general-purpose electronic counter timer with two
inputs is connected to the strip sensors. ARV speeds are determined by
careful measurement of the distance between the sensors and the timer
readings. Speeds so determined are manually transferred to paper or PC
record.
• Speed gun method: A police or sports radar gun is manually operated to
determine the speed of the vehicle at the moment it passes over the SUT
sensors. Speeds so determined are manually transferred to paper or PC
record.
• Calibrated vehicle method: A vehicle equipped with a good-quality cruise
control is calibrated using a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver.
After the error in the cruise control has been assessed, the vehicle is used
to generate passes at the ARV speed as determined by averaging the GPS-
indicated speed on each pass. Speeds so determined are manually trans-
ferred to paper or PC record.
• Vehicle generator method: A lightweight trailer is positioned quickly over a
pair of loop sensors in a lane. It then electronically simulates the pas-
sage of vehicles in quick succession by switching shorted turns of wire
installed within the trailer. These synthetic vehicles have known speed
(and other characteristics) and hence can be used to generate agreed
reference values. Speeds and errors from the SUT are either automatically
or manually transferred to paper or PC record.
• Probe vehicle method: A fleet of vehicles that pass the station(s) is fitted
with GPS tracking and GPRS or Short Message Service (SMS) com-
munication. The GPS system is calibrated to a suitable level of accuracy.
The SUT has a GPS-calibrated clock. When a fleet vehicle passes through
the station, it sends a GPRS or SMS message to the station or an
instation, where the two records, one from the GPS vehicle and one
from the TMS, are compared. The system is thus automatic and may run
continuously. The GPS records are used as the accepted reference values.
This method uniquely does not require attendance at the site or site
access to the SUT.
The following method is suitable for portable and fixed-site use:
• Light beam method: Vehicles break the line of sight of a pair of invisible
infrared beams. Emitters and reflectors or receivers are mounted above,
below, or beside the roadway (either temporarily or permanently) near
the sensors of the SUT. A calibrated general-purpose electronic counter
timer with two inputs is connected to the beam outputs. ARV speeds are
determined by careful measurement of the distance between the beams
and the timer readings. Speeds so determined are manually or automati-
cally transferred to paper or PC record.
Finally, the last is a fixed-site method:
• Redundant station method: An additional (redundant) monitoring station

is installed directly adjacent to the SUT. The adjacent station is assumed
to produce vehicle records whose speed may be taken as accepted refer-
ence values. These are then used to assess the SUT by file comparison.
11.5 Key ARV Methods for Portable/Temporary Use

The following comments relate to the suitability of each method as a determi-
nant for an accepted reference value for temporary applications:
• Strip sensor method: This method is most suitable for off-road and low-
volume single-carriageway tests. It uses cheap test equipment easily certi-
fiable to national standards. The method requires access to the road
surface and good surface conditions. It can generate automatic readings
either with a “switch card” in the SUT or with appropriate additional
data logging. It will generate up to 1,000 high-quality samples per hour.

• Speed gun method: This is a popular method, but it has significant accura-
cy problems (see Section 11.6). The method is suitable for single-carriage-
way, medium-speed, or medium-volume sites. The method is quick and
easy but requires an expensive speed gun (from £800 to £4,000, U.S. $1,200
to U.S. $6,000). It provides a more reliable reference speed if a sports gun
is selected since these can have a resolution to ±0.1 mph or kph with 4/5
rounding. This method uses a random selection of target vehicles, and so
the results may be perceived as more representative. It will generate up to
300 medium-quality samples per hour.
• Calibrated vehicle method: This method is best for dual-carriageway, high-
speed, high-volume sites with frequent turnaround points. It is a more
Speed 137
expensive method that requires the use of a GPS receiver (costing about
£150 or U.S. $225 each) and a vehicle fitted with cruise control. It is a
good method in poor weather conditions. Given typical turnaround
locations, it will generate 5 to 60 high-quality samples per hour (see
Section 11.10).
11.6 Speed Gun Technology

Speed guns are based on radar or lidar technology. Radar guns emit a microwave
frequency signal that reflects from the moving vehicle and returns to the gun.
The return frequency is changed because of the Doppler effect, and the speed is
determined by measuring the frequency shift. Figure 11.2 shows a typical speed
gun on the market today. The main disadvantage is that the beam width can-
not always separate vehicles, which is especially problematic on dual-carriageway
roads.
Lidar, or laser, guns emit a narrow infrared beam that also reflects from the
vehicle and returns to the gun. The gun measures the time of flight and thereby
measures the distance to the target. This is done two or three times a second, and
by subtraction, the distance traveled over the time period is converted into an
accurate speed reading. The beam is extremely focused, making it easy to target
particular vehicles in the traffic stream and get an accurate reading for just one
vehicle, even in multilane situations.
However, because the lidar gun measures speed over a distance, it cannot
measure the precise spot speed at a point. It is therefore difficult to get accurate
Figure 11.2 Typical speed gun. (Courtesy of Applied Concepts, Inc.)
readings if the vehicle is accelerating or braking, perhaps in response to the sight

of the gun user. Figure 11.3 shows radar guns in use in the United States.
Radar-based speed guns may be calibrated with a calibrated tuning fork.
They tend to be more accurate than lidar, but the wide beam width makes it
more of an art to separate individual vehicles in heavy traffic. Radar units are also
usually lower in cost. Lidar units are calibrated by performing distance checks
with objects at a known distance. They tend to be less accurate and getting sam-
ples takes longer, making them less responsive compared to radar units.
11.6.1 Speed Gun Measurement Rounding Down

Most speed guns, whether radar or laser models, round down to the nearest unit,
for example, to the nearest lower kilometer or mile per hour. This is because
Figure 11.3 (a) Enforcement officer aiming speed gun, and (b) video image showing where
speed gun has been aimed and reported speed.

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Sampling 107

• The four seasons of the year;

7.7 Deliberately Biased Sampling

7.8 Sample Size Considerations

A 10 or 15 minute sample is generally a suitable minimum. This is because

8.2 Online Validation

is performed. Usually, an actual traffic event or other plausible explanation for

Figure 8.1 Typical layout for a permanent verification site.

8.4 Assessment Output

8.5 Manual Verification

8.5.1 Verification for Audit

determined by an enumerator. A documented approach is required so that the

8.5.4 Enumerator Decisions

8.5.5 Multiple Enumerations

8.5.6 Vehicle Length

8.5.7 Conditions of Work

• The video monitor presents a flicker-free (i.e., a minimum of 100 Hz)

• Lighting is appropriate, and no reflections are visible to the enumerator.

8.6 Historic Data Validation and Patching

1. Data validation: The process where data is reviewed and determined to

8.6.1 Data Validation

1. Unusual circumstances that lead to a higher or lower true count or

This book is mainly concerned with the second situation, although in

8.6.2 Manual Data Validation

8.6.3 Automatic Data Validation

• There are no negative values in the data.

8.6.4 Data Value Window

1. Invalid data identifiers (outliers);

Another family of models for this function is the autoregressive integrated

8.6.5 Data Patching

8.6.6 Patching of Count-and-Classify Data

8.6.7 Patching of Loop-Based Speed Measurement Data

8.6.8 Patching of ANPR-Based Speed Measurement Data

9.2 Traffic Monitoring Stations, Sites, and Equipment

9.3 Measurement Types

1. Quantitative measurements: Measurements that result in a numeric value

In traffic monitoring, some quantitative measurements are reported as cat-

9.3.1 Traffic Data Types

1. Traffic stream data (TS data);

3. Link traffic data (LT data).

9.4 Typical Traffic Monitoring Sensing Devices

9.4.1 Axle Detectors

9.4.2 Inductive Loops

Zone detection area

Figure 9.3 Zone of detection for induction loop sensor.

9.4.3 Above Ground Detectors

A passive infrared detector can be used to determine the (moving) presence of a

9.4.4 Image Processing

shorthand for detector occupancy as defined above.

vehicle _ length + loop _ length

Occupancy is sometimes quoted in percentage terms. In these cases, it is

10.2 Occupancy Rate Error Assessment Methods

10.3 Occupancy Error Rate

10.4 Video Frame Count Method

Error = % occupancy − TMU report (10.2)

10.5 Confidence Interval for Individual Sample Period Intervals

CII 95% = ± z 95% × SD = ±2.78 × 0.93% = 2.59%

This means that, assuming continuing occupancy samples of about 5

10.6 Confidence Limits for the Mean Occupancy

culated using (2.4) as follows:

dalg_CH10_1.indd 4 7/22/2008 2:25:36 PM

10.7 Other Occupancy Time Periods

11.1 Definition of Speed