STADIO: SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

MODULE NAME: EDUCATION STUDIES

MODULE CODE: EDSA700

Assignment 2: Neuroplasticity - previous and present theoretical

understandings of cognitive development for teaching and learning in SA
schools.

STUDENT NAME: MTHULISI MPOFU

STUDENT NUMBER: 23207464
Introduction
The field of education is constantly evolving as our understanding of how children learn
and develop cognitively deepens. Two prominent theories in this regard are Jean Piaget's
theory of cognitive development and Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory. Both theories
have significantly influenced the education system and teaching practices globally.
However, recent advancements in neuroscience, particularly the concept of neuroplasticity,
have brought new perspectives to the table. This essay aims to discuss the basic
principles of Piaget's and Vygotsky's theories of cognitive development, critically assess
the concept of neuroplasticity in understanding the learning of developing children and
adolescents, provide examples related to teaching subjects, and conclude with key
insights gained from this exploration.
2. Discuss the basic principles of the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky. [2 x 15 = 30]
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget was Swiss born psychologist who in his early stages in life was highly
involved in studies of intellectual development of children when he worked with renowned
scientist like Alfred Binet on their famous IQ test. It was through this early involvement in
child development studies that he got so much inspired and started observing his own
nephew and daughter. He concluded from his observation that children’s minds were not
smaller version of adult minds but they “simply think differently”.
Piaget’s proposed the theory of cognitive development which suggest that the children are
very active participants in constructing their understanding of the world through a series of
stages and further suggests that children pass through four different phases of learning,
each marked by distinct cognitive abilities and characteristics. Piaget identified four main
stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and
formal operational. Each stage is characterized by specific cognitive abilities and
limitations.
The first stage of Piaget is the sensorimotor stage and is the earliest stage of cognitive
development and ranges between birth and two years. (xxxxx) argues typically at this
stage there is so much development that takes place though it’s within a short period of
time. At this stage infants and toddlers attain knowledge through experimenting with
senses and manipulating objects. Here the kids experience at this early phase takes place
through senses, motor responses and reflexes which are simple and not complicated.
They develop object permanence which basically mean that they are aware that object
continue to exist even if it’s out of sight. Xxxx() points out that some major developmental
changes as noted by Piaget during this stage will include knowing the world through
movements and sensations, realizing that their actions can cause things to happen in the
world and recognizing that thy are different from objects in the house.
The preoperational stage which falls between two and years is the second stage of
cognitive development by Piaget. Of great importance and worth noting is the beginning of
language which becomes better since they can now think figuratively and learn to use
words and pictures as objects representatives. Kids learn through interacting with other
people and objects and most importantly through pretense playing. (Byrnes, 2008) points
out that Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of
development, yet they continue to think very concretely about the world around them. As
they develop through this phase changes likely to take place include improvements in
language and thinking even if there is still potential and their perspective of any issues is
final, and they tend to never accept other options and opinions from others.
Additionally, according to Piaget's theory, concrete operational stage falls between the
ages of seven and 11years children in the concrete operational stage have developed a
theory of mind. While they may still have some difficulties taking on the perspective of
another person, they are becoming increasingly aware of the existence of different mental
states in themselves and others. This development plays a vital role in social interactions
and communication, as children begin to consider the thoughts, feelings, and intentions of
those around them.
The last stage is called the formal operational stage (11 years and older), and this is
distinguished by the great increase in the abilities for deductive reasoning usage and
understanding of difficult or rather abstract concepts. Children move away from adolescent
stage to become young adults who can think critically and scientifically about the world
around them. Orr(1991) describes this stage as a point where children begin to think more
about moral, philosophical, ethical, social and political issues that require theoretical and
abstract reasoning. By this point, the child's cognitive structures are like those of an adult
and include conceptual reasoning. This is the highest level of thinking stage and child can
go beyond the concrete evidence. (Lefa, 2014)
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
Levy Vygotsky is another legend who contributed to the vast knowledge of cognitive
development and his theory till today and beyond will have an impact in the studies and
development of education policies and approaches and its training of practitioners.
Vygotsky's sociocultural theory emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural
context in cognitive development. He states that it’s critical for learning to happen there
should be social interaction between the more knowledgeable other which can be a
teacher, or parent or even a learner and thus a result cognitive development can occur.
The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is a central concept in Vygotsky's theory and is
also referred to as the zone of potential development by other scholars. The zone of
proximal development describes the range of abilities an individual can perform with the
guidance of an expert but cannot yet perform on their own. Vygotsky (1978) sees the
“Zone of Proximal Development as the area where the most sensitive instruction or
guidance should be given – allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their
own – developing higher mental functions”. It has three distinct categories which are
described as follows:
1. Task a learner cannot accomplish – this refers to any task that is assigned to
learner but on their own as individuals they are not able to complete without the
help of someone else who is an expert of the subject matter or is just
knowledgeable.
2. Task a learner can accomplish - at this point a learner is considered to be in their
zone of proximal development as according to Vygotsky if they ate close to
understanding a concept or skill set required to complete a task but still needs
guidance of a teacher or expert.
3. Task a learner can accomplish without assistance – a learner has reached this apex
point if he is able to complete any given task without the help of a teacher or expert.
Vygotsky emphasizes the need to keep challenging the learner through increasing
 the task difficulty level to find the learners next ZPD and through challenging tasks
maximum cognitive growth is promoted. (Lang, 2012)
The key components about Vygotsky’s ZPD on cognitive development is the importance of
the learners interacting with others (social interaction), having someone who is more
knowledgeable or is a subject matter expert to always guide the learner till they can do the
task on their own. The surrounding culture in wider society will strongly influence the times
and places where children are most likely to experience their Zone of Proximal
Development. Learning occurs best when children learn through "guided participation"
(Shaffer and Kipp, 2014, p. 245). During social interaction whilst children are in their ZPD
some children can easily grasp a concept and these are the same children than can be
utilized as resource person through peer interaction to show and guide other learners thus
creating the most conducive learning environment. Also, learners need supportive
activities which are known as scaffolding that can be provided to them by the teacher or
expert when they are in their ZPD. He is quoted as saying “What a child can do with
assistance today she will be able to do by herself tomorrow." (Vygotsky, 1978)
According to Vygotsky, language serves as an important tool in the Zone of Proximal
Development for thought and plays a key role in the cognitive development of individuals.
He argues that as children engage in social interactions and conversations with others
using language, they gradually internalize these linguistic processes, ultimately using them
to regulate their own thinking. In his 1962 published paper he emphasized the role of
language as serving two pivotal roles in cognitive development which are the main means
by which adults transmit information to children and language itself becoming a very
powerful tool for intellectual adaptation.
As children develop cognitively and gain the competence to create mental depictions,
particularly through language, they begin engaging in self-communication resembling their
interactions with others. This progression involves their outward expression of thoughts
transitioning into inner speech, an adopted form of self-talk. This incorporation of language
plays a crucial role in driving their cognitive development. In effect, as children adopt and
use language for inner dialogue, they go on board on a transformative journey that
promotes cognitive growth, enabling independent thinking, reasoning, and problem-solving
—a pivotal stage in their cognitive development. (Mcleod, 2023)
3. Critically assess in greater detail, the concept of neuroplasticity in understanding
the learning of developing children and adolescents. [20]
Neuroplasticity is defined as the brain’s ability to change and adapt due to experience. It is
a term made up of two words which are plasticity and neurons. Plasticity can be described
in relation to brain as the malleability or ability to change of the brain yet implying that the
brain is like a plastic which can change its form and structure at any given pressure. On
the other hand, neurons are the nerve cells which make up the brain and nervous system.
Consequently, neuroplasticity implies that the brain specifically can adjust if exposed to
learning or injury.
Neuroplasticity, as highlighted by Merzenich (cited in Donald, Lazarus, and Moolla, 2014),
refers to the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections
throughout life. This concept challenges earlier views that cognitive development is largely
fixed after a certain age. It implies that the brain can adapt and change in response to
learning experiences.
Neuroplasticity is a very significant concept in the cognitive development of children as it is
at the core of critical human experiences. A human being is shaped by two essential things
which are learning, and memory and they would cease to exist without those two
processes. Through vast research, support has grown on the role played by
neuroplasticity in learning. The ability of the brain to reconfigure makes the acquirement of
new information and new skills possible. The brain must be impacted by this new
information in order to learn it: the nature of learning is that we change through experience
(Gibb, n.d.)
Research has shown that learning is a lifelong process, and it does not stop at a certain
stage thus neuroplasticity challenges the idea that adults never learn anything new.
Neuroplasticity argues that or suggests that the human brain remains adaptable
throughout its entire life, and this promotes continuous learning and cognitive growth.
According to Merzernich et al. (2014) they claim that the brain even in adulthood has the
ability to form neural connections and recalibrate existing ones in response to learning
experiences. This proves that no individual does not stop learning at any given age, but
they can acquire new skills and knowledge or cognitive abilities the rest of their lives. The
brain's plasticity is most pronounced during early childhood but continues throughout
adolescence and into adulthood. Critically assessing this implies considering how teaching
strategies should evolve to match the changing dynamics of neuroplasticity as children
grow.
It is argued that environmental factors which include education, stimuli exposure and
socio-economic conditions play a huge role in influencing neuroplasticity. If the
environment is deemed to be positive on the above-mentioned factors it tends to favor and
enhance cognitive development and as a result brain plasticity. Studies have shown that
learners or children that are born and raised in stimulating environments tend to show
more robust cognitive development compared to their opposite settings. (Luby, et al.,
2013). As its typical in most South African classrooms, teachers deal with diverse learners
as their clients and such settings should help the teacher approach any of his/her teaching
business with awareness of the impact of environmental factors on cognitive development
and neuroplasticity and hence, his teaching strategies should be adapted to serve the
scenario of his class environment which is diverse.
Neuroplasticity is more pronounced during the early stages of child development, and they
are the most sensitive periods for the brain. At this pivotal point the brain is highly open to
peculiar types of learning like language acquisition. This proves learning should be timed
as the brain’s plasticity for certain abilities weakens with age and thus its very critical to
provide early mediation and exposure to foundation competences like learning and
cementing language in children (Knudsen, 2004) . Teachers armed with vast knowledge of
neuroplasticity can use it to their advantage by critically assessing how it impacts the
optimal timing for introducing specific skills or topics and subject matter. They can plan to
expose learners early to certain concepts or skills which can indirectly lead to more
efficient learning.
In most cases learners have been told and made to believe that reaching a certain age or
level of education limits the capacity to learn or acquire a new skill. Neuroplasticity
challenges this assumption as it explains that the neurons of the brain are able to adapt
and recreate new paths for knowledge. Teachers teaching a subject like Information
Technology can explain to learners that at any given time they can learn a new
programming language.
Additionally, neuroplasticity plays a vital role in cognitive rehabilitation, particularly for
individuals recovering from brain injuries or cognitive impairments. Such targeted
interventions tap into the brain's adaptive capacity, fostering cognitive recovery and
functional enhancement in those with neurological disorders. These rehabilitation
programs, as detailed in the study by Cramer et al. (2011), focus on repetitive and
intensive training to stimulate neural reorganization, offering promising avenues for
improving the lives of individuals facing cognitive challenges.
Another critical aspect to consider is the retention and transfer of skills acquired through
neuroplasticity. How long do newly acquired skills persist, and can they be effectively
transferred to different contexts or domains? Teachers should assess whether specific
pedagogical approaches promote deep learning and skill transfer or lead to shallow, short-
term retention. Leveraging neuroplasticity can revolutionize education. Drawing from the
study by Howard-Jones and Demetriou (2009) titled "Uncertainty and engagement with
learning games," teachers can employ evidence-based instructional strategies that not
only engage students but also challenge them and foster skill development. Effective
pedagogical approaches, such as active learning, problem-based learning, and
scaffolding, align seamlessly with the principles of neuroplasticity. These approaches have
the power to stimulate the brain by facilitating the creation of new neural connections,
enriching comprehension, and ultimately boosting cognitive development.
4. Discuss examples related to your own subject(s) to illustrate the application of
neuroplasticity in action. Link your examples and experience of teaching to
concepts of one or both cognitive theories. You can consult the internet, textbooks,
interview(s), journals, magazines, newspapers. You must also include evidence of
reading and research by referring to peer-reviewed academic articles and books in
the in-text referencing. [20]
In the context of teaching Information Technology to Grade 10 at a high school
programming languages like Delphi, its critical to understand neuroplasticity which is
somehow aligned closely to Piaget and Vygotsky theories of cognitive development.
Piaget’s theory emphasizes project-based learning, hands on experiences and concrete
operations. This idea can help teachers in strategizing what approaches to use and how to
tailor the lesson based on the programming concepts. Teachers can introduce basic
programming principles through practical activity which is basically hands on coding.
Through engaging with coding exercises or problem solving their brain is engaged and the
neurons will form new neural connections which strengthens their understanding of the
coding syntax and even the logic behind some declarations and restrictions used.
Teachers can apply neuroplasticity by using scaffolded learning approaches. Students
start with basic programming concepts and gradually progress to more complex tasks. For
example, a teacher might introduce coding with simple block-based languages suitable for
early adolescents. Schools offering Coding as a subject at primary level are using this idea
of introducing programming through block use and build upon that using a simple mine
craft challenges or gamification as an approach to teach about coding. Softwares like
Scratch and Blocky are commonly used to scaffold learners to future programming. As
students grasp these fundamentals, they can transition to text-based programming
languages. The brain's plasticity allows students to adapt to these increasingly complex
tasks over time.
Vygotsky stated that interactions with more advanced individuals, such as teachers and
peers, significantly influence cognitive development. Still on idea of teaching programming
to learners at Grade 10, teachers can promote higher-order intellectual functions by
encouraging group discussions or even collaborative learning. Peer learning can also be
used as a tool where learners who have mastered a certain stage or niche in programming
help others who are still struggling behind.
Adaptive learning platforms within IT education for example like Pearson Interactive Labs
have been accurately crafted to customize learning experiences in direct response to
individual progress and performance metrics. These platforms are in harmonious synergy
with the concept of neuroplasticity, vigorously tailoring the complexity of content to match a
student's evolving cognitive development. Piaget's cognitive development theory
underlines the paramount importance of aligning instruction with a learner's current
developmental stage. Adaptive platforms employ sophisticated algorithms and data
analytics to meticulously monitor a student's performance trajectory, making real-time
adjustments to the intricacy of exercises or providing supplementary assistance as
needed. This methodology seamlessly aligns with Vygotsky's scaffolding concept, where
learners are thoughtfully supported at a level just beyond their current competence,
thereby fostering cognitive growth. (Chen, et al., 2014). A platform like W3Schools can be
used by a teacher wants his learners to master programming, this platform starts from
simple and proceeds till abstract concepts and it allows a learner to proceed to the next
stage after showing mastery on the current stage. It will support the learners throughout
each stage by giving him tips up until he masters the stage.
Information Technology as a subject in Grade has a Practical Assessment Task component
which is basically a sophisticated research project and is introduced in Grade 10. Piaget’s
theory of cognitive development emphasizes the process of assimilation and
accommodation. Assimilation tends to occur when learners is confronted with new
experiences or that he can fit into his existing mental framework. In the case of doing PAT
already the learner has a whole range of this task he has to complete using all concepts
learnt in first and second term. On the other hand, accommodation takes place when
information cannot be readily integrated into existing mental structures. In this case
learners are challenged to fit their research information let’s say about Artificial
Intelligence impact to create a survey, then an app that will be connected to a database.
Thus, these two processes are an important part of cognitive development as they show
how learners can engage with their environment to formulate mental representations of
their immediate world.
According to (Steinkuehler & Duncan, 2008) in teaching Information Technology
programming teachers can incorporate gamification principles. Gamified activities such as
coding challenges and other IT related simulations tend to activate and stimulate
neuroplasticity. Both cognitive theorists discussed in this essay would agree with
gamification as a tool used to foster cognitive development. Vygotsky’s theory emphasizes
that through social interaction which is one of his principle in his theory learners can
collaborate in teams to tackle game based programming similar to Hackathons or
Codefest and this will enhance their cognitive development through interaction.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Piaget's theory of cognitive development and Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
have been instrumental in shaping educational practices in South African schools.
However, the concept of neuroplasticity challenges the notion of fixed developmental
stages and highlights the brain's ongoing adaptability. This essay discussed the basic
principles of both theories, critically assessed the concept of neuroplasticity, and provided
examples related to teaching subjects. Through an understanding of neuroplasticity, South
African educators can better tailor their teaching methods to accommodate the evolving
cognitive needs of their students. It is evident that the synergy between traditional
developmental theories and contemporary insights from neuroscience can lead to more
effective and inclusive teaching and learning practices in South African schools.

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