Rev G&I Therm (1996) 35, 503-516

0 Elsevier, Paris

Single and two-phase discharge from

a pressurized vessel

Julie Lenclud, James ES Venart*

Fire Science Centre, University of New Brunswick, PO Box 4400, Fredericton E3B 5A3, Canada

(Received 30 June 1995; accepted 18 July 1996)

Abridged French version at the end of the text

Summary - The objective of this work was to establish models for the blowdown process of partially filled pressure
liquefied vessels and to validate the models by comparison with experimental pressure measurements. On the basis of
experiments using small 400 mL steel pressure vessels with creep and knife induced cracks, a crack opening model
was developed using the Crack Opening Displacement theory and plastic displacement assumptions. For a single-phase
discharge, an expression for the unsteady compressible choked flow through openings of varying areas was developed.
The results of this blowdown model were compared with experimental pressure measurements obtained for nine small
vessels filled with argon and water - at different fill levels (70, 80 and 90%) with different initial pressures. The influence
of the speed of crack propagation and discharge coefficient were evaluated. The simulations of the single-phase model
were found to be in reasonable agreement with the experiments. The work also presents a comparison of several available
two-phase blowdown models applicable to the discharge of a pressure liquefied gas (simulated here by refrigerants
Rl 1, R22 and R123). Some modifications to these models were also examined. The two-phase models did not seem to
adequately describe the experimental results even when the model parameters were adjusted to suit the experiments.
Keywords : modelling, blowdown, discharge, pressurized vessels, single-phase flow, two-phase flow, creep, crack propagation

R&urn6 - koulement mono et diphasique depuis un reservoir sous pression. Cette &de a pour objectif d’Ltab/ir
des modPlIes de d6pressurisation de riservoirs sous pression, partiellement remplis de gaz liqu&t, et de valider ces
mod&/es par comparaison avec des r&/tats exptrimentaux mettant en jeu des r&ervoirs d’acier de 400 mL. Un mode/e
de propagation de fissures provoquees par fluage thermique ou par couteau, est de’velopp8 en utilisant /a thaorie du
ddplacement de fissure et des hypothtses concernant le dtplacement plastique. Pour un e’coulement monophasique,
une expression du flux variable compressible &rang/e’ ci travers une ouverture de superficie variable est determinte.
Les r&u/tats de ce modtile sont compare’s avec les mesures exptrimentales de pression obtenues pour neuf re’servoirs
remplis d’eau et d’argon b diff&ents niveaux (70, 80 et 90 %) et diffirentes pressions initiales. L’inpuence de la
vitesse de propagation de fissure et du coefficient d’dcoulement a 6te’ aussi ttudit. Les simulations relatives au modPIe
monophasique sont en accord raisonnable avec /es expdriences. Cette ttude prisente aussi une comparaison des diffirents
modhles applicables aux e’coulements diphasiques de gaz liqutfie’ (simuli ici par /es r6frigLrants R 1 1, R22 et RI 23).
Des modifications sont aussi apportLes d certains modtiles. Les modLIes diphasiques ne dkcrivent pas adiquatement les
rkultats expe’rimentaux mime aprtk un ajustement des paramttres des modtles.
Mot+cl& : modilisation, depressurisation, reservoirs sous pression, (coulements critique monophasique ou diphasique, fluage
thermique, propagation de fissure

Nomenclature CD discharge coefficient

Dt iteration time. . .
A crack area........................ m2 E elastic modulus of the container. . . Mm-:
a half crack length. . .. . m G mass flux......................... kg.m-2.s-1
b half crack width . m h enthalpy per unit mass . . J.kg-’
c constant ratio of length over plastic lf final half crack length . . m
displacement n thermal equilibrium polytropic ex-
cp,V heat capacity at constant pressure, ponent
volume........................... J.kg-l.K-’ N correlation factor for the Henry and
CZ constant introduced in the second Fauske model
step crack extension . .. . m P pressure of the gas. Pa
R plastic radius. . . . m
RO mean radius of curvature of the
* Correspondence and reprints container......................... m

so3 5

entropy per unit mass . . . . . J.kg-l.K-’
iLIP slip ratio
Th wall thickness of the container.. .
t1 time till which the first step crack
extension is valid . . S
t Af time when the final area is reached
u
V
velocity of the gas .
volume...........................
. ., .
W crack half width from plastic
theory............................
X quality
Greek Symbols
void fraction
factor in Henry and Fauske model
crack opening displacement .
crack tip opening displacement.
isentropic exponent
critical pressure ratio Pez/P
density...........................
stress.............................
equivalent uniaxial gross stress for
a flat plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
actual circumferential hoop stress.
yield stress of the container.. . . .
specific volume . . . .
crack speed in first step crack
extension . . . . . . . .
crack speed in second step crack
extension . ..
Subscripts
C choked
e equilibrium
ex at the exit throat
f liquid phase
9 gas phase
i initial conditions
1 n INTRODUCTION
This paper is part of the ongoing study into
the causes of accidents of pressure liquefied gases
(PLG). The boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion
(BLEVE) - when the contents are released in an
adiabatic flash - has been considered by some to
be the most severe type of containment failure
for these fluids. Recent experimental evidence has
however shown the possibility of a more serious
event than the BLEVE. This type of occurrence
has been termed a boiling liquid compressed bubble
explosion (BLCBE) [1,2]. As part of this study to
determine the complex sequence of events that
result in the BLEVE or BLCBE, a series of
small scale experiments have been conducted with
partially filled vessels pressurized with argon, Rll,
R22 and R123. A restricted set of these tests was
undertaken to determine the transient blowdown of
the vessel through a time varying opening, initiated
either by local torch impingement (creep rupture) or
by a knife. Dynamic pressures were recorded along
504 5
J Lenclud, J ES Venart
with high speed cinematography of the vessel and
the discharge behavior of its contents [l].
m
S
m.s-l
m3 2 n LITERATURE REVIEW
m
2.1. SINGLE-PHASE FLOW THROUGH A TIME
VARYING OPENING
The gas discharge or blowdown from a pressure
. m vessel into the atmosphere can be choked (sonic) or
m unchoked (subsonic) [3-61. Upon first opening of a
gas filled vessel, the pressure gradient accelerates
kg.m-” the gas through the opening so that the discharge is
N.m-’ initially n-rotational, then with laminar boundary
layers, and finally turbulence. As the crack size
increases, the mass flow rate increases. A maximum
flow rate is soon established where sonic velocity
occurs at the throat of the opening 141 tie, choked
or critical flow). In the cases considered here,
the initial containment pressures are such that
a choked discharge is always initiated. As the gas
continues to discharge from the vessel, its internal
. pressure decreases along with a decrease in throat
pressure until the flow eventually becomes subsonic
and the gas velocity diminishes through turbulent
onto laminar flow regimes until there is no further
flow and the pressure inside the vessel is completely
released.
A complete description of the compressible lam-
inar or turbulent flow through an opening is very
complex [7,81. Consequently most models assume
choked flow from the commencement of discharge
19-111. Woodward et al 191 present a review of the
procedures used to evaluate the time varying volu-
metric gas discharge rate in sonic flow and deduce
the time at which subsonic flow occurs for a constant
sized opening after the commencement of choked
flow. Moody 1101 predicts the time-dependent gas
properties of the fluid during the discharge process
of a pressure vessel with a constant throat area
aperture. Choked flow is assumed and all variables
are considered space independent. He considers a
rigid and adiabatic vessel, an ideal nozzle and an
ideal gas. Using the conservation of mass, the isen-
tropic flow hypothesis and the mass flux expression
based upon the energy equation, he obtains a time
dependent differential equation for the pressure
inside the vessel. By integration, the internal pres-
sure is deduced. A similar study is also conducted
for an isothermal blowdown.
Xia et al 1121 also present a heat transfer model
for gas filled pressure vessels discharging through
a constant sized opening. This model utilizes:
a lumped parameter model which determines
the temperature of the pressure wall, constant
properties of the fluid (except the density), constant
heat transfer coefficient between the vessel wall
and the fluid and constant mass flow rate. The
 Single and two-phase discharge
model gives reasonable agreement on the pressure
and temperature in the vessel as well as the
temperature of the vessel wall with experiments,
however it is unrealistic since it assumes a constant
mass flow rate and as such is only valid to either
the early stages of discharge or very large vessels.
In most flow models, the area of the throat
is considered constant [9,10]. In case of thermal
rupture (creep) however, the crack opens slowly,
and if subcritical, arrests or stops. The size of
the crack formed depends upon the time and
temperature of exposure in addition to the vapor
volume and its change in internal energy between
initial and choked states. A constant area opening
model is then far from satisfactory under these
circumstances.
Baum [13,14] considers the development of a
breach occurring in a gas pipeline. His deductions
are based on high speed photography of an axial
ductile shear fracture of a steel pipe. An axial defect
is machined at the middle surface of the pipe. The
crack propagates because of the plastic deformation
of the pipe wall. On average, the free edge velocity
measured from the 6lm is 150 m.s-’ while the
breach velocity is 200 m.s-’ at its peak or of the
order of the speed of sound in the gas. Baum also
describes a pressure transient model for the axial
propagation of the crack.
Bhandari and Leroux 1151 concentrated their
work on French pressurized water reactors (PWR)
and especially on a break down occurring in
the steam generator entry elbow. The purpose of
their study was to calculate the time of crack
opening and the maximum leakage areas for
longitudinal through-wall cracks. They observed by
visual measurements an average break opening
velocity of 60 m.s-’ and 120 m.s-’ for the break
propagation velocity
For creep induced rupture, crack velocities have
been found to be very much smaller 1161 than
those noted above where brittle fracture or ductile
shear fracture occurs. Here, because of stress
concentrations, plasticity is important at the tip
so that linear elastic fracture mechanics cannot
be applied 1151 and new fracture criteria have been
developed 1171. This leads to a relative displacement
of the crack surface and the necessity of the crack
opening displacement (COD) theory. As noted in
WI, this methodology combines perfect elastic
stresses and displacement around a central through
thickness crack in an infinite plate subjected to a
tensile stress perpendicular to the plane of the
crack. These assumptions appear to be reasonable
for an elastic-plastic material. The COD theory is
based on the Dugdale model, which assumes the
crack to be partially constrained by a uniformly
distributed internal tension over the plastic radius
at the tip. The displacement at tip has been
successfully derived [20] and Dieter 1213 provides
an expression of the relative displacement of the
crack edges at any point function of the crack
opening displacement at the tip. Thus in [15],
the COD theory is applied but an amplification
from a pressurized vessel
factor is applied to the stress intensity factor
with a plasticity correction factor to the Dugdale
model parameter necessary to take into account
the plasticity-curvature interaction. On the other
hand, to take into account curvature, Folias 1221 and
then Leibowitz [23] expressed a correction factor to
the stress to make those relationships, originally
valid for an infinite flat plate, valid for the cracked
cylinder.
Erdogan et al in 1111 is the only author found
to consider the coupled case of fracture mechanics
and gas discharge of a pressure vessel containing a
defect. They studied crack propagation and arrest
in gas pressurized vessels. A thin walled cylindrical
vessel was assumed to contain a symmetrically
longitudinal part-through crack with a relatively
small net ligament. They apply the COD theory to
calculate the crack surface displacements, taking
into account the effects of the curvature by a
procedure similar to the one used by Folias.
They assume a quasi static shell problem with
an elliptical crack opening, the crack length and
the elastic crack opening displacement at the
center of the crack as the major and minor axes.
An approximation of the crack opening area is
introduced for low stresses. They assume the flow
to be sonic and develop a differential equation
in pressure similar to that of Moody 1101 except
that they introduce a discharge coefficient and an
area function of the internal pressure and crack
length. Four different models of crack length are
introduced that utilize maximum crack opening
velocity varying from 0.2 m.s-’ up to 762 m.s-‘.
The depressurization models are compared for
a discharge coefficient of 0.5 or 0.8. However,
no experimental validation is presented. Erdogan
et al 1111 only consider an elastic fracture for low
nominal stresses.
In the case of this work, creep induced rupture
or slow knife induced piercing has been utilized so
that plastic flow during the opening is predominant.
Such a crack opening is then a combination of
elastic and plastic components. The crack length
and thus the crack opening, are measured using
high speed cinematography taken from the vessel.
A COD equation will also be derived for higher
stresses observed during the experiments. The area
model will next be used in parallel with a single
choked flow model as developed in 1101.
2.2. DEPRESSURIZATION MODELS FOR TWO-
PHASE FLOW
After gas discharge and repressurization, a two-
phase discharge occurs if vessel containment is
maintained. At this time, the crack can be assumed
to be fully developed and arrested. Whalley in
[241 reviews the different available models. In
the simplest instance, the homogeneous equilibrium
model (HEM) with the two-phases assumed to be
in thermodynamic equilibrium and their average
505 s
 J Lenclud, J ES Venart
speeds equal can be utilized. The expansion of the
fluid is considered to be isentropic [24-261. Another
frequently quoted model is the homogeneous frozen
model (HFM). This assumes that the two phase
velocities are equal, that no mass transfer takes
place between the two phases and that an isentropic
expansion of the vapor with a consequent increase
in kinetic energy due only to vapor expansion
[24,26] occurs. Moody [25] proposed an alternative
model that considers annular flow with uniform
but unequal phase velocities and the fluids in
thermodynamic equilibrium. The expression of the
slip ratio is made by minimizing the kinetic energy
in the energy equation with respect to the slip ratio.
As noted in [24], comparison to experimental data
usually indicates that the HEM yields a good critical
pressure ratio but underestimates the flow rate
while the HFM underestimates the critical pressure
ratio but provides a good prediction for the tlow rate.
Moody’s model overestimates considerably the flow
rate. As the quality increases, the HEM and the
HFM both tend to give similar results.
Besides these analytical models, numerous em-
pirical ones also exist. Among them, the model of
Henry and Fauske [26] appears most promising.
No heat or mass transfer is considered to occur in
the nozzle but the mass and heat transfer rates
between phases at the throat are not negligible. In
this model, the two phases are assumed to have the
same velocity with the gas expanding isentropically
and the liquid being incompressible. At the throat,
the vapor is taken to behave polytropically and is
not in equilibrium. This hypothesis is based on the
observed properties of real flows.
Then, there are the nucleation models. Based
on previous detailed observations, Deligiannis and
Cleaver [27] conclude that the thermal non equi-
librium is a necessary requirement to predict the
early stage of rapid depressurization. They empha-
size the fact that the effect of nucleation should be
taken into account in the conservation equations.
That is why references [27-291 consider nucleation
for rapid depressurization. In [28], Bartak reviews
bubble growth theory for homogeneous nucleation
and introduces a heterogeneous nucleation param-
eter into the theory. From his own data and that of
others, empirical correlations are introduced and a
pressure undershoot is then deduced as well as the
pressure and void fraction at any point of the pipe.
In [29], Hooper et al use previously developed mod-
els for nucleation and introduce a variable pressure
growth. However, since the predicted radius of bub-
bles is smaller than experimental data, the model
is corrected by an amplification factor, and in par-
allel with a hypothetical temperature change, it
gives good agreement. Deligiannis and Cleaver [27]
account for the early stage of depressurization by
taking into account significant thermal non equilib-
rium. The model is based on thermal and calorific
equations of state with interfacial transfers. These
transfers are a function of the size and number of
bubbles. Contrary to most studies that obtain good
agreement based on assigning arbitrary values for
506 s
the bubble size or number of bubbles, the bubble
radius is here a function of time and space. The
rate of critical bubble formation for heterogeneous
nucleation is derived from previous literature. It
introduces a parameter function of the contact an-
gle at the bubble interface. A careful choice of this
parameter allows a better agreement with experi-
ments than the models without nucleation.
Because of their strong dependence on empirical
parameters, the above nucleation models described
will not be developed further here and the more
analytical ones earlier discussed will be examined.
The results of three models (HEM, HFM, Moody)
will be described in detail along with a correction
to the HFM (introduced at very low quality) as a
fourth possibility as well as a modified Henry and
Fauske model based on Tangren et al [30].
3I EXPERIMENTS
The test facility utilized in this work consists of a
small scale steel pressure vessel with internal pres-
sure transducers, recording devices (photographic
and video), a means of thermal or mechanical ini-
tial partial failure of the vessel, provision for ex-
ternal and/or internal heating of the contents and
experimental control; greater detail may be found
in references [7] and [19].
In brief, the pressure vessels were made of
0.075 mm thick low carbon low alloy deep drawing
steels. The vessels were 350 mL cold drink bever-
age cans modified by pre-pressurization to extend
the recessed end as to provide vessels with nominal
400 mL capacity. As pressure vessels, such con-
tainers are inexpensive yet strong (hydraulic burst
pressures 2.7 MPa) thus permitting many replica-
tions of tests, based upon initial conditions, with
factors of safety in excess of three.
The pre-removed tab-end of the can is placed
over a fabricated end piece and the end sealed by
an 0 ring and clamp. The end piece contains two
dynamic and static pressure transducers in addition
to a copper-constantan thermocouple, a fill and a
vent line.
Dynamic and static pressures are measured. The
static transducer is an Ashcroft sealed diaphragm
unit (ASH-S-050~5-M-OS-F2-500) with a maximum
indicating capability of 3.5 MPa over a temperature
range of - 50 to + 90 ‘C; the unit has a response
time of better than 5 ms. The dynamic pressures are
indicated by Endevco, model 8511A, piezo-resistive
transducers with a capability of 70 MPa with rise
times better than 1 s over the temperature range
- 54 to + 107 ‘C. All transducers, appropriately
signal conditioned, were recorded using a Nicolet
Pro 90 4 channel digital oscilloscope capable of
sampling rates of up to 10 M-samples per second
with 12 bit resolution and greater amounts at lower
 Single and two-phase discharge from a pressurized vessel

resolution (8 bit). Low-speed measurements were surface. The crack is then elliptical and the relative
recorded using a Keithley-Metrabyte Das-16 data movement of the two surfaces, called A, is the
acquisition card at rates, determined by software, crack opening displacement which represent twice
of up to 50 kHz with 12-bit resolution. the elastic displacement (of each surface). The crack
Both standard SVHS video recordings and tip opening displacement (CTOD) is noted as S
high-speed cinematography were made. The video (fig 2). In 1211, Dieter introduces a crack opening
records were framed at 30 fps at a shutter speed of displacement at the center of an elliptical shaped
l/10000 s and analyzed with a MATROX MVP- crack and deduces a relationship for A as a function
AT frame grabber. A HYCAM I 16 mm rotat- 0fS:
ing prism camera (400 ft capacity) operating at
5 000 fps (200 @frame) was used with Eastman
A=% (u~+-$~)~‘~ (1)
Kodak (7259 Ektachrome 400/27’) film. The film
capacity provides for events of up to 1.5 s duration.
Refrigerants, Rll, R22 and R123 were utilized in where G is the equivalent uniaxial gross stress
the results analyzed here at 70, 80 and 90% initial
volumetric fills. Failures in the vessels were either
torch (thermal) induced, as creep ruptures which b m plastic zone
arrested, or mechanically by a longitudinal knife
blade remotely actuated.

A(x) S ’

4I MODEL OF CRACK OPENING 0- X a a+R

X

Fig. 2. Crack displacement concept.

The objective here is to model the observed Fig. 2. Dkplacement de fissure.
crack propagation and opening. Crack lengths are
obtained from high speed cinematography. Crack
A common expression for 6, when a/cry < 0.6, is
widths are not available with precision from those
given as 1201:
measurements so that the width is assumed to be
the sum of two components, an elastic displacement
and a plastic displacement.

The previous analysis considers only a flat

4.1. ELASTIC DISPLACEMENT
The elastic displacement is derived as a function
of the crack length and the internal pressure from
linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) using
crack opening displacement theory in a manner
similar to [ill. The Dugdale model [213 takes
into account the plastic zone at the tip as two
narrow strips extending as indicated in figure 1.
It is assumed that there is an elastic crack of
length ~(CL+ R) but the plastic zone is closed up
by applying compressive stresses normal to the
plate specimen. To take into account the effects
of curvature, it is necessary to use an equivalent
uniaxial gross stress for a flat plate, ag, which is
given as a function of the actual circumferential
hoop stress produced by the internal pressure,
oh [=I.
For a thin specimen of steel:
(3)

When one combines equations (1) (2) and (31, the

crack opening displacement is:

A=

4 >
R 2a
where:
Fig. 1. Dugdale mode/. APRQ
Oh = ___ (5)
Fig. 1. Mod6le de Dugdale. Th
 J Lenclud, J ES Venart
Up to now, we have only considered elastic
deformation, however, some plastic deformation
remains after the vent when no stress is applied.
4.2. PLASTIC DISPLACEMENT
To take into account the creep phenomena dis-
cussed, a plastic displacement must be introduced
into the model. We therefore make two assump-
tions: (i) the crack shape after the vent is elliptical,
and (ii) the shape aspect ratio, ie, the ratio of the
length to the plastic deformation width is constant
over time (fig 3).
a be inferred to be a double step process(l), each of
-= c
W which proceeds at constant velocity:
w to better describe the crack extension.
I v = a/t.
P a
-T
Fig. 3. Crack area schematic.
Fig. 3. Schema de la fissure.
The ratio a/w is evaluated from measurements
made of the length and the width taken from the
vessel after the vent. The measurements for nine
tests are summarized in table I.
Half the actual crack width is the sum of the
elastic and plastic components:
And the crack area is then from (6):
(7)
where a is derived from (4) and (5).
One unknown still remains: the crack length.
The value of the crack length as a function of
time is deduced from analyses of the high speed
cinematography taken during the experiments.
4.3. ANALYSIS OF THE HIGH SPEED
CINEMATOGRAPHY
For most experiments, the crack formation and
opening process was filmed by high speed cine-
matography. The time when the crack commences
is unknown, but a trigger, activated by the depres-
surization response of a dynamic transducer 1311
508 s
initiates a timing light record on the film. Thus,
when the film is reviewed frame by frame back-
wards from the time after crack arrest, the initia-
tion of the crack can be determined. Each frame in
the present experimental series represents 0.2 ms
and thus the crack length is measured on the film
1321 from the final crack length to the commence-
ment of the opening. The crack length is then nor-
malized to the final crack length measured by direct
measurement after the vent.
It is possible therefore to trace the time since
the crack opened. The crack length development
2a can then be determined as a function of the
time and a regression made to determine crack
extension velocity The crack length extension can
o<t<t1 2a = vld2)
tl=<t<tAf 2a = v2t + C2 (8)
t > = tAf 2a = 21s
(1) For two tests net 069 and 036, a single step process was found
(2) The crack velocity is usually defined in the literature as
(net is the prefix of the individual experimental file numbers).
An example of the crack extension evaluation for
the test net 055 is shown in figure 4. For each test,
the determined values of WI, tl, ~2, C2 are shown
in table I. For the tests where cinematography was
not available (when needed, ie, for the partially
water filled vessels), values of VI, tl, ~2, C2 were
obtained by averaging tests with double step crack
extension: net 070, 054, 040, 060, 044.
4.4. DISCUSSION OF THE CRACK OPENING
MODEL
The previously developed crack opening model is
a cold model since it is applied for ambient tem-
perature vessel properties and a purely cylindrical
vessel. However, because of the torch, the tempera-
ture of the vessel in the heated zone reaches 400 OC!
and an hemispherical blister is created so that the
previously developed model is theoretically incor-
rect. A hot model was therefore also developed and
the results of the two models were found to pro-
duce very similar results [33]. Even though the hot
model represents better the crack opening, impre-
cision is introduced with the measurements of the
blister geometry and the temperature of the blister.
Consequently the cold model was used.
Since the vessels which failed by knife are
the ones filled with Rll, R22 or R123 and the
discharge of the two phase mixture is delayed
by the gas discharge, we consider the crack
to be fully open when the two-phase discharge
begins. Consequently, the previously developed
model (based on cold assumption) is applicable to
the fully developed knife crack and crack extension
coefficients are not necessary
 Single and two-phase discharge from a pressurized vessel

TABLE I / TABLEAU I
Summary of crack measurements
Resume des mesures de fissure
-
Fluid Mode Final crack c=a I uI Crack extension Timing of final crack Timing Test
of failure length 21p Izoefficients WI; tl; VZ; C2 length tAf (on film) Tdelay net
(mm) m.s-l; ma; m.s-l; mm (ms) (ms)
-
4dHZO torch 12.54 12.78 0.85; 14.8; 0.85; 0 14.8 15.8 036
11.38 20.32 - 039
15.43 17.14 3.13; 2.2; 0.86; 5.3 12 12 040
12.74 30.33 0.75; 11; 0.3; 6.6 19.8 19.6 044
11.6 18.12 - - 045
12.8 13.62 1.3; 8; 0.18; 9.07 20.2 20.8 054
10.26 17.69 1.19; 3.6; 0.38; 2.9 21 21 055
11.84 17.16 - 057
7.3 21.47 - - - 060
17.89 18.44 1.02; 17.6; 1.02; 0 17.6 17.8 069
15.4 18.33 1.43; 8; 0.68; 4.98 15.6 15.6 070
-
R22 torch 7.28 2.8 - 104
knife 8.13 12.9 - 142
Rll knife 9.04 14.35 131
-
R123 knife 9.27 14.71 - - 134

12 (about 50 ps) [331. Consequently, the flow here is

considered to be choked during the whole process.
Depressurization is assumed to be sufficiently slow
for the stagnation variables to be homogeneous for
the whole vessel. Based on Moody’s derivation [lo],
a choked flow model is tist presented in which
we introduce a time varying area and a discharge
coefficient.
Using the mass flow rate equation and the
assumption that the process is considered isentropic
and the gas perfect:

Fig. 4. Crack speed evaluation (net 055). As for choked flow:

Fig. 4. Calcul de la vitesse d’ouverture (net 055).

5I DEPRESSURIZATION MODEL From the steady energy equation

critical mass flux G, is:
and (101, the
FOR SINGLE-PHASE FLOW

For the experiments of argon/water, the tem-

perature of the water stays such that its volume
stays constant so that we consider only a gas dis- The equation for pressure becomes with (11):
charge. It is assumed that initially the discharge
is irrotational with laminar boundary layers before
establishment of the critical flow at the throat of
the opening. The establishment of the choked flow
is often considered instantaneous [g-111. Simplified
models on unchoked flow were studied and the du- (Y+l)lGYY--1) yp.
-2 (12)
ration of this first stage is shown to be negligible
d Pi
 J Lenclud, J ES Venart

The problem can be considered to be quasi 6.2. HOMOGENEOUS FROZEN MODEL

static. With this assumption, equation (12) may be
integrated between t - At and t which corresponds
to last P = P(t - At) and P:
The assumptions are that, we can neglect wall
shear forces, the liquid is incompressible, the
quality does not vary through the ex and the vapor
expands isentropically.
The momentum equation is integrated from one
end of the ex to the other:

(l ,yf (1 - Q) + 2 [l - (y)(y
9

(13)
= y (1 -+Jf
2 [ xvg
+ (p)lr
1 2 @/)(1+4/Y
(15)

Equations (15) can be written as:

This equation can be combined with the equa-
tions of the area function of the internal pressure
and the time (41, (5) and (7) as well as in combina-
tion with the high speed cinematography deduced
crack velocities (8) to deduce the time dependent
internal pressure.
In the classical HFM, the critical mass flux is
derived from the enthalpy difference [26], by
neglecting the liquid contributions and using the
6I DEPRESSURIZATION MODEL
steady-flow energy:

FOR TWO-PHASE FLOW (17)

When a vessel containing a PLG suffers a partial As emphasized in [24], (17) is an attempt, at
failure above its liquid level, the first fluid to exit least in part, to represent the influence of the liquid
will be the vapor. As the pressure decreases inside in the expansion process. One takes better into
the vessel, the liquid boils and as the bubbles account the effects of the liquid by using:
of vapor grow, the mixture swells and the gas
discharge is followed by a two-phase discharge Gc= 1
[34]. Four two-phase flow models available from Vex
the literature are considered as well as a correction
2 Pug [l - &l)/~] + aP(l-z)vf(l-74
to one of them: the homogeneous equilibrium model
(HEM), the homogeneous frozen model (HFM), a
low quality correction of the HFM model, the Moody (18)
model, and the Henry and Fauske model. Equation (18) can be expressed more simply by
All five models presented assume that the using (16):
properties at the entrance of the exit are constant
and the entrance velocity is equal to zero. The ex is (1+-Y)l-Y
considered ideal and the flow process isentropic. For G, =
each model, the properties of the fluid at the throat
are calculated by an iterative process. An isentropic
process in the vessel will be assumed to transform 6.3. MOODY’S MODEL
the stagnation property models into transient ones.
The properties of the fluids are obtained using the It is assumed that the two phases are in
NIST database REFPROP [35]. equilibrium but do not have the same velocity and
the flow is annular at the exit [251. Using the
continuity equation in combination with the steady-
flow energy equation and the slip ratio definition,
6.1. HOMOGENEOUS EQUILIBRIUM MODEL one can write:
The flow is choked when the value of the mass Gex =
flux is maximum for a given set of stagnation
properties [24], ie: 2(h - hex)
1 - Xex
XexVgex+SLIPex(l-Xex)Vfex]2
xex + SLIP& I[
G, = max
(20)

510 5
 Single and two-phase discharge from a pressurized vessel

The mass flux will be maximum when both its Introducing /3 with the definitions (23) and (24):
derivative with respect to exit pressure and exit
slip ratio are equal to zero. This imposes:

113
SLIP,, =
()
2
2.‘f ex
(21)

and hence:

G,, = max

2(h - he,) The critical mass flux is then defined with (26)
1 - x,x as:
5ezVgel+SLlPez(l-ze~)wfe~]2
(1 ( xex+ -[SLIP& > 1
G, =
(22)
Equation (25) becomes a transcendental expres-
sion of n:
6.4. HENRY AND FAUSKE MODEL

The Henry and Fauske model [261 is based on a

presumption of non equilibrium homogeneous flow.
The authors suppose however that there is little
time for mass or heat transfer to occur in the ex. The
velocity of the two phases are assumed to be equal.
The system is presumed to behave isentropically
with an isentropic expansion of the gas phase and
the liquid assumed to be incompressible.
The negligible interphase heat transfer during
the expansion results in large heat transfer rates
at the throat [26] so that it is assumed that the
vapor at the throat behaves polytropically with n a
thermal equilibrium polytropic exponent defined by
1301:
It should be noted that the expression of the
thermal equilibrium polytropic exponent (23) is the
one derived from Tangren et al [301; in their original
model, Henry and Fauske 1261 used a different
expression (supposedly from Tang-i-en). Ironically
however, the Henry and Fauske model was designed
for low quality and it is in this range that the
thermal equilibrium polytropic exponent used by
them varies most from Tangren’s expression.

(l-x)$+x 6.5. INTRODUCTION OF A DISCHARGE

n= COEFFICIENT
(23)
(1 - x)$ + ;
A discharge coefficient is introduced to take
into account the reduction of jet area due to the
In the same way, the mass transfer rate at the formation of a vena contracta. First, the real mass
throat is also not negligible. If an equilibrium flux G is determined for each model as:
quality is defined, the mass transfer rate at the
G = CDG, (29)
throat has been correlated for steam-water critical
flow as follows with N the partial change of where G, is defined as (141, (171, (191, (22) or (27).
quality at the throat defined 1261 for steam-water, For the homogeneous frozen model and Henry
potassium vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and all and Fauske model, the transcendental equations
geometries as: derived from an energy equation (16) or (281, should
be modified as follows:
N = min(Xe,e/0.14,1) (24)
- Y/Y-l
q1 -Q) + *
Following the same procedure as for HFM, one
obtains: rl= (30)
@I
- -+*
2/34x
(l ;;l”f (1 - 7))+ * [l - (q)(7-1!/7]
with /3 = l/y for the two homogeneous frozen
9 models.
_ xvgex17-1/7 (l-x)w.f +1 2Gz (25) It should again be noted that this expression of
2P [ Xugex 1 the transcendental critical pressure ratio equation

511 5
 J Lenclud, J ES Venart

with a discharge coefficient differs from the one

TABLE II / TABLEAU II
used by Henry and Fauske [261.
Summary of Ar/HzO data tests
Don&es pour les tests avec At-/H20

Fill level Nominal Pi Actual Pi Test

6.6. SPEED OF SOUND IN THE TWO-PHASE
(%I MPa g (psi g) MPa g (psi g) net
MIXTURE
50 0.76 (110) 0.81 (118) 069
0.82 (119) 070
It is also of interest to compare the throat 0.62 (90) 0.69 (100) 057
discharge velocity of the two-phase models with
the speed of sound in the two-phase mixture. This 70 0.76 (110) 0.81 (118) 036
value can be locally defined as 1361: 0.88 (128) 045
0.62 (90) 0.71 (103) 054

d P 80 0.76 (110) 0.79 (115) 040

U sound = (31) 0.62 (90) 0.81 (118) 055
PfU - Qb 0.84 (122) 060

where Q is specified for the throat conditions of the

appropriate model.
l-3 y-c-

6.7. THE TRANSIENT TWO-PHASE BLOWDOWN 0.8 1 0-4 Sifiulatiori

PROCESS

The models presented earlier are based upon

stagnation properties and by using mass conserva-
tion with assumed isentropic processes inside the
vessel, it is possible to describe the transient two-
phase model which allows for the depressurization
which will occur with discharge. The isentropic pro- 0.2
cess can be written as:
.I,,,, -;;la,,,,d,l ,,,.
0.0
z=--- so - Sf (32) -50.0 -25.0 0.0 25.0 50.0
%I - S.f Time (ms)

The mass conservation is expressed through: Fig. 5. Single-phase discharge: net 055.
Fig. 5. koulement monophasique : net 055.
CDGC [P(t - At)] A [P(t - at)] at
p = p(t - At) - V
(33)

‘.O
I----- I1

-
7 1 IiT

Vaverage -
I1 1

7I RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

0.8 1

7.1. SINGLE PHASE FLOW MODEL

Results from the simulations and experimental

curves (table I and II) obtained from a dynamic
transducer are compared. We only present here one
example: test net 055 with a discharge coefficient of
1 and an iteration time of 1 ms (fig 5). The influence
of different parameters, crack speed and discharge
coefficient are also studied for the same test cfig 6 Time (ms)
and 7). The simulation is also compared with the
prediction from Moody [lOI with an instantaneous
opening with or without elastic displacement cfig 8). Fig. 6. Influence of the crack speed (net 055).
Two parameters seem essential in order to correctly Fig. 6. Influence de la vitesse d’ouverture de la fissure
describe the blowdown process: (i) the final crack (net 055).

512 s
 Single and two-phase discharge from a pressurized vessel

area appears to determine the rate of depressuriza-
tion, and (ii) the time for crack opening, however,
determines the delay before the depressurization
begins. In most cases, these two characteristics
are in relatively good agreement with experiments,
even if some simulations start later compared to
the experimental data. Since the crack propagation
velocity and exact crack opening time are derived
from the cinematography, they are subject to im-
precision that can explain this discrepancy. The
model results differ from the experiment in the
later stages of the depressurization process because
the dynamic pressure transducer used for the mea-
surement of pressure is AC coupled and so cannot
measure slow changes of pressure such as those
near the end of the depressurization. The present
model appears thus to be an improvement to the
commonly used model developed by Moody 1101.
7.2. TWO-PHASE FLOW MODELS
Four tests (t&e III) were studied for the five
two-phase models presented previously. The results
from the different simulations were compared to
the experimental pressure traces obtained with
a static transducer. We only present here two
examples, net 142 and 104, with respectively a
discharge coefficient of 0.5 and 1, and both a crack
fully opened and an iteration time of 0.1 s <fig 9
and 10). It has been assumed that the discharge
of the vapor leads to a liquid level swell with
bubble growth but that the two-phase mixture
stays at its equilibrium saturated conditions. All
the models therefore used the following initial
conditions: (i) initial containment pressure equal
to the filling containment pressure, (ii) saturated
initial conditions with a void fraction equal to
the initial percentage of volume of gas 1361. The
influence of the different parameters are also
studied: for net 142, the discharge coefficient is
increased from 0.5 to 1 @g II) and for net 104, the
void fraction is decreased from 18% to 10% CfIg 12)

Summary of crack measurements

R&sum6 des mesures de fissure

0.2 t -4-l
I-

0.04
-50.0 -25.0 0.0 25.0 50.0
Time (ms)

Fig. 7. Influence of the discharge coefficient (net 055).

Fig. 7. Influence du coefficient d’koulement (net 055).

0.8

0.8
B
Q
z 0.4
5
8
lz 0.2

~,,,,I,,,,,,,,,,,jjI~
0.0 380 390 400
-50.0 -25.0 0.0 25.0 50.0
Time (ms) Time (s)

Fig. 8. Comparison with Moody’s model (net 055). Fig. 9. Two-phase discharge: net 142.
Fig. 8. Comparaison avec le modtile de Moody (net 055). Fig. 9. koulement diphasique : net 142.
 J Lenclud, J ES Venart

0.8

0.8 0.8
s 3 -MoooY
!i Is
z 0.4 g 0.4
3 I
t 2
Q 0.2 a 0.2

0.0
180 150 180 170
Time (s) Time (s)

Fig. 10. Two-phase discharge: net 104. Fig. 12. Influence of the initial void fraction (net 104).
Fig. 12. Influence du taux de vide initial (net 104).
fig. 10. koulement diphasique : net 104.

pressure in the early stages of depressurization.

0.8 ('1
-~~
380
Time (s)
Fig. 1 1. Influence of the discharge
Fig. I 7. Influence du coefficient
8 n CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEN-
DATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK
For the case of gas discharge, a model for
unsteady frictionless compressible choked flow
through varying size opening (with slow crack
opening) was presented. The results of the model
were later compared with the experimental pres-
sure measurements obtained for nine 500 mL steel
vessels filled with argon and water, at different
fill levels (70%, 80% and 90%) and different ini-
tial pressures. The comparisons showed reasonable
agreement with experiment for both rate of de-
pressurization and delay before the commencement
of the depressurization. The speed of crack propa-
gation was shown to have major influence on the
Consequently, the dynamic opening model devel-
oped provides a better description of the depres-
surization than the instantaneous opening model
usually assumed (the time to reach 75% of the ini-
tial containment pressure is about 10% smaller for
- MOODY the instantaneous opening than for the dynamic
opening event). The usual range of discharge coeffi-
cient was found to be of little significance especially
for the start of the depressurization.
In the case of two-phase discharge, several avail-
able two-phase blowdown models applicable to pres-
sure liquefied gases were presented as well as some
modified forms of the models. They were used in par-
allel with the crack opening model for a fully opened
- 390 crack and applied after the single-phase discharge
event and following an assumed repressurization
back to the original saturation condition. They were
compared with the experimental pressure traces of
coefficient (ncr 142). four tests with three fluids (Rll, R22 and R123) for
d’kcoulement (net 142). both knife and torch induced rupture. There were
two generalized failures in the considered models:
(i) the overall blowdown time and rate of depressur-
ization are incorrectly predicted for all the models,
and (ii) the qualitative features of the blowdown
are wrong since the repressurization noted experi-
mentally is not considered. Consequently, the ther-
modynamics of the different models are considered
to be incorrect and likely so the mechanics. The
poor representation of the experiments cannot be
explained by a poor choice of initial conditions since
even for the most favorable set of initial conditions,
the predictions highly underestimate the rates of
depressurization and overestimate the times for to-
tal discharge. The discharge coefficient, which was
found to be very important for the two-phase knife
initiated discharge, was also chosen to provide the
most favorable results. Even though only few exper-
iments are available, it can be concluded that the
models are not applicable to the process and that a
very careful description of the initial conditions is
necessary.

514 s
 Single and two-phase discharge from a pressurized vessel

In order to extend this work: boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion. AlChE Loss
- the single-phase choked model could be im- Prevention, New Orleans, March/April 1992
proved to handle non ideal gas by introducing tables [17] Wells AA (1968) Fracture control of thick steels for
of properties to calculate both y and the compress- pressure vessels. British Welding J, 221-229
ibility factor; [18] Burdekin FM, Stone DEW (1966) The crack opening
- for the two-phase flow, new models which will displacement approach to fracture mechanics in
have to be developed are required. yielding materials. J Strain Analysis 1, 2, 145-l 53
[19] Venart JES, Sollows KF, Sumathipala K, Rutledge
GA, Jian X (1993) Boiling liquid compressed bubble
explosions: experiments and mode/s. ASME FED 165,
REFERENCES Gas-liquid flows, US Rohatgi et al ed
[20] Hahn CT, Rosenfield AR (1965) Local yielding and
[l] Rutledge GA, Deschenes PC, Venart JES (1994) extension of a crack under plane stress. Acta
Dynamic pressures in a thermally failed small Metallurgica 13, 293-307
pressure vessel. Text presented at the Dangerous [21] Dieter GE (1986) Mechanical Metallurgy. 3rd edition,
Goods Tank Safety Seminar, Montreal, Quebec, Feb McGraw-Hill, New-York
23-24, 1994
[22] Folias ES (1965) A finite line crack in a pressurized
[2] Venart JES, Sollows KF (1994) Boiling liquid com- cylindrical shell. Int J Fracture Mechanics 1, 1, 104-
pressed bubble explosions. Text presented at the 113
Dangerous Goods Tank Safety Seminar, Montreal,
Quebec, Feb 23-24, 1994 [23] Leibowitz H (1969) Fracture: an advanced treatise.
Vol 5: Fracture Design of Structures. Academic Press,
[3] Daneshyar H (1976) One-dimensional compressible
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flow. Pergamon Press, Oxford, New-York
[24] Whalley PB (1987) Boiling, condensation, and gas-
[4] Allen T, Ditsworth RL (1972) Fluid Mechanics. McGraw-
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(51 Anderson JD Jr (1992) Modern compressible flow. [25] Moody FJ (1965) Maximum flow rate of single
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[6] Churchill S (1983) Handbook of Fluids in Motion.
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and short tubes. J /-/ear Transfer 93, 179-l 87
171 Van Den Berg HR, Ten Seldam CA, Van Der Gulik
PS (1993) Compressible laminar flow in a capillary. [27] Deligiannis P, CleaverJW (1992) Determination of the
J Fluid Mech 246, l-20 heterogeneous nucleation factor during a transient
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[8] Van Den Berg HR, Ten Seldam CA, Van Der Culik PS
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in a capillary. Int J Thermophysics 14, 4, 865-891 [28] Bartak J (1990) A study of the rapid depressurization
[9] Woodward JL, Mudan KS (1991) Liquid and gas of hot water and the dynamics of the vapour bubble
generation in superheated water. Int J Multiphase
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J Loss Prev Process Ind 4, 161-l 65 Flow 16, 5, 789-798

[ 101 Moody FJ (1990) introduction to unsteady thermofluid [29] Hooper FC, Faucher G, Eidlitz A (1970) Pressure ef-
mechanics. John Wiley & Sons, New-York fects on bubble growth in the flashing of superheated
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[l 11 Erdogan F, Delale F, Owczarek J (1977) Crack
Transfer Conference, Paris-Versailles, Vol 5
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Trans ASME, J Pressure Vessel Technol, 90-99 [30] Tangren RF, Dodge CH, Seifert HS (1949) Compress-
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[12 ] Xia JL, Smith BL, Yadigarolu C (1993) A simplified
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vessels. Int Comm Heat Mass Transfer 20, 653-664 [31] Rutledge G. Master Thesis (in progress)
[13 ] Baum MR (1982) The relationship between breach [32] Deschenes P. Master Thesis (in progress)
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[33] Lenclud J (1995) Blowdown of pressurized vessels.
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MScE Thesis, Univ New Brunswick, Canada
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[14] Baum MR (1982) The development of the breach [34] Crolmes MA (1984) A simple approach to transient
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(1992) To BLEVE or not to BLEVE. Anatomy of a

515 s
 J Lenclud, J ES Venart
CONDENSE
koulement mono et diphasique
Pour ameliorer la comprehension des accidents
concernant les reservoirs sous pression, le Fire Sci-
ence Centre de 1’Universite du Nouveau Brunswick
conduit des experiences a petite e’chelle utilisant
des cannettes en acier. Dans cet esprit, cette etude
etablit tout d’abord un modele de l%coulement de
vapeur depuis un reservoir sous pression soumis
a fluage par une torche. Le modele est valid6 par
comparaison avec des resultats experimentaux de
mesures de pression obtenus pour neuf reservoirs
remplis d’eau et d’argon a differents niveaux (70, 80
et 90 TO) et differentes pressions initiales. Un modele
de I’e’volution de la superficie de la fissure depuis son
apparition jusqu’a sa taille maximale est developpe.
On suppose que la fissure est de forme elliptique.
Le moo?ele d’ouverture de fissure se base sur une
mesure experimentale de la longueur de la fissure,
par analyse, image par image, d’enregistrements
par camera rapide. La longueur de fissure peut
btre approximee en fonction du temps comme la
composition de deux extensions lineaires. I1 est im-
possible de deduire la largeur de la fissure a par-
tir de la cinematographic. On suppose done que
le rapport longueur sur largeur reste constant du-
rant la o?epressurisation et on obtient ce rapport
par mesure directe apres l’ecoulement. Cependant, a
cause de la pression, le reservoir subit une expan-
sion qui cause une ouverture (elastique) addition-
nelle de la fissure calculb en utilisant la thtorie de
deplacement de fissure. Les effets de courbure sont
aussi pris en compte. Lors du developpement du
mooWe de depressurisation, on fait les hypotheses
suivantes : le gaz est parfait, I’ecoulement est com-
prime et critique dans un conduit i&al, adiaba-
tique et sans fiottement. Un calcul simplifie’ du
516 s
depuis un rkservoir sous pression
temps necessaire a l’etablissement de l’ecoulement
&rang16 indique que dans le pire des cas, ce temps
est de moins de 50 /AS, c’est-a-dire moins que le
temps separant deux images. L’influence du coeffi-
cient d’ecoulement et de la vitesse de propagation
de fissure est dtudiee. La longueur finale de fis-
sure semble Ctre un parametre determinant pour la
vitesse de depressurisation alors que le temps de
propagation determine le dtlai precddant le debut
de la depressurisation. Dans la plupart des cas,
ces deux caracteristiques obtenues lors des simula-
tions sont en bon accord avec celles des resultats
expdrimentaux. Le coefficient d’ecoulement semble
avoir peu d’importance. Cette etude presente aussi
differents moo?eles diphasiques de depressurisation
applicables aux gaz liquefifids ainsi que quelques ver-
sions modifiees. Ils sont utilishs en parallkle avec le
modele d’ouverture de fissure pour une fissure maxi-
male. Les modeles sont compares avec les resultats
exptrimentaux de quatre tests avec trois fluides
(Rll, R22 et R123). Lors de ces tests, la rupture est
provoquee par fluage thermique ou par couteau. Les
modeles diphasiques ne decrivent pas adquatement
les resultats experimentaux puisque : (i) le temps to-
tal decoulement et la vitesse de depressurisation
sont incorrectement predits et (ii) la simulation
ne peut pas p&dire des repressurisations observees
experimentalement. Cette mauvaise representation
ne peut pas &tre expliquee par un mauvais choix
des conditions initiales puisque, meme pour le
choix le plus favorable, les simulations sous-estiment
enormement les vitesses de depressurisation et sures-
timent les temps de’coulement. Les resultats sont tres
sensibles au choix du coefficient d’e’coulement.