Week 3 Turbulent Contexts Leadership and Populism

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Week 3 Turbulent contexts: leadership and populism
Carol Jacklin-Jarvis
Introduction
Welcome to Week 3. To gain an understanding of what you will learn about this week, watch the welcome
video below.
Introduction to Week 3
This week’s studies continue to focus on turbulent contexts and the kind of leadership generated in and by
those contexts through the idea of ‘populism’. You will explore the nature of populist movements and
ideologies, with an emphasis on the kind of leadership that characterises such movements. More specifically,
you will consider how and why populism is associated with a charismatic style of leadership, and explore
populist leadership through the academic concept of charismatic leadership.
The week begins by introducing and defining the key idea of ‘populism’, then goes on to explore the rise of
populist movements in contemporary society. It relates this rise to the central theme of this module –
turbulence. Changing focus, the session moves on to explore the idea of charismatic leadership, exploring the
relationship between populism and charismatic leadership. It then focuses on the idea of populist leadership
through a reading from academics Mudde and Kaltwasser. You will then research and analyse a case example
of populist leadership, and reflect on why this particular form of leadership remains attractive in our turbulent
contemporary society. Throughout the week you will continue to develop your critical thinking skills.
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Key questions
The key questions you will consider this week are:
What is populism?
Why are examples of populism arising in contemporary society?
What forms of leadership are seen in populist movements, and what are the characteristics of populist
leadership?
Activity planner
To help you plan your studies this week, here is a table of the activities you will be working on. Remember that
these timings are approximate and you also need to allow time for reading the linking material and reflecting
on what you have learned.
Week 3 Activity planner
Activity Details Time
1 Definitions of populism Read and highlight key terms 20 minutes
2 Check your understanding Read statements and decide if they are true or false 5 minutes
3 Examples of populism Search for information online 15 minutes
4 Trumpland Watch a video and take notes 10 minutes
5 The rise of populism Read an article, and watch and respond to linked videos 50 minutes
6 Identifying charismatic leaders Identify examples and fill in a table 20 minutes
7 Risks of charismatic leadership Respond to a poll 10 minutes
8 Populism and charisma Read a book chapter and take notes 60 minutes
9 Female leadership Complete a drag-and-drop activity 10 minutes
10 Analysing a case study Analyse a case study 90 minutes
11 Implications for the business world Respond to a questionnaire and reflect on the results 60 minutes
Reflection on Week 3 Use Twitter to reflect on your learning for the week 30 minutes
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1 What is populism?
Show description
In recent years, it has become commonplace for commentators to speak of a ‘rising tide’ of populism across
the world as a descriptor of a changing political landscape. But what does this mean – what is populism, how
are populist movements led and what impact is populism having on our world?
Briefly, populism is a term used to describe popular political movements that challenge the establishment.
These movements can arise from either left- or right- wing positions – from a concern with equality, fair
distribution of wealth, and social justice; or from a more conservative position, concerned to protect tradition,
culture and institutions. Populist movements claim to represent ‘the people’ against powerful elites who sustain
that establishment. They are frequently fronted by larger-than-life charismatic leaders who convey the
impression that they have a unique understanding of the needs of ordinary people. For some, these
movements offer hope of positive social and political change in a world where many have become tired of
traditional politics; for others they threaten societal and political norms that are integral to a democratic society.
In August 2018, Peter Bloom, an OU academic, wrote the following in the UK’s Independent newspaper:
Populism is seemingly sweeping the globe, threatening the established status quo. Optimistically, it
promises to bring about much needed change to what appears to be a corrupt political and economic
order. More ominously, it is dangerously promoting racism, sexism, xenophobia, jingoism and attacking
basic human rights around the world.
(Bloom 2018)
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So, arguably, there is something ambivalent, even paradoxical about populist ideas and movements and their
impact on society. On the one hand, populism holds out the potential of reconnecting politics and people,
involving the population much more directly in determining a nation’s priorities. On the other hand, populist
movements can be divisive rather than inclusive, advocating for ‘the people’, but excluding key sections of the
population from their movement and from society. Extreme right-wing populist movements are characterised
by hatred, oppression and violence.
Furthermore, populist movements tend to be headed by single, individualistic and somewhat colourful leaders,
‘strongmen’ who have uneasy relationships with or directly oppose the political establishment and political
institutions. So, as an idea, populism is about ensuring that political decision-making is directly influenced by
the will of the people, but it also tends to challenge the very institutions, such as the judiciary, that traditionally
are the guardians of democracy. In the words of two academics, ‘populism maintains an ambivalent
relationship with democracy’ (Mudde and Kaltwasser, 2017, p. 64).
Importantly, not all movements that are described as ‘populist’ are the same. So, it is important to ask whether
examples that you encounter in this week’s studies are inclusive or divisive. Do different populist movements
promote or damage democracy; do they promote racism, sexism and dismantle human rights, even as they
promise to bring much-needed change to stale and out-of-touch political systems; or are they essential
disrupters of the establishment that refresh democracy?
You will return to these questions throughout this week’s studies.
1.1 Defining populism

We have begun to identify some of the characteristics of populism, while also beginning to understand that it is
a term used in very different ways by different academics and journalists. While recognising the slippery nature
of language, we need to develop a shared understanding of populism for the purpose of these studies. In the
next activity you will develop your understanding of the term.
Activity 1 Definitions of populism
Allow about 20 minutes to complete this activity
Click on and read each definition. Identify for yourself what you consider to be the key element of each
definition by using the highlighter function to highlight key words on the screen. Then, reveal the
feedback to see a brief reflection on each definition.
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1. Dictionary definition
According to the Oxford English Dictionary (2017) populism means ‘The policies or
principles of any of various political parties which seek to represent the interests of ordinary
people... support for or representation of ordinary people or their views; speech, action,
writing, etc., intended to have general appeal’.
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2. Encyclopaedia definition
The Encyclopaedia Britannica (2013) defines populism as a ‘political program or movement

that champions the common person, usually by favourable contrast with an elite. Populism
usually combines elements of the left and the right, opposing large business and financial
interests but also frequently being hostile to established socialist and labour parties.’
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3. Academic definition 1
Academics Albertzaai and McDonnell (cited in Bloom, 2018) define populism as ‘an
ideology which pits a virtuous and homogeneous people against a set of elites and
dangerous ‘others’ who are together depicted as depriving (or attempting to deprive) the
sovereign people of their rights, values, prosperity, identity and voice.1’
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4. Academic definition 2
Academics Mudde and Kaltwasse (2017) define populism as ‘a thin-centred ideology that
considers society to be ultimately separated into two homogenous and antagonistic camps,
“the pure people” versus “the corrupt elite”, and which argues that politics should be an
expression of the volonté générale (general will) of the people’ (pp. 5–6).
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These definitions have two things in common. First, they highlight the significance and centrality of ‘the people’
in populist ideology and movements. Second, they set the people against ‘the elite’. Populism is concerned
with promoting the interests of the people and challenging the power of the elite. This seems relatively
straightforward at first, but it does of course pose a further definitional problem that Bloom explores in his
article – who are ‘the people’; who is in this group and who is out? Does ‘the people’ mean everyone or just
the majority – and if the majority, then how is that defined, and what about people outside that majority? The
question as to how far the idea of ‘the people’ is an inclusive one is an important one to bear in mind as you
continue your studies in this session.
1.2 Towards a working definition

Drawing on the above, here is a working definition of populism for the purposes of this module:
Populism is an ideology or political movement that separates society into the virtuous ‘people’ and the
corrupt ‘elite’, and which sees ‘the elite’ as depriving ‘the people’ of their rights, prosperity, identity and
voice. It sets ‘the people’ against ‘the elite’ and opposes elements of society that oppose the will of ‘the
people’.
Quotation marks are used in this definition to remind you that ‘the people’ and ‘the elite’ are not fixed
categories, but rather a matter of interpretation. For example, you may consider that I am absolutely a member
of the elite with my PhD, academic job and associated salary. On the other hand, I might categorise myself as
one of the people – first in my family to go to university, with a father who left school at 14, and a childhood
spent in a home with four children, a limited income, experience of redundancy and unemployment, and
shaped by cultural and gendered influences and expectations.. This simply reinforces the sense that
identifying a movement as ‘populist’ is somewhat in the eye of the beholder or commentator.
Furthermore, this definition does not in itself address just what populist movements do with their understanding
that ‘the people’ and ‘the elite’ are opposed to one another. In the examples you will encounter in this session,
you will see populist movements that are primarily campaigning movements, and others that are concerned
with taking political power – whether through the ballot box or through more direct action.
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Given the complexities surrounding the definition of populism, you will use the next activity to check your
understanding of the term.
Activity 2 Check your understanding
Check that you have understood this working definition, by choosing whether the following are true or
false.
True False
Populist is a synonym of popular.
Populism recognises that people are neither entirely virtuous nor
entirely self-centred.
Populist movements oppose corruption.
Populist movements are always democratic.
Populist movements always want to take power.
Populism assumes that the majority of people have a single voice.
Populist movements are always left wing.
Populist movements are always right wing.
Check your answer Reveal answer Reset
Having explored the idea of populism, you will now move on to consider the portrayal of this idea in the media.
1.3 Populism in the media

Let’s pause for a moment to reflect on the different political regimes, movements and ideas from around the
world that are described in the media as populist. For example, the adjective ‘populist’ is frequently applied in
the UK press to the right-wing US President Donald Trump, but it has also been applied to contemporary and
historic governments and political movements on the left- and right-wings in Greece, Venezuela, Argentina,
Hungary and Italy, among others. It is not always immediately obvious just what these movements have in
common, and it is important for you to understand just how broadly the term is applied.
The next activity will introduce you to examples of populism, and help you begin to think about the differences
between them.
Activity 3 Examples of populism
Type the adjective ‘populist’ into your preferred search engine and quickly scan the search results to
identify examples of media articles and commentary that use this term to refer to either contemporary or
historical political movements. Type a quick list of five or six of these movements, their geographical
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location and whether they are right or left wing into the table below. Look too for any evidence as to how
these movements are led. The first one is done for you as an example.
Name of the Geographical location Right or left Leadership

movement or leader wing characteristics
Juan and Eva Peron Argentina Right Glamorous, leading mass

rallies, charismatic
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One problem in attempting to define populism and identify political movements as populist is that we can’t
simply look for those movements that use the term to describe themselves. Academics Mudde and Kaltwasser
(2017) point out that populism is a label that individuals or organisations rarely apply to themselves. It is
ascribed by others, primarily by academics and journalists, and used as a label for very different phenomena –
broad social movements and ideologies, as well as individuals and organisations. These academics and
journalists do not always agree in their use of the term ‘populist’ to describe particular movements, and indeed
some commentators would claim that there is no specific ideology that can be identified as populist.
Furthermore, in spite of the focus of populism on challenging the elite and ending corruption, the descriptor
populist is often used as a negative label. Journalists and other commentators most often label movements as
populist when they disagree or disapprove of that movement. They use the term less when they are positive or
in agreement with a movement with similar characteristics. So, as you read and analyse accounts of populism,
it is important first to ask what each author means when using this label, and what his or her purpose is in
using the term. In other words, rather than thinking about populism as a fixed set of political ideas, you could
think of it as a label applied by external commentators to political movements, governments and their leaders.
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While bearing in mind our working definition for this module, you are encouraged to reflect carefully on when
and why the label ‘populist’ is used when you encounter particular examples. This will help you to develop your
critical thinking skills.
2 Populism in contemporary society
Show description
In this section, you will first reflect on how the idea of populism relates to this module’s focus on contemporary
society as characterised by turbulence. You will consider the very different examples of the Occupy movement
and the campaign to elect Donald Trump as president of the US with its focus on building a wall between the
US and Mexico.
As you have seen earlier in this module, academics Ansell and Trondal define turbulence as ‘a situation where
events, demands and support interact and change in highly variable, inconsistent, unexpected or
unpredictable ways’ (2018 p. 43). Turbulence is like a ‘shifting of the ground’, producing uncertainty and
anxiety about the future. It is not surprising then that turbulence produces new political movements or changes
the balance of power between existing social and political actors. Uncertainty about the future is a stimulus for
people to try to get together to influence that future – to make their opinions known and ensure that their
interests and the interests of others are not pushed aside. Indeed, the right of people to come together and
express their views in this way is a hallmark of a democratic society.
So, it is perhaps unsurprising that our turbulent contemporary society has given rise to populist political
movements in Europe, the US and beyond. The long-term impact of the global economic crisis from 2008,
continuing warfare across the world, the movement of unsettled populations, wealth inequality and changing
welfare settlements are just some of the factors that lead people to conclude that there is a need for a different
political settlement. Furthermore, the failure of mainstream politics to address these problems and deliver
greater certainty leads to the exploration of new ways of influencing social, political and economic decisions.
Existing political parties and their leadership are deemed to belong to an ‘elite’ that has failed to share power
and resources with the majority of the people. In this context, larger-than-life individual leaders who oppose
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the establishment and express an understanding of the people’s frustration and anger become attractive
figures who begin to gather supporters around them and form new political movements. Concluding that
access to power is constrained by the elite, these groups find ways of protesting and campaigning beyond
mainstream political processes, increasingly using contemporary channels such as social media, even while
they try to influence those mainstream processes.
2.1 ‘Occupy’ as a populist movement
Show description
As Bloom (2018) suggests, populist movements offer their supporters a sense of solidarity. They empower and
mobilise people who have become dissatisfied with the establishment, and who are seeking to redefine the
political landscape. Following the financial crash of 2008, the Occupy movement gave shared voice to anti-
capitalist activists, protesting against the greed of the corporate world and the cuts to public services made by
governments in the name of ‘austerity’. It arose in a context in which trust in financial and political structures
had plummeted. In London and Washington, protestors moved into and occupied the financial districts. In
October 2011, there were (mostly peaceful) protests by thousands of people in 82 countries (Randall and
Thomas, 2011). Although most people stayed at home, and perhaps wondered at the sight of sleeping bags in
Wall Street and on the steps of St Paul’s Cathedral, Occupy represented widespread public anger against
austerity policies in a context where announcements of the failure of financial institutions were accompanied
by announcements of bonuses for bankers.
Occupy was a protest movement, rather than an attempt to take political power. It evidenced the
characteristics of populism in the sense that it set ‘the people’, suffering from the negative consequences of
economic collapse, against ‘the elite’, benefiting financially in the midst of failure. Interestingly, unlike most of
the other movements referenced in this session, Occupy was intentionally ‘leaderless’, or to turn this around,
‘in the Occupy movement, we are all leaders’ (Gautney, 2011). Occupy groups adopted a consensus approach
to decision-making, rotated leadership responsibilities, and offered all members the opportunity to speak and
to facilitate meetings. Whether or not Occupy was ultimately deemed to have been influential on politics and
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the financial world, this inclusive approach stands in stark contrast to most movements that are labelled
‘populist’, which claim to represent a majority, but generate division as they exclude those who are different
from this majority, and tend to exalt individual leaders.
2.2 Populism and division

Academics and journalists tend to apply the adjective ‘populist’ to movements that are divisive and that have
an individualistic approach to leadership. Arguably, movements that claim to represent ‘a victimised popular
majority’ (Bloom 2018) by definition exclude others who are different from this majority. In contemporary
Western democracies, for example, the term ‘populist’ is associated with political movements that are strongly
opposed to immigration or the integration of refugees. In their advocacy for one part of the population, populist
movements exclude those minorities with different ethnic or geographical origins, who are presented as
contributing to the country’s social and economic problems. Returning to our ongoing theme of ‘turbulence’,
this exclusion is accentuated further in a context of economic, social and political uncertainty, in which
defensiveness and self-interest may grow. In some of the most serious contemporary examples, minority
groups have been abused and vilified as the source of social, economic and political problems.
Show description
In the autumn of 2018, the politics of the USA illustrated the link between populism, a turbulent and uncertain
context, and the deliberate division of society into those who belong and those who do not belong. Donald
Trump’s successful presidential campaign relied on a populist movement of the white working class and a
desire to exclude their Mexican neighbours from the benefits and security of the American lifestyle. To many
people around the world, calls to build a wall across the Mexican border and expel longstanding Mexican
residents without citizenship from the USA appeared both unrealistic and harsh. From outside the USA, it was
difficult to understand how and why such policies attracted the votes of millions of people. In a fascinating BBC
television series –Travels in Trumpland – former British politician Ed Balls travelled to America to talk with
Trump voters and tried to understand their support for Trump and his politics.
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Activity 4 Trumpland
Watch these two short segments from Travels in Trumpland. In the first segment, Ed Balls sets out his
purpose to try to understand how and why Trump became President of the USA. In the second segment,
he reflects on what he learned on this travels. As you watch, note down what you think were the main
drivers that enabled Trump’s election.
Travels in Trumpland
Travels in Trumpland 2
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Save and reveal feedback Reset
Understanding the reasons why populist movements arise gives us insight into how and why people are
attracted by the ideologies they represent and by the leadership figures at the fore of these movements. You
will continue to explore these issues in the next activity.
2.3 Understanding the reasons for the rise of populism

In the activity below, you will continue to explore the reasons why populist movements are arising in
contemporary society. You will also begin to look more closely at the leadership of those movements.
Activity 5 The rise of populism
To explore the rise of populism in contemporary society, follow the link below to an article on this topic
from the BBC. Read the article and watch the linked videos it contains, then answer the questions below.
Transcripts for the videos are available on the resources page of the module website.
What is populism, and what does the term actually mean?
1. What clues can you find as to why populism may be increasing its support in contemporary society?
2. Looking again at Ansell and Trondal’s definition of turbulence; ‘turbulence is a situation where events,
demands and support interact and change in highly variable, inconsistent, unexpected or unpredictable
ways’. How do these social and economic factors create a turbulent environment for political leadership?
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3. What characteristics of populist leadership emerge from this account? Why do you think that these
leadership characteristics emerge in turbulent contexts?
4. In the first linked video, author Lionel Shriver warns that the term ‘populist’ is used to cover too broad
a range of political movements and ideas, and encourages us all to say exactly what we mean, rather
than obscuring meaning behind this somewhat fashionable term. Reflect on the examples you have
encountered so far in this session. Is it reasonable to use the adjective ‘populist’ to describe them all?
You have begun to reflect on the kind of leadership that comes to the fore in populist movements. In the next
section, you will explore this further through the concept of ‘charismatic’ leadership.
3 Charismatic leadership
WARNING: Please be aware, this section includes an image and references to Adolf Hitler. If you are
likely to find this distressing, please consider carefully how you might want to engage with this section.
You can find suggestions in the Studying Emotive Topics guidance on the module Resources page. You
might also want to check with your tutor at this point to see how they may be able to support you.
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Source: Igor Golovniov/Shutterstock
Show description
Populist movements are often associated with a single leader who is apparently uniquely gifted to promote the
interests of the movement and its supporters. These leaders derive their authority from widespread public
support, but also nurture and sustain that support through the power of their personality and behaviour. They
are larger-than-life figures who, at least initially, successfully convey that they understand the concerns of
‘ordinary people’. In academic terms, this account of leadership is similar to the idea of ‘charismatic
leadership’. This section introduces the idea of charismatic leadership.
The Greek word kharisma means a gift, grace, supernatural power or talent. It was used in ancient times to
refer to gifts given by the gods, and continues to be used in faith contexts to refer to gifts that are bestowed by
a divinity. In contemporary secular society, the word charismatic is more commonly used to refer to someone
who is perceived as extraordinary, who influences and motivates large numbers of people, and exercises
authority precisely because he or she is widely perceived to be extraordinary. The Oxford English Dictionary
defines the word charismatic as ‘Exercising a compelling charm which inspires devotion in others’ (OED,
2019). Examples of charismatic leaders from history include Martin Luther King, Winston Churchill and Nelson
Mandela. Less positively, one might also argue that Hitler and other fascist leaders exemplify charismatic
leadership.
In the following activity you will begin to reflect on the parallels between charismatic and populist leadership.
Activity 6 Identifying charismatic leaders
Part A
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Which leaders would you identify as charismatic in the world today? Make a list of four or five examples
in the table below. Try to include at least one example from business, politics and civil society (e.g.
charities, community groups or social movements). You may have encountered examples in earlier
studies that you can use here for the compare-and-contrast activity that follows.
An example is included to help you with this activity.
Name Business/politics/civil society
Richard Branson Business
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Part B
Take two examples from your list, and think about them as people who appear to have special gifts or
extraordinary abilities. Which gifts or special abilities do you associate with your chosen examples? Drag
and drop the qualities from the box into the table below.
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Name:
Name:
Gifts
Powers of persuasion
Mathematical abilities
Extraordinary empathy
Outstanding rhetorical skills
Ability to spot opportunities

Outstanding presentation skills
Stunning good looks

An ability to instil confidence
Conveys the impression of always listening to others

Extraordinary compassion for others
Insight into the future
Genius
Save
Reflect on this question: Do these two individuals have similar or different gifts?
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The sociologist Max Weber was the first to develop the idea of charismatic leadership in relation to secular
contexts. The leader who has charisma is ‘set apart from ordinary men and is treated as endowed with…
exceptional powers and qualities…[which] are not accessible to the ordinary person but are regarded as of
divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of them the individual concerned is treated as a leader’ (Weber,
1947, pp. 358–359, cited in Conger 2011, p. 86). There are two elements to this definition. First the
‘exceptional powers’ of the individual, and second the perception that the individual is extraordinary or unique
in a way that causes others to follow.
Grint (2010) points out that there is something emotional, irrational, even magical about the way in which such
leaders mobilise others. Watch old propaganda films from the Nazi era (you can find examples on YouTube)
and you will see this emotional response to Hitler’s speeches. It is not easy to rationalise exactly why so many
people respond in such an overwhelmingly positive way to such destructive leadership. With the hindsight of
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history, we accept that in part this relates to the rhetoric itself, and in part to the particular context in which
German citizens found themselves in the 1930s, following the settlement at the end of the First World War and
its social and economic consequences.
3.1 Charismatic leadership in turbulent times
Show description
Academic studies of charismatic leadership have focused on followers as well as leaders, exploring how and
why these charismatic leaders influence large groups of people, and how and why people follow these
individuals. These studies concluded that, although personality plays a role in charismatic leadership, it is not
possible to identify a single personality type shared by individuals deemed ‘charismatic’ – such as Kennedy,
Churchill, Hitler and Gandhi. However, these individuals are likely to be perceived by their followers as having
outstanding rhetorical skills, and as performers of extraordinary feats due to their ‘uncanny’ attributes (Willner,
1984, cited in Conger, 2011).
In addition, charismatic leadership is often associated with times of turbulence or crisis (Grint, 2010), and with
the search for a different way to address the challenges posed by such contexts. People want to believe that
leaders can save them in such times. They believe that charismatic individuals are uniquely gifted to face the
challenges of war, social or economic uncertainty, or to rescue a company that is on the edge of collapse. By
following such individuals, they ally themselves with this potential to make a difference, rather than with
hopelessness or failure. In other words, context matters when trying to understand why certain individuals are
deemed charismatic and generate a large following. The UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill is a much-
quoted example of this phenomenon, as replayed through repeated film accounts of his wartime influence.
Churchill was called back to leadership during a crisis, following a period of limited political influence and a
waning career in a less volatile context. In a similar way, failing businesses frequently look for charismatic
figures with the seemingly transcendent gifts, presence and self-belief to imbue confidence and turn them
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around. Whether or not those same individuals are able to sustain leadership in more settled times is
questionable. Famously, Winston Churchill lost the post-war election of 1945 in spite of his strong association
with Britain’s wartime success.
To make a broader point, when analysing examples of charismatic leadership, it is important to consider
context as well as the relationship between an individual leader with particular gifts and those who follow.
3.2 The risks of charismatic leadership

Of course, as suggested, there is a darker side to charismatic leadership. This is very evident in some
examples – for instance, fascist charismatic leaders. However, leadership that relies on charisma arguably
always has inherent risks. First, because all individuals are fallible and therefore may not be able to achieve all
that is expected of them. Second, because relying on extraordinary individuals to somehow rescue us from the
world’s challenges allows us to distance ourselves from sharing responsibility for addressing those challenges.
The next activity will help you to critically reflect on the idea of the charismatic leader.
Activity 7 Risks of charismatic leadership
Look back at the examples of charismatic leaders you listed in Activity 6, and the examples given in this
section. What, in your view, are the risks of charismatic leadership? Tell us your views by responding to
the following statements by selecting a score from 0 to 5. We will collate these with the views of other
students and let you know the results, so that you can reflect on the thoughts and ideas of others.
View interactive version
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There are several ways in which the idea of charismatic leadership itself has a darker side that generates risk
and poses ethical issues. Some of these are outlined below.
Unethical behaviour
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Charismatic leadership is very focused on the individual and on the trust placed in individuals by large groups
of followers. If that individual behaves badly, that trust all too often masks this behaviour or at least pushes it
into a secondary place in the eyes of followers. The example of Donald Trump illustrates how charismatic
leaders may be associated with sexual or financial misconduct, yet somehow still retain widespread popular
support. This raises questions about how individual ‘charisma’ covers over ethical considerations that we might
otherwise think are important for leadership. To put this slightly differently, leaders can be very ‘charismatic’
while displaying unethical behaviour, but in the competition between charisma and ethics, charisma all too
often wins.
Expectations of the individual
This focus on the individual inevitably places pressure on people who at the end of the day are fallible human
beings. This can result in emotional, physical and psychological exhaustion as a result of trying to fulfil
irrational and unreasonable expectations. More seriously for the state of nations and organisations, these
expectations can produce or perpetuate the individual’s belief in themselves as extraordinary, causing them to
fail to look beyond themselves for insight and wisdom, and setting their own moral standards. Ultimately, this
can lead to corruption. As Lord Acton famously suggested ‘Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power
corrupts absolutely’ (cited by Grint 2010, p. 96).
Accountability
This raises questions about how charismatic leaders are held to account. Who is able to challenge them, and
how? What is the political or organisational structure or system that holds them to account? This is an issue
that arises in many developing nations when charismatic individuals head up popular movements to remove
an elite from power, but later dismantle some of the political structure designed to hold them to account – for
example, removing age or term restrictions on holding office, or challenging or dismantling democratic and
judicial institutions.
As Grint (2010) argues, charismatic leaders may be important in a crisis – able to mobilise large groups of
people and to break through times of indecision. But what happens when the crisis is over and the decisions
made? What about the people who disagree with those decisions, and what happens when the individual’s
popularity inevitably fades? This takes us back to the concept of followership and to the responsibility we all
carry to take followership seriously in our organisation, locality or nation. You will return to followership later in
this module, but responsible followership surely means looking beyond the façade of charisma and having a
reasonable expectation that our leaders are ethical and accountable, and not simply strong personalities.
Of course, not all charismatic leaders are also populist. Neither do all succumb to charismatic leadership’s
darker side. The charismatic heroes of sport, campaigning charities, business, and local and national politics
can also have good insight into their own limitations, take their responsibilities to others very seriously, and
surround themselves with peers who will challenge them, hold them to account and take their own
responsibilities just as seriously. However, as you have seen, populist movements tend to separate
themselves from existing accountability mechanisms that are associated with the establishment and the elite.
They reinforce the significance of the people’s will without clear mechanisms for understanding that will, and
all too often rely on individual leaders who are seen to represent that will. So, populism without accountability
offers a context in which charismatic leadership can develop into full-blown unquestioned hero worship in
which individuals enjoy almost unfettered power.
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4 Charisma and the populist leader

You will now read an extract from Mudde and Kaltwasser’s Populism: a very short introduction (2017) in which
they reflect on the populist leader, discussing examples from different cultures and geographies. You will find
that this more complex account associates the populist leader with the idea of charismatic leadership, but also
argues that populist leaders are not always entirely in the mould of charismatic leadership. It will therefore help
you to think more critically about the relationship between the ideas of populist leadership and charismatic
leadership.
Activity 8 Populism and charisma
Read Mudde and Kaltwasser (2017) Chapter 4, pp. 62–78. As you read, reflect on the examples of
populism you have encountered so far in this session and make notes on whether – and if so how – they
illustrate charismatic leadership.
It is impossible to move on without briefly commenting on something you will have noted in this reading and in
your broader studies of populist leadership; it is almost entirely men who are described in this way. Indeed, the
few women who are associated with populist leadership (Eva Peron in Argentina, or more recently Marine Le
Pen in France) are frequently linked with that leadership via their husbands and fathers. Furthermore, as
Mudde and Kaltwasser observe, populist female leaders often present themselves as mothers, housewives
and outsiders from the ‘old-boy’ network of conventional politics (for example, Sarah Palin in the US). Of
course, it is also possible that there are few prominent female populist leaders because, at least until recently,
women have been much less prominent in politics than men. There is not sufficient time here to address this
issue in full, but in the next activity you will begin to reflect on why the adjective ‘populist’ is rarely used to
describe female leadership.
Activity 9 Female leadership
Consider the adjectives below and decide which you would associate with ‘populist leadership’ and
which with ‘female leadership’. Note, you are not being asked here what female leadership is (or even if
it exists), but rather what kind of characteristics are stereotypically associated with female leadership.
You can include each adjective under both headings if you think this is appropriate.
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Populist Female
leadership leadership
People-focused Sociable Authoritarian Collaborative
Quiet Strong Outrageous Competitive
Generous Inclusive Strong Sociable
Inclusive Confident Quiet Controversial
Loud Decisive Divisive Generous
Kind Divisive Outrageous Collaborative
Authoritarian Controversial Confident People-focused
Empathetic Loud Competitive Decisive
Empathetic Kind
Save Reset
Reveal feedback
You have reflected at some length on populist leadership – its characteristics; its association with social and
political context; the similarities with the concept of charismatic leadership; and the association with male
rather than female leadership. In the next section you will analyse a case example of populist leadership.
5 Case study analysis

In this section you will bring together what you have learned so far in an analysis of an example of a populist
movement and its leadership.
Activity 10 Analysing a case study
Part A
Select one example of a movement that has been described as populist from those listed below:
The Syriza movement in Greece
Venezuelan populism under Hugo Chavez

Alberto Fujimori’s presidential campaign in Peru
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The Hungarian government led by Viktor Orbán

Any other contemporary populist movement of your choice
Using your preferred search engine, spend 30 minutes exploring this movement online. Look for at least
three sources – written accounts from the news media, pictures, YouTube videos or similar. Save any
resources that you identify.
Part B
Make brief notes on the following questions.
Who is defined as ‘the people’ in this movement?
Who or what constitutes the elite in these examples?
In what circumstances did this movement grow and develop?

How does it illustrate our working definition of populism?
Would you characterise this movement as left or right wing?
What kind of behaviour characterises the movement and its leadership?

Is its leadership invested in a charismatic individual, or does it adopt a different approach?
Save Reset
Part C
Now look back at your sources for clues that your chosen movement arose in a context characterised by
turbulence. What were the key factors that came together to create that turbulence and why did that
turbulence lead to populism?
In the next section you will reflect on what you have learnt so far this week.
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6 Reflecting on populist political leadership

As you have seen, populist movements in politics can develop a sense of solidarity between disenfranchised
people. A 2017 article in The New York Times recognised that populism can be a very attractive ideology that,
at least initially, appears as a way to save democracy in contexts where it seems that the norms and
institutions of democracy are no longer working. However, the authors draw on the case of Venezuela to warn
that populism is not ultimately democratic and can result in authoritarianism, even when the intention is quite
different. They suggest that there are inherent tensions between populism and democracy.
Returning to the quotation from Bloom (2018) at the top of this session, populist movements may appear to
offer a more optimistic future that challenges an out-of-touch political establishment. They can disrupt the
status quo and challenge us to think and do politics differently. Chantal Mouffe, a professor of political theory at
Westminster University, has recently argued that populism in contemporary Europe offers an opportunity for
reviving and expanding our democracy (Mouffe, 2018). Populist movements challenge us all to think about
how our politics privilege the few while leaving others behind, and about how and why so many have
disconnected from the political process in Western democracies, and to take up the challenge to do politics
differently. However, the experience of history suggests that as a way of governing, populism tends towards
authoritarianism and isolationism, and towards forms of authoritative leadership that reinforce division.
The UK’s vote to leave the European Union provides an interesting example of how a turbulent environment is
impacting on politics in the UK and across the continent of Europe. It is also leading to furious debate about
political leadership in the UK. As I write this week’s studies, the UK Prime Minister, Theresa May, is attempting
to persuade colleagues and the country to accept the agreement she has reached with the European Union for
the UK’s exit. May’s leadership has been widely criticised, and many are looking for leadership elsewhere,
within and beyond traditional political parties. I cannot predict how Brexit will have moved on by the time you
read this course material. Certainly, at the moment, it is not clear that there is a distinct populist movement in
the UK, but the Brexit vote, and consequent vitriolic debates, have revealed strong populist feelings. There is
anger that power and privilege is focused on an elite element of the population, while others have been left
behind. At this stage, it seems that a different kind of political leadership may emerge in the UK. From your
vantage point of a later point in history, you may want to reflect on the extent to which that leadership appears
populist, charismatic or more consensual.
Before moving on to focus on how populism applies to contexts outside of the political sphere, go back to the
poll you completed in Activity 7. Did the majority student view reflect your own response? If not, ask yourself
what additional insight you gain from this majority view.
7 Populism and business

This week’s studies have focused on the contemporary political environment for leadership in the form of the
growth of populist movements and populist forms of political leadership. However, the phenomenon of
populism also has implications for leadership in the organisational context and, more specifically, for
leadership in the business world. For example, in an environment in which many are disenchanted with the
leadership of those they perceive as ‘elite’, and as having little understanding of the everyday realities of most
people, there is potential for anger and frustration to spill over from the political to the business context.
Moreover, in a context in which there is greater focus on the national interest and immigration, there are
potential implications for global companies, international trading and staff recruitment (Cumming et al. 2016;
Roper, 2017). This in turn has implications for the management of staff and resources. These issues increase
the complexity of leading within business organisations and in international business projects.
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The next activity focuses on these implications.
Activity 11 Implications for the business world
Part A
Respond to the following statements by selecting the point on the scale that represents your view:
View interactive version
Reveal feedback
Part B
Considering the above ways that populism can influence businesses, do you think an environment
influenced by populism is likely to influence businesses to seek charismatic leaders, or to turn them away
from the idea that uniquely gifted individuals have the answer to the complex challenges they face? Note
your response below.
Populist politics will inevitably influence organisational life and business practice, both within nations and
across international boundaries. Furthermore, any sense that a particular leadership approach is necessary
and effective in the political context is likely to influence patterns of leadership in businesses, and in
communities.
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Summary
In this week’s session you have explored the ideas of populism, the populist leader and charismatic
leadership, and linked them to the idea of turbulence. You have seen how a society characterised by
turbulence and uncertainty provides an environment in which people become disillusioned with conventional
politics, and come together to try to reconnect politics with the people. The example of the Occupy movement
shows how populist movements draw attention to corruption in society and the failure of institutions through
direct action and collective leadership. You have also explored examples of populist movements that have
taken power in the name of the people and away from the current elite, but simultaneously demonstrate
authoritarian elitist leadership, dependent on the personality and behaviour of apparently unique individuals.
You have described populism and identified populist leadership characteristics and practices, analysed
examples of leadership in a populist context, and critically reflected on the idea of the charismatic populist
leader
Key points:
At the beginning of this week you were presented with three key questions to be addressed in the learning,
which you should now be able to answer. You have learned that:
Populism is an ideology or political movement that separates society into the virtuous ‘people’ and the
corrupt ‘elite’, and which sees ‘the elite’ as depriving ‘the people’ of their rights, prosperity, identity and
voice. It sets ‘the people’ against ‘the elite’ and opposes elements of society that oppose the will of ‘the
people’.
Populism is arising in contemporary society because the turbulent environment leads to uncertainty
about the future for many and also to a feeling of being excluded from the benefits of society. People are
looking for alternative political movements, beyond mainstream political parties.
The leadership of populist movements is often authoritative and associated with charismatic individuals.
However, there are examples of a more democratic and inclusive approach to leadership in which
leadership is shared and decisions are made consensually.
Reflection and sharing

In this final section of Week 3 you will spend some time reflecting on what you have learned. You will share
your ideas and compare them with the thoughts of others.
Reflection on Week 3
Allow about 30 minutes to complete this reflection
Part A
Ask yourself the following questions:
What have I learned this week which is particularly important or relevant?
How does this impact on my understanding of leadership of contemporary political movements?
Write one or two tweets on Twitter to answer the questions above. You can use hashtags to highlight
particular words and engage in conversations related to these topics.
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If you prefer not to use Twitter, you can write a sentence or two on the Tutor group forum (TGF) thread (if
you use the TGF, be sure to stay within 280 characters as though you were on Twitter).
Part B
Spend a few minutes looking at other students’ tweets or statements and compare and reflect on the
ideas that have been shared.
Reveal feedback
Don’t forget to keep track of the tweets or posts you have written, as these will contribute to 30% of your EMA
grade and 15% of your overall module grade.
References
Ansell, C. and Trondal, J. (2018) ‘Governing turbulence: an organizational-institutional agenda’. Perspectives
on Public Management and Governance, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 43–57.
Bloom, P. (2018) ‘Populists on both left and right claim to be fighting for ‘the people’ – but who exactly are
they?’, Independent , 11 August 2018 [Online]. Available at https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/democracy-
left-wing-right-wing-will-great-british-people-populism-a8487346.html (Accessed 2 April 2019).
Conger, J. A. (2011) ‘Charismatic leadership’, in Bryman, A. et al. (eds) (2011) The Sage Handbook of
Leadership, Los Angeles, Sage.
Cumming, D. J., Wood, G. and Zahra, S. (2016) ‘The rise of right wing populism and its effect on HRM’, SSRN
[Online]. Available at https://ssrn.com/abstract=2879078 (Accessed 2 April 2019).
Gautney, H. (2011) ‘What is Occupy Wall Street? The history of leaderless movements’, The Washington Post,
10 October 2011 [Online]. Available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/on-leadership/what-is-
occupy-wall-street-the-history-of-leaderless-movements/2011/10/10/gIQAwkFjaL_story.html?
utm_term=.c46b59ab8320 (Accessed 2 April 2019).
Grint, K. (2010) Leadership: a Very Short Introduction, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Mouffe, C. (2018) ‘Populists are on the rise but this can be a moment for progressives too’, The Guardian, 10
September 2018 [Online]. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/sep/10/populists-
rise-progressives-radical-right (Accessed 2 April 2019).
Mudde, C. and Kaltwasser, C. R. (2017) Populism: a Very Short Introduction, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
OED (2017) Definition of populism [Online], Oxford, Oxford University Press. Available at https://www-oed-
com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/view/Entry/147930?redirectedFrom=populism#eid (Accessed 2 April 2019).
OED (2019) Definition of charismatic [Online], Oxford, Oxford University Press. Available at https://www-oed-
com.libezproxy.open.ac.uk/view/Entry/30722?redirectedFrom=charismatic#eid (Accessed 2 April 2019).
Randall, D. and Thomas, M. (2011) ‘Across the world, the indignant rise up against corporate greed and cuts’,
Independent, 16 October [Online]. Available at https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/politics/across-the-
world-the-indignant-rise-up-against-corporate-greed-and-cuts-2371357.html (Accessed 2 April 2019).
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Roper, J. (2017) ‘Office politics: The rise of populism and HR’, HR Magazine, 12 June [Online]. Available at
www.hrmagazine.co.uk/article-details/office-politics-the-rise-of-populism-and-hr (Accessed 2 April 2019).
Further reading
If you would like to further explore the concepts covered in this week of study, consider the following
publications:
To read further about the concept of charismatic leadership, we suggest you read Jay Conger’s (2011) chapter
‘Charismatic Leadership’ in The Sage Handbook of Leadership which reviews the literature of charismatic
leadership. You will find the full reference in the list of references above. The full book text is available
electronically via the Open University Library. You will also find a much shorter summary of the key ideas in
Grint (2010).
You may also be interested in the following article: https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/01/world/americas/

venezuela-populism-authoritarianism.html .
Please remember that these reading suggestions are optional and will not be covered in any assessment.
Acknowledgements
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources:
Text
OED definition of populism: OED.com
Encyclopaedia definition of populism: Britannica.com
Illustrations
Image of a group of protesters: EPA/Andy Rain
Image of a turbulent sea: Creative Travel Projects/Shutterstock
Image of people carrying a banner saying ‘Occupy Wall Street’: Glynnis Jones/Shutterstock
Image of a campaigner with a banner saying ‘Build the wall’: Johnny Silvercloud/Shutterstock
Image of Adolf Hitler: Igor Golovniov/Shutterstock
Image of The New York Times: Timothy Hughes Rare & Early Newspapers
Videos
Travels in Trumpland: Sony Atv Music Publishing (UK) Ltd/Universal Mca Music Limited, Expectation
Entertainment Limited and Unknown
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Travels in Trumpland 2: BBC and Expectation Entertainment Limited
Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders. If any have been inadvertently overlooked, the
publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
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Week 3 Turbulent contexts: leadership and populism

Week 3 Activity planner

Activity Details Time

1 Definitions of populism Read and highlight key terms 20 minutes

3 Examples of populism Search for information online 15 minutes

4 Trumpland Watch a video and take notes 10 minutes

6 Identifying charismatic leaders Identify examples and fill in a table 20 minutes

7 Risks of charismatic leadership Respond to a poll 10 minutes

9 Female leadership Complete a drag-and-drop activity 10 minutes

10 Analysing a case study Analyse a case study 90 minutes

You will return to these questions throughout this week’s studies.

1.1 Defining populism

Activity 1 Definitions of populism

Allow about 20 minutes to complete this activity

The Encyclopaedia Britannica (2013) defines populism as a ‘political program or movement

1.2 Towards a working definition

Activity 2 Check your understanding

Allow about 5 minutes to complete this activity

Check your answer Reveal answer Reset

1.3 Populism in the media

Activity 3 Examples of populism

Allow about 15 minutes to complete this activity

Name of the Geographical location Right or left Leadership

Juan and Eva Peron Argentina Right Glamorous, leading mass

2 Populism in contemporary society

2.1 ‘Occupy’ as a populist movement

2.2 Populism and division

Allow about 10 minutes to complete this activity

Save and reveal feedback Reset

2.3 Understanding the reasons for the rise of populism

Activity 5 The rise of populism

Allow about 50 minutes to complete this activity

What is populism, and what does the term actually mean?

Save and reveal feedback Reset

Save and reveal feedback Reset

Save and reveal feedback Reset

Save and reveal feedback Reset

Source: Igor Golovniov/Shutterstock

Activity 6 Identifying charismatic leaders

Allow about 20 minutes to complete this activity

An example is included to help you with this activity.

Name Business/politics/civil society

Richard Branson Business

Ability to spot opportunities

Stunning good looks

Conveys the impression of always listening to others

3.1 Charismatic leadership in turbulent times

3.2 The risks of charismatic leadership

Activity 7 Risks of charismatic leadership

Allow about 10 minutes to complete this activity

View interactive version

4 Charisma and the populist leader

Activity 8 Populism and charisma

Allow about 60 minutes to complete this activity

Save and reveal feedback Reset

Activity 9 Female leadership

Allow about 10 minutes to complete this activity