Second Class

Part A2

Thermodynamics and Metallurgy

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 Power Engineering
Second Class (A2):
Thermodynamics and Metallurgy

Table of Contents
Chapter Page
1. Thermodynamics of Gases 1
2. Thermodynamics of Steam 35
3. Practical Thermodynamic Cycles 67
4. Metallurgy 113
5. Testing of Metals 151
End of Chapter Questions and Solutions 233
 Thermodynamics of Gases

Learning Outcome
When you complete this learning material, you will be able to:

Perform calculations related to expansion and compression of perfect gases.

Learning Objectives
You will specifically be able to complete the following tasks:

1. Describe the behaviour of a perfect gas.

2. Explain Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures.

3. Define and calculate specific heats under constant volume and constant pressure
conditions.

4. Explain the relationship between work and heat.

5. Calculate the work done during expansion and compression under constant
pressure and isothermal conditions.

6. Calculate the work done during adiabatic expansion and compression.

7. Calculate the work done during polytropic expansion and compression.

Page 1
Page 2
 Objective 1
Describe the behaviour of a perfect gas.

CONCEPT OF A PERFECT GAS

The starting point of thermodynamics related to gases is the behaviour of an ideal or
perfect gas. A perfect gas is a gas which follows certain physical laws or rules under a
prescribed set of conditions. For this module, a perfect gas is a gas which is sufficiently
removed from its condensation temperature that it will remain in a gaseous state when
subjected to the changes of temperature and pressure of the operation being considered.

The characteristic equation of the state of a perfect gas is:

PV
=R
T
where R is a constant.

The relationship between temperature, pressure and volume is consistent throughout a

selected working range. The behaviour of a perfect gas can be used as a model for the
behaviour of real gases.

Note that pressure of a perfect gas will normally refer to absolute pressure rather than to
gauge pressure. Unless gauge pressure is specifically indicated, it is assumed that
thermodynamic calculations will utilize absolute pressures, and this convention is used
throughout this module. Similarly, thermodynamic calculations normally utilize absolute
temperature, using the Kelvin scale.

Pressure, temperature and volume are used to describe the state of a gas. The General
Gas Law is derived from:

• Boyle’s Law
• Charles’ Laws
• Gay-Lussac’s Laws

Page 3
 BOYLE’S LAW
Boyle’s Law describes the relationship between pressure and volume at a constant
temperature. It states that the product of pressure and volume is always the same if the
temperature is constant, or:

PV = constant

The results of this equation produce a curve such as the one shown in Fig. 1. Note that
the pressure is in absolute units, not gauge pressure, and temperature is in degrees
Kelvin (K).

Figure 1
Boyle’s Law

Boyle’s Law is also used to compare two different sets of conditions so the equation
becomes:
1 1 = PV
PV 2 2

This is a reasonable assumption if the process of expansion or compression is slow

enough for the temperature to remain constant. Constant temperature operations are also
called isothermal operations.

CHARLES’ LAW
Charles’ Law describes the relationship between pressure and temperature at a constant
volume. It states that the ratio of pressure and temperature is always the same if the
volume is constant, or:
P
= constant
T

An alternate expression by comparing two different sets of conditions is:

P1 P2
=
T1 T2

Page 4
GAY-LUSSAC’S LAW
Gay Lussac’s law describes the relationship between volume and temperature when
pressure is constant.

V
= constant
T

The other version is:

V1 V2
=
T1 T2

GENERAL GAS LAW

The three laws can be combined to give the equation:

PV
= constant
T

The version that compares the two sets of conditions is:

PV PV
1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2

Example 1
A gas is measured to be at a pressure of 150 kPa (gauge), 50°C and a volume of 3 litres.
Find the volume the gas would occupy at standard conditions of 15°C and 101.325 kPa.

Page 5
 Answer
Standard conditions are 15°C and 101.325 kPa. Converting the pressure and temperature
PV PV
to absolute, using the equation 1 1 = 2 2 , gives the solution as follows:
T1 T2
PV PV
1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2
2 2T1 = PV
PV 1 1T2

PV
1 1T2
V2 =
P2T1
(150 + 101.325 kPa) × 3 L × 273 K
V2 =
101.325 kPa × (273 + 50) K
261.325 kPa × 3 L × 273 K
V2 =
101.325 kPa × 323 K
261.325 kPa × 3 L × 273 K
V2 =
101.325 kPa × 323 K
214025.18
V2 =
32727.98
V2 = 6.54 L (Ans.)

IDEAL GAS LAW

The ideal gas law explains the relationship between pressure, volume and temperature
that includes the mass of the substance.
PV = mRT

where m is the mass in kg and R is a characteristic constant, with units in kJ/kgK, that is
specific to the type of gas. Table 1 provides a list of some common gases and their
values for R.

Table 1
Constants for Common Gases

Gas R in kJ/kgK
Air 0.287
Ammonia 0.462
Carbon dioxide 0.1889
Carbon monoxide 0.2969
Helium 2.0785
Nitrogen 0.2969
Oxygen 0.2598
Hydrogen 4.124

Page 6
Example 2
A steel tank contains 2 m3 of oxygen at a pressure of 13 790 kPa (gauge) and a
temperature of 21°C. What is the mass of oxygen in the tank? (R = 0.2598 kJ/kgK)

Answer
The mass is calculated using the equation PV = mRT :

PV = mRT
mRT = PV
PV
m=
RT
(13, 790 + 101.325) kPa × 2 m3
m=
0.2598 kJ/kgK × (273 + 21) K
13 891.325 kN/m 2 × 2 m3
=
0.2598 kNm/kgK × 294 K
27 782.65 kg
=
76.38
= 363.74 kg (Ans.)

Page 7
Page 8
 Objective 2
Explain Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures.

DALTON’S LAW
It is often necessary to perform calculations that involve multiple gases, for example,
water vapour and air or natural gas which consists of a mixture of hydrocarbons.
Dalton’s Law states that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of
the individual (or partial) pressures which each gas would exert if the other gases were
not present. In other words, the partial pressure of each gas is calculated using the total
volume, and the total pressure is the sum of all of the partial pressures.

Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3

Example 3
A tank with a volume of 5 m3 is half full of water. The top half of the tank contains air at
40°C and atmospheric pressure. If the partial pressure of water is 7.3814 kPa at 40°C,
what is the mass of the air in the tank? (R for air = 0.287 kJ/kgK)

Answer
The volume of gas above the water is a mixture of air and water vapour. Because the
partial pressure of the water vapour is 7.3814 kPa, the partial pressure of the air is:

Pair = Ptotal − Pwater

= 101.325 kPa − 7.3814 kPa
= 93.94 kPa

Because the partial pressure always refers to the total volume, the volume is 2.5 m3 at
40°C.

The mass is calculated using the equation PV = mRT :

Page 9
 PV = mRT
mRT = PV
PV
m=
RT
93.94 kPa × 2.5 m3
m=
0.287 kJ/kgK × (273 + 40) K
234.85
m=
0.287 kJ/kgK × (313) K
234.85
m=
89.83
= 2.614 kg (Ans.)

Page 10
 Objective 3
Define and calculate specific heats under constant
volume and constant pressure conditions.

SPECIFIC HEAT
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat which is required to raise a unit
quantity through 1°C rise in temp.

A solid or a liquid has only one specific heat. However, a gas has many, depending upon
the conditions under which the heat supply is given. The standard cases taken are heat
addition at:
• Constant volume
• Constant pressure

Constant Volume
Heat given to a gas contained in a cylinder in which the piston is fixed so that the
volume remains constant, would be calculated from:

Q ( kJ ) = mCv (T2 − T1 )
Q = Heat supplied
m = Mass of gas, kg
Cv = Specific heat of the gas at constant volume
T2 = Final temperature, K
T1 = Initial temperature, K

Constant Pressure
Heat given to a gas contained in a cylinder in which the piston moves so that the
pressure of the gas remains constant, would be calculated from:

Q ( kJ ) = mC p (T2 − T1 )
Q = Heat supplied
m = Mass of gas, kg
Cp = Specific heat of the gas at constant pressure
T2 = Final temperature, K
T1 = Initial temperature, K

Page 11
 Assuming the same quantity of gas and the same temperature rise in each case, the heat
quantity supplied at constant pressure must be greater than that supplied under constant
volume conditions because in addition to raising the gas temperature, work must be done
on the piston to move it against the constant pressure. This means that C p must always
be greater than Cv .

The fundamental energy equation states:

Heat Supplied = Change of Internal Energy + Work Done

If this is applied to the situation, a relationship between these specific heats can be used
out which applies to all gases.

Joule’s Law states that the internal energy of a gas is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the gas. For a change in temperature the change in internal
energy is measured in:
Q ( kJ ) = mCv (T2 − T1 )

Work done by a gas during any operation can be expressed in terms of pressure and
volume change. For example, during conditions of constant pressure the work done
would be:
P (V2 − V1 ) Nm

Referring to Fig. 2, a piston (area A m2) in a cylinder is acted upon by a pressure P

N/m2. The total force in N on the piston is then PA N. If the distance moved by the
piston is S m, then, since work done is force x distance moved, the work done on the
piston is:

Work done = Pressure P ( N/m 2 ) × Area A ( m 2 ) × Distance moved Stroke ( m )

Work done = P ( N/m 2 ) × A ( m 2 ) × S ( m )

Figure 2
Cylinder Piston

Page 12
But A × S is a measure of the volume change in the cylinder during the operation and
could be written (V2 - V1) m3:

Work done = P (V2 - V1 ) Nm

Substituting Work done = P (V2 - V1 ) Nm into the energy equation,

Heat Supplied = Change of Internal Energy + Work Done , for constant volume
operation:

Heat Supplied = Change of Internal Energy + Work Done

Q ( kJ ) = mCv (T2 − T1 ) + P(V2 - V1 )

For the constant pressure conditions, this becomes:

mC p (T2 - T1 ) = mCv (T2 T1 ) + P (V2 V1 )

The General Gas Law can be applied to an ideal gas operation, PV = mR T

P (V2 − V1 ) or PV2 − PV1

can be written:

mRT2 mR T1 = mR (T2 - T1 )

The equation then becomes:

mC p (T2 - T1 ) = mCv (T2 - T1 ) + mR (T2 - T1 )

Cancelling the common terms m and (T2 - T1 )

C p = Cv + R
C p − Cv = R

This means that the difference between the specific heats of any gas will give the
Characteristic Constant for the gas (expressed in kJ/kgK).

Page 13
 Ratio of Specific Heat
Another relationship between the specific heats of a gas is used in calculations, this
being the ratio of:

Cp
, given the symbol γ ( Gamma )
Cv

Some sample values for specific heats are shown in Table 2.

Table 2
Sample Values for Specific Heats

Substance Specific Heat at Specific Heat at Ratio of Specific

Constant Pressure Cp Constant Volume Cp Heats
kJ/kgK kJ/kgK γ = C p / Cv
or or
kJ/kg°C kJ/kg°C
Air 1.005 0.718 1.40
Water vapour 2.020
Water liquid 4.184
Hydrogen 14.235 10.096 1.41
Methane 2.177 1.675 1.30
Carbon Dioxide 0.825 0.630 1.31
Carbon Monoxide 1.051 0.751 1.40
Hydrogen Sulphide 1.105 0.85 1.30

Example 4
A 5 m3 volume of air at atmospheric pressure in a closed vessel is heated from 21°C to
45°C. If the specific heat is 716 J/kg°C, how much heat is required? (R for air = 0.287
kJ/kgK)

Page 14
Answer
The mass of air is found using the equation PV = mRT :

PV = mRT
PV
mRT =
RT
506.625
m=
0.287 kJ/kgK × (273 + 21) K
506.625
m=
0.287 kJ/kgK × 294 K
506.625
m=
84.378
= 6.00 kg

The amount of heat needed is calculated using the equation Q = mCv (T2 − T1 ) :

Q = mCv (T2 - T1 )
Q = 6 kg × 716 J/kg o C × (45 - 21)o C
Q = 6 kg × 716 J/kg o C × 24o C
Q = 103104 J
Q = 103.1 kJ (Ans.)

Page 15
Page 16
 Objective 4
Explain the relationship between work and heat .

CONCEPT OF HEAT
Heat is the energy associated with the motion of molecules within a body. Heat can be
converted to or from other forms of energy. Temperature is a measurement of the
addition or subtraction of heat to or from a body. Temperature measurements provide a
quantifiable comparison of the relative amounts of heat in different bodies or systems.

When two substances at different temperatures come into contact with each other, over
time their temperatures equalize. Heat is transferred from the hotter object to the colder
one. There is a transfer of energy but it is necessary to understand what occurs at the
microscopic molecular level to fully explain what happens.

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

There is a very close relationship between heat and mechanical energy, or work, which
is called the “mechanical equivalent” of heat. During compression, work is applied to a
gas and causes an increase in its internal energy. Heat and work are just different forms
of energy. Expansion and compression of gases depend on this fact.

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that work and heat are mutually convertible.
This is evidenced by the units of measure of work and heat. Work is the product of force
and distance and is measured in Nm or kNm. Heat and other forms of energy are
measured in Joules or kJ. One kNm is equivalent to one kJ. That is, one unit of work
done is equivalent to one unit of energy which is either expended or made available.

If work is applied to a system, there is a corresponding increase in the internal energy in

the system which is measured by the amount of heat contained within the system. For
example, if a gas is compressed and no heat is allowed to escape from the system, this is
measurable by an increase in its temperature. Expansion causes a reduction of heat
energy and a decrease in temperature as work is completed.

The equation that goes with the First Law is:

∆U = Q − W

where U is a measure of the internal energy of the system, Q is a measure of heat flow,
and W is a measure of work done.

Page 17
 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that work must be done to transfer heat
from one system to another. It is impossible for heat to flow from a colder system to a
hotter one without expending energy in the form of work.

This principle led to the development of theoretical thermodynamic cycles that uses heat
to produce work and also ones that use work to transfer heat such as in refrigeration. For
the moment, we will consider the work required to compress gases and the work that can
be done by the expansion of a gas. It will be seen in the following objectives that work
can be done on a gas in a several different ways that depend essentially on how heat
flows in the system due to compression or expansion.

Page 18
 Objective 5
Calculate the work done during expansion and
compression under constant pressure and isothermal
conditions.

WORK AT CONSTANT PRESSURE

Studies of expansion and compression of gases are of interest to the power engineer to
allow the calculation, for example, the work which can be done by an expanding gas in
an internal combustion engine or the work which is required to be done upon a quantity
of air in a compressor.

Expansion and compression of gases may be carried out under many different
circumstances. It is customary to study certain set conditions and to use these as a guide
to the actual operating conditions which may exist in an item of plant.

An expansion or a compression taking place at constant pressure is represented on a PV

diagram as shown in Fig. 3. The line 1 - 2 represents an expansion at constant pressure P
from volume Vl to volume V2. Assuming that the pressure remains the same, the
relationship between pressure and volume is shown on the graph in Fig. 3. A process at
constant pressure is called isobaric.

Figure 3
Work Done at Constant Pressure

A constant volume process (called isochoric) does not cause any work to be done
because the area is zero. (V2 − V )1 = 0 . This can be seen in Fig. 4.

Page 19
 Figure 4
Work Done at Constant Volume

Example 5
2712 kNm of work is done to compress 5 m3 of a gas to a volume of 1 m3. If the work is
done at constant pressure, what is the pressure?

Answer
Using the equation Work done = P (V2 - V1 ) Nm, the pressure is:

Work done (W ) = P(V2 - V1 ) Nm

P(V2 - V1 ) = W
W
P=
V2 − V1
2712 kNm
P=
( 5 − 1) m3
2712 kNm
P=
4 m3
P = 678 kN/m 2
P = 678 kPa (absolute) (Ans.)

Page 20
WORK AT CONSTANT TEMPERATURE
Another possible compression or expansion process is one that occurs at constant
temperature or an isothermal process.

An isothermal process for an ideal or perfect gas follows Boyle’s Law as shown in the
equation PV = constant and illustrated in Fig. 5. Because compression normally causes
an increase in temperature, heat has to be removed from the system for it to remain at a
constant temperature. This is not normally fully achieved in a compressor because of the
difficulty of doing so. There are some isothermal compressors with cooling jackets
around them to extract heat. An isothermal compression process requires less work than
an adiabatic compression process, but may require additional energy to remove the heat
generated during compression.

Figure 5
Isothermal Expansion or Compression Process

The work done by an isothermal process is shown in Fig. 6. The following equations
show how the area under the curve is calculated.

Figure 6
Work Done at Constant Temperature

Page 21
 The area under the curve is determined by taking a small strip of volume dV and then
using calculus to integrate the volume from V1 to V2 . In mathematical terms, this is
shown as:
V2
W = ∫ PdV
V1

The pressure varies with volume so Boyle’s Law is substituted for the pressure as
follows:
V2 V2 constant
W = ∫ PdV = ∫ dV
V1 V1 V

Integrating this equation mathematically gives the equation:

V2
W = constant × ln
V1

Using Boyle’s Law again, the constant is replaced by PV (any combination of pressure
and volume along the curve can be used although the logical options are PV
1 1 or PV
2 2 ) to

give the equation:

V
W = PV ln 2
V1

Note that ln (sometimes written as loge) refers to the natural logarithm e which uses the
number 2.7183 as the base. P refers to absolute pressure.

Page 22
If the temperature is known, the general gas equation is applied, PV = mRT :

V2
W = PV ln
V1
but PV = mRT
V2
W = mRT ln
V1

Either version of this equation can be expressed in terms of pressure rather than volume
V2
by using the equation PV 2 2 , so that equation W = PV ln
1 1 = PV becomes:
V1
P
W = PV ln 1
P2

Example 6
A quantity of air with an initial volume of 20 m3 at a pressure of 700 kPa (absolute) is
expanded to a pressure of 100 kPa. What work is done under isothermal conditions?

Answer
For isothermal work, expansion occurs at a constant temperature. Because the two
P
pressures are known, the applicable equation is W = PV ln 1 :
P2
P1
W = PV1 1 ln
P2
700 kPa
= 700 kPa × 20 m3 ln
100 kPa
= 14 000 kNm × 1.9459
= 27 243 kNm (Ans.)

Example 7
A volume of 10 m3 of air at a pressure of 280 kPa (absolute) is expanded to a volume of
25 m3. What work is done under isothermal conditions?

Page 23
 Answer
V2
Since the two volumes are known, the applicable equation is W = PV ln so that the
V1
work at constant temperature is:

V2
W = PV
1 1 ln
V1
25 m3
W = 280 kPa ×10 m3 × ln
10 m3
W = 280 kPa ×10 m3 × ln 2.5m3
W = 2800 kNm × 0.9163
= 2565.61 kNm (Ans.)

Page 24
 Objective 6
Calculate the work done during adiabatic expansion
and compression.

ADIABATIC COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION

During many expansion and compression processes, there is not sufficient opportunity
for the heat to flow out of or into the working fluid. This process, called adiabatic,
occurs when no heat moves across the system boundary. This means that during
compression, heat is retained and the temperature of the working fluid increases. During
expansion, the temperature decreases.

In an adiabatic process, the relationship between pressure and volume is re-written to

include the ratio of specific heats C p / Cv or γ . The adiabatic version of the pressure-
volume relationship is:
PV γ = constant

Another way to express this is with the equation:

γ γ
1 1 = PV
PV 2 2

An adiabatic process is shown graphically in Fig. 7.

Figure 7
Adiabatic Expansion or Compression Process

Page 25
 To calculate the work involved in an adiabatic process, substitute into the equation
V2
W = ∫ PdV :
V1

V2 V2 constant
W = ∫ PdV = ∫ dV
V1 V1 Vγ

This equation is then solved using calculus to give:

PV − PV
W= 1 1 2 2
γ −1

Example 8
A volume of 10 m3 of air at a pressure of 280 kPa is expanded to a volume of 25 m3.
What work is done under adiabatic conditions? (Assume that Cp = 1.005 and Cv =
0.7118)

Answer
Cp
The ratio of specific heats is first calculated from the equation γ = as:
Cv
Cp
γ=
Cv
1.005
=
0.7118
= 1.412
γ γ
1 1 = PV
Pressure P2 can then be calculated using the equation PV 2 2 :

γ γ
1 1 = PV
PV 2 2
γ γ
2 2 = PV
PV 1 1
γ
PV
P2 = γ
1 1
V2
280 kPa ×101.412 m3
P2 =
251.412 m3
P2 = 280 kPa × 0.2742
P2 = 76.78 kPa

Page 26
 1 1 − PV
PV
The work is calculated from the equation W = 2 2
:
γ −1

1 1 − PV
PV
W= 2 2
γ −1
(280 kPa ×10 m3 ) − (76.78 kPa × 25 m3 )
W =
1.412 − 1 kNm
2800 − 1919.50
W =
0.412
880.50
W =
0.412
W = 2137.14 kNm (Ans.)

Page 27
Page 28
 Objective 7
Calculate the work done during polytropic expansion
and compression.

POLYTROPIC COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION

In most situations, the expansion or compression process is neither isothermal nor
adiabatic. Some heat is always expended during expansion and retained during
compression. This condition of non-constancy of pressure, volume and heat flow is
called a polytropic process. To deal with this situation, the approach is taken to define a
coefficient n which takes the place of γ . The relationship between pressure and volume
then is stated as:
PV n = constant

The alternate version is:

1 1 = PV
n n
PV 2 2

Graphically, this relationship can be illustrated as in Fig. 8. Note that the polytropic
curve falls in between the isothermal and adiabatic curves. The value of n is more than 1
(isothermal) and less than γ .

Figure 8
Polytropic Expansion Process

Page 29
 The calculation for work is similar to one for an adiabatic process except that γ is
replaced by n.
PV − PV
W= 1 1 2 2
n −1

Example 9
A volume of 10 m3 of air at a pressure of 280 kPa (absolute) is expanded to a volume of
25 m3. What work is done under polytropic conditions? (Assume that n = 1.2)

Answer
1 1 = PV
n n
Pressure P2 is calculated using the equation PV 2 2 :

1 1 = PV
n n
PV 2 2

2 2 = PV
n n
PV 1 1
n
PV
P2 = 1 1

V2 n
280 kPa × 101.2 m3
P2 =
251.2 m3
280 kPa × 15.85 m3
P2 =
47.59 m3
4438
P2 =
47.59 m3
P2 = 93.25 kNm (Ans.)

1 1 − PV
PV
The work is calculated using equation W = 2 2
:
n −1

1 1 − PV
PV
W= 2 2

n −1
(280 kPa × 10 m3 ) − (93.25 kPa × 25 m3 )
W =
1.2 − 1
2800 − 2331.25
W =
1.2 − 1
2800 − 2331.25
W =
0.2
468.75
W =
0.2
= 2343.75 kNm (Ans.)

Page 30
COMPARISON OF COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION
PROCESSES
The previous examples have shown that for an expansion process, the most work is
extracted for a given increase in volume if the process is at constant pressure, followed
by isothermal and polytropic processes. The least expansion work can be extracted if it
is done adiabatically. This can be confirmed by inspecting the areas under the curves
shown in Fig. 9.

Figure 9
Comparison of Expansion Processes

Compression is the opposite. Isothermal compression takes the least amount of work and
adiabatic requires the most, with polytropic in between. The comparison for
compression processes is illustrated in Fig. 10.

Figure 10
Comparison of Compression Processes

Page 31
Page 32
 Chapter Questions

1. A receiver contains 1.5 m3 of air at 860 kPa and 20ºC. Calculate the final
temperature after 2.75 kg of air is added. (R for air = 0.287 kJ/kgK)

2. 2 m3 volumes of hydrogen at atmospheric pressure in a closed vessel needs to be

heated from 0°C to 21°C. If the specific heat is 10070 J/kg°C, how much heat is
required? (R for hydrogen = 4.124 kJ/kgK)

3. A tank with a volume of 5 m3 is half full of water. The top half of the tank contains
2.75 kg of air at atmospheric pressure. If the partial pressure of water is 7.3814 kPa,
what is the temperature of the air in the tank? (R for air = 0.287 kJ/kgK)

4. The values of the specific heats of a gas at constant pressure and at constant volume
are 0.9839 and 0.7285, respectively. Find the value of γ for this gas. If 1.8 kg of this
gas is heated from 16°C to 155°C, find the heat absorbed if the heating takes place at
a) Constant pressure
b) Constant volume.

5. With respect to compression and expansion processes, define the following:

(a) Isothermal process
(b) Adiabatic process
(c) Polytropic process

6. 100 m3 of a perfect gas at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 21°C is

compressed to 25 m3. What work is required if the gas is compressed:
a) Isothermally
b) Adiabatically (Assume γ = 1.32 )
c) Polytropically (Assume n = 1.18 )

Page 33
Page 34
 Thermodynamics of Steam

Learning Outcome
When you complete this learning material, you will be able to

Perform calculations related to properties of steam.

Learning Objectives
You will specifically be able to complete the following tasks:

1. Describe the basic properties of water and steam.

2. Perform calculations involving specific enthalpy, dryness fraction, specific heat

and specific volume using steam tables.

3. Explain the principles and use of calorimeters to measure the dryness fraction of
wet steam.

4. Calculate the dryness fraction of steam based on calorimeter data.

5. Calculate the internal energy of steam under given conditions.

6. Explain the concept of entropy and the use of the temperature-entropy diagram.
Calculate the change in entropy for a particular change in enthalpy at a constant
temperature.

7. Determine steam properties using a Mollier Chart.

8. Calculate boiler thermal efficiency using test data provided

Page 35
Page 36
 Objective 1
Describe the basic properties of water and steam.

INTRODUCTION
Steam is an important working fluid for power generation and other industrial processes.
Understanding its behaviour and properties is critical to the successful operation of
steam-related equipment and processes.

The widespread use of steam is due to the availability of water and the relative safety of
steam compared to other fluids. There are some disadvantages to using water and steam
but they are minor compared to using thermodynamically superior fluids, such as
ammonia, that are much more hazardous.

WATER TO STEAM
The transition from water to steam as heat is added is dependent on pressure and
temperature conditions. The three steps to the transition, illustrated in Fig. 1, show the
behaviour of water and steam in terms of temperature and pressure as heat is added (on
the x-axis). Enthalpy is a thermodynamic quantity equal to the internal energy of a
system plus the product of its volume and pressure. Enthalpy is the amount of energy in
a system capable of doing mechanical work.

Specific enthalpy refers to the amount of heat in a unit mass of one kg. The amount of
heat added to water and steam begins at starting point A shown with an enthalpy of zero
at 0°C.

Page 37
 Figure 1
Temperature-Enthalpy Chart for Steam

The first step starts at point A as water is heated. The process follows the line AB and
applies to a situation where the pressure is atmospheric (101.325 kPa). At point B,
419.04 kJ has been added to the water, which is still in liquid form, and the temperature
is now 100°C. The added heat is called sensible heat because it causes an increase in the
temperature of the water which can be “sensed” and measured. This term sensible heat is
now replaced with the terms liquid enthalpy or enthalpy of water.

In the next stage, shown as BC in Fig. 1, the water is progressively turned into steam.
This occurs at the saturation temperature or the boiling point. The heat added is called
latent heat because it does not produce a change in temperature. For water at
atmospheric pressure, the amount of latent heat required to go from B to C is 2257
kJ/kg. Although the term latent heat is still used, it is more commonly called enthalpy
of evaporation.

Page 38
At point C, all of the water has been transformed to steam and, since there is no more
liquid, the steam is now dry and saturated and is called dry steam. In between points
B and C, the mixture of water and steam is called wet steam. The proportion of water
and steam is called the dryness fraction which increases from 0 (or 0% steam) at point
B to 1 (or 100% steam) at point C.

Once point C is reached, the addition of further heat again causes an increase in
temperature. The steam is now superheated and dry.

Referring to Fig. 1, at increased pressures, the saturation (or boiling) temperature also
increases and more sensible heat is needed to reach the higher saturation temperature. If
water is at a pressure of 1553.8 kPa, boiling occurs at 200°C and 852.45 kJ/kg of
sensible heat is required. However, less latent heat (1940.7 kJ/kg) is required to reach
the dry saturated temperature.

As the pressure is increased, a point is reached where no latent heat is required to go

from water to steam. This point is called the critical pressure and occurs at a pressure
of 22 090 kPa and a temperature of 374.136°C.

STEAM TABLES
The properties of steam are fully described in Steam Tables. Because there is no
theoretical equation for calculating the properties of steam directly, they are determined
experimentally. As the importance of steam grew both for power generation and steam
uses in industrial processing, it became crucial that accurate tables were available for
both design and operational purposes. Early tables were adequate for low pressures and
temperatures but the tables were extended as pressures and temperatures increased
substantially in the early to middle 1900s.

Although there are a variety of steam table sets available, in this course tables extracted
from Keenan, Keyes, Hill and Moore published by John Wiley and Sons Inc. are used.
Tables I and II cover the properties of steam in the saturated region and are basically the
same except that Table I begins with pressure as the starting point and Table II begins
with temperature. Table III covers the properties for superheated steam and is laid out
differently because the temperature increases again with the addition of heat. A
specialized chart called a Mollier chart which is based on enthalpy and entropy is also
included at the end of the tables.

Interpolation is used to estimate intermediate values from the tables. Because the table
cannot show all values, the same proportion is applied from one part of the table to
another to obtain intermediate values.

Page 39
 For example, Table I does not provide any values between 100 kPa and 125 kPa. To find
the enthalpy h f for a pressure of 115 kPa, the following interpolation is required:
15
h f at 115 kPa = h f at 100 kPa + (h f at 125 kPa - h f at 100 kPa)
25
15
= 417.46 kJ/kg + ( 444.32 - 417.46 ) kJ/kg
25
15
= 417.46 kJ/kg + ( 26.86 ) kJ/kg
25
= 417.46 kJ/kg + 16.12 kJ/kg
= 433.58 kJ/kg (Ans.)

Page 40
 Objective 2
Perform calculations involving specific enthalpy,
dryness fraction, specific heat and specific volume
using steam tables.

SPECIFIC ENTHALPY
Enthalpy is the quantity of heat, in kilojoules (kJ), contained in a substance. The
enthalpy at any given time depends on the temperature and pressure of the substance.
For water and steam, enthalpy is measured from a standard starting point of 0°C,
therefore, water at 0°C has an enthalpy of zero.

Steam tables record specific enthalpy for saturated or superheated steam and the units of
measure are kJ/kg. In Tables I and II, the first specific enthalpy shown, h f or sensible
heat, is for saturated liquid (for example, point B in Fig. 1) or the boiling point where
there is 100% water and no steam.

The second specific enthalpy is the enthalpy of evaporation or the latent heat, h fg . It is
the amount of heat required to go from point B to point C in Fig. 1. At the saturated
vapour stage, hg , the specific enthalpy is the sum of the sensible and latent heats so that:
hg = h f + h fg

In Table III, the specific enthalpy for superheated steam is shown for combinations of
pressure and temperature. Taking a pressure and temperature from Table I or II and
finding the equivalent (or close to it) in Table III, the value hg shows that the enthalpy
increases.

Example 1
Find the heat required to convert 10 kg of water at 15°C to saturated steam at 1400 kPa.
What is the final temperature?

Answer
From the Steam Tables, the specific enthalpies at the two conditions are:

h f at 1400 kPa = 830.30 kJ/kg

h f at 15°C = 62.99 kJ/kg

Page 41
 Therefore, the difference in specific enthalpy is:

h f at 1400 kPa − h f at 15°C = 830.30 kJ/kg − 62.99 kJ/kg

= 767.31 kJ/kg

The latent heat ( h fg ) at 1400 kPa is 1959.7 kJ/kg. Applying equation hg = h f + h fg and
multiplying by the total mass, the heat required is:

hg = h f + h fg
hg = 767.31 kJ/kg + 1959.7 kJ/kg
= 2727.01 kJ/kg ×10 kg
= 27270 kJ (Ans.)

The final temperature is the saturation temperature 195.07°C which is found in Table I.

Example 2
What is the enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 3000 kPa when it is dry and saturated and when
it is superheated by 55°C?

Answer
The specific enthalpy ( hg ) of steam at 3000 kPa when it is dry and saturated is 2804.2
kJ/kg, found in Table I.

The saturation temperature, at 3000 kPa, is 233.9°C. With 55°C of superheat, the final
temperature is 288.9°C. To obtain the specific enthalpy at this temperature, interpolate
between the values given in Table III for 250°C and 300°C at 3000 kPa.

38.9
h at 288.9°C = h at 250°C + (h at 300°C - h at 250°C)
50
38.9
h at 288.9°C = 2855.8 kJ/kg + (2993.5 - 2855.8)
50
38.9
= 2855.8 kJ/kg + (137.70)
50
= 2855.8 kJ/kg + 107.13
= 2962.93 kJ/kg (Ans.)

Page 42
DRYNESS FRACTION
When there is a mixture of water and steam, or wet steam, the relative amounts of water
and steam are described in terms of a dryness fraction, called the steam quality. The
symbol x is used for steam quality and it is the fraction of the water and steam mixture
that is in the vapour (or steam) phase. It is used in wet steam calculations for specific
volume, enthalpy and entropy. Therefore, for any point in the wet steam phase, the
specific enthalpy is calculated using the equation:

h = h f + xh fg

Example 3
What is the specific enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 2500 kPa with a dryness fraction of
0.8?

Answer
Using the values from Table I in the Steam Tables and the equation h = h f + xh fg , the
specific enthalpy is calculated as:

h = h f + xh fg
h = 962.11 kJ/kg + ( 0.8 × 1841.0 ) kJ/kg
h = 962.11 kJ/kg + 1472.8 kJ/kg
= 2434.91 kJ/kg (Ans.)

SPECIFIC HEAT
The specific heat of water (the amount of heat in J (Joules) needed to raise the
temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C) is 4.1894 kJ/kg/°C. This can be verified by looking
at the value for 100°C, which is 418.94 kJ/kg at atmospheric pressure, and then it
dividing by 100.

At 2000 kPa, the sensible heat ( h f ) is 908.79 kJ/kg. Dividing 908.79 kJ/kg by the
saturation temperature (212.42°C), the specific heat is 4.2783 kJ/kg/°C. The difference
increases with pressure and temperature.

The specific heat of steam varies even more although it is possible to estimate the
specific heat in a narrow range of temperature and pressure. For example, to determine
the specific heat of superheated steam at 6000 kPa between 400°C and 500°C, the
specific heat is calculated to be:

Page 43
 h at 6000 kPa and 400°C = 3177.2 kJ/kg
h at 6000 kPa and 500°C = 3422.2 kJ/kg
3422.2 - 3177.2 kJ/kg
Specific heat =
100o C
= 2.45 kJ/kg/ o C

SPECIFIC VOLUME
The specific volume is the volume per unit of mass of any substance. In the steam tables,
the specific volume v is measured in cm3/g.

Referring to the steam tables, for wet steam, the specific volume of the liquid portion is
very small compared to the specific volume for the steam component at lower pressures
and temperatures. As pressures and temperatures rise to the critical pressure and
temperature, their specific volumes eventually become equal. For many calculations, the
specific volume of the water can be ignored without significant loss of accuracy.

To calculate the specific volume for wet steam, the dryness fraction is used in the same
way as it is for enthalpy (taking into account that the tables only show vf and vg) using
the equation:
v = v f + x (v g − v f )

Example 4
What is the specific volume of 1 kg of steam at 2500 kPa with a dryness fraction of 0.8?

Answer
Using the values from Table I in the Steam Tables and equation v = v f + x(vg − v f ) , the
specific volume is calculated as:

v = v f + x (v g − v f )
v = 1.1973 cm3 /g+0.8(79.98-1.1973)cm3 /g
v = 1.1973 cm3 /g+0.8(78.78)cm3 /g
v = 1.1973 cm3 /g+63.02cm3 /g
v = 64.22 cm3 /g
v = 0.06422 m3 /kg (Ans.)

Page 44
 Objective 3
Explain the principles and use of calorimeters to
measure the dryness fraction of wet steam.

MEASURING THE DRYNESS FRACTION OF STEAM

In steam plants it is frequently necessary to measure the dryness fraction of steam, if
saturated steam is used. Steam that is overly wet (too much moisture content) causes
corrosion and erosion in equipment. Wet steam also reduces plant thermal efficiencies
and increases the risk of water hammer in piping.

A calorimeter measures the dryness fraction of wet steam and determines the amount of
heat in the steam. There are three types of calorimeter used:
• Throttling
• Separating
• Electric

THROTTLING CALORIMETERS
Throttling calorimeters, used for steam with low moisture content, are based on the
principle that when steam pressure is reduced through an orifice or constriction, the
enthalpy remains the same because there is no opportunity for the heat to be removed. If
the steam contains a moderate amount of moisture, the wet steam is converted, or
flashed, to superheated steam at a lower pressure, as shown in Fig. 2. The process is
isenthalpic, which means that there is no change in enthalpy. The pressure and
temperature at point 2 are used to determine the enthalpy from the Steam Tables. Since
the enthalpy at points 1 and 2 are the same, it can be used to calculate the dryness
fraction at the higher pressure.

Page 45
 Figure 2
Effect of Throttling on Wet Steam

Throttling calorimeters are applicable to wet steam conditions that range approximately
from 0.965 dryness fraction at 700 kPa to 0.93 at 2700 kPa. For wetter steam, a
separating calorimeter must be inserted upstream of the throttling calorimeter.

The steam sample is taken from a vertical pipe as close as possible to the engine,
turbine, or boiler tested. An example of a good sampling method is shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3
Example of Sampling Tube

A simple throttling calorimeter that is easy to construct is illustrated in Fig. 4. The steam
is throttled through the orifice O into a chamber C. The temperature is measured with a
thermometer T and the pressure is measured with a manometer connected to valve V2.
The steam is allowed to escape to a vent through valve V1. To ensure that no heat is lost
to the surroundings, all parts of the calorimeter are insulated from the steam main.

Page 46
If the orifice is sized correctly, the steam is at atmospheric pressure after throttling and
the operation can be simplified. When taking the measurement, wait until the
temperature has reached a maximum value and then decreased slightly.

Figure 4
Example of Simple Throttling Calorimeter

SEPARATING CALORIMETERS
A separating calorimeter, used for steam with high moisture content, is inserted
upstream of the throttling calorimeter to reduce the amount of moisture so that the
throttling calorimeter can be used effectively. If the moisture content in the steam is too
high (for example, a dryness fraction of less than 96.5% at 700 kPa,) then a separating
calorimeter is used to separate most of the moisture before the steam is passed to a
throttling calorimeter. An example of a simple separating calorimeter is shown in Fig. 5.
The steam enters at point A, exits at point D, and condenses in a container. The change
in direction required as it passes through the tube with holes produces inertial forces that
cause the moisture to collect in the cavity V. The amount of liquid collected is measured
in the sight glass G.

Page 47
 Figure 5
Example of Simple Separating Calorimeter

A separating calorimeter can also be used to calculate the dryness fraction without the
use of a throttling calorimeter. In this case, the steam exiting at point D is condensed and
the mass of liquid at point D and in sight glass G is recorded for comparison.

A disadvantage of a separating calorimeter is that the resulting calculation tends to

underestimate the wetness of the steam because some of the moisture carries over with
the steam.

ELECTRIC CALORIMETERS
Electric calorimeters are also used to measure the dryness fraction of wet steam. A
measured amount of steam is heated with a known amount of electric heat until the
steam becomes superheated. The enthalpy is computed from the resultant pressure and
temperature from the Steam Tables and the enthalpy of the wet steam is calculated by
subtracting the electric heat added. This requires an accurate measurement of the steam
flow and the flow may be difficult to measure.

Page 48
 Objective 4
Calculate the dryness fraction of steam based on
calorimeter data.

MEASURING DRYNESS USING A THROTTLING CALORIMETER

The dryness of the wet steam is calculated on the basis that the enthalpy of the wet
steam is equal to the enthalpy of the throttled steam which is now superheated. Using
the equation developed for determining the dryness of wet steam, h = h f + xh fg , and
substituting the enthalpy of the superheated steam hsup , the following equation is
derived:
hsup = h f + xh fg
h f + xh fg = hsup − h f
hsup − h f
xh fg =
h fg
hsup − h f
x=
h fg

Example 5
Wet steam at a pressure of 1000 kPa is sampled in a throttling calorimeter. If the
temperature is measured at 100°C and the pressure is 100 kPa, what is the quality of the
steam?

Page 49
 Answer
From Table III in the Steam Tables, the specific enthalpy of the superheated steam is
2676.2 kJ/kg. From Table I for a pressure of 1000 kPa, the enthalpy for the saturated
liquid hf is 762.81 kJ/kg and the latent heat hfg is 2015.3 kJ/kg. The dryness of the wet
h − hf
steam is found using the equation x = sup :
h fg
hsup − h f
x=
h fg
2676.2 kJ/kg − 762.81 kJ/kg
x=
2015.3 kJ/kg
1913.39 kJ/kg
x=
2015.3 kJ/kg
x = 0.949
= 94.9% (Ans.)

MEASURING DRYNESS USING A SEPARATING CALORIMETER

Using a separating calorimeter, a rough estimate of the dryness is made for steam that is
too wet for a throttling calorimeter. If the mass of the water collected in the calorimeter
is m1 and the mass of the condensed steam is m2 , the dryness is calculated using the
equation:
m2
x=
m2 + m1

This calculation tends to underestimate the wetness of the steam because some of the
moisture carries over with the steam.

MEASURING DRYNESS USING A SEPARATING AND

THROTTLING CALORIMETER
A more accurate method of measuring dryness is to sample the steam in a throttling
calorimeter after it goes through the separating calorimeter to determine the remaining
moisture in the steam.

Fig. 6 illustrates a combined separating and throttling calorimeter.

Page 50
 Figure 6
Combined Separating and Throttling Calorimeter

If x2 is the dryness of the steam entering the throttling calorimeter, then the amount of
dry steam is x2 m2 kg. The total mass of the sample is m1 + m2 so the dryness of the
sample x is:
xm
x= 2 2
m1 + m2

In this equation, the apparent dryness of the separating calorimeter as defined in

m2
equation x = , is x1 so that the equation is:
m2 + m1
x = x1 × x2

Example 6
Wet steam at a pressure of 1400 kPa is sampled by a separating and throttling
calorimeter. The amount of water obtained from the separating calorimeter is 0.4 kg. In
the throttling calorimeter, the temperature is measured at 140°C and the pressure is 100
kPa. The mass of the condensate collected from the throttling calorimeter is 9 kg. What
is the dryness fraction of the steam?

Page 51
 Answer
The dryness of steam from the separating calorimeter is obtained using the equation
m2
x1 = :
m2 + m1
m2
x1 =
m2 + m1
9 kg
x1 =
9kg + 0.4 kg
x1 = 0.9574

From Table III in the Steam Tables, the specific enthalpy of the superheated steam in the
throttling calorimeter is calculated by interpolation:

40
h at 140°C = h at 100°C + (h at 150°C - h at 100°C)
50
40
h at 140°C = 2676.2 kJ/kg + (2776.4 - 2676.2) kJ/kg
50
40
h at 140°C = 2676.2 kJ/kg + (100.20) kJ/kg
50
h at 140°C = 2676.2 kJ/kg + 80.16 kJ/kg
h at 140°C = 2756.36 kJ/kg

From Table I for a pressure of 1400 kPa, the enthalpy for the saturated liquid hf is 830.3
kJ/kg and the latent heat hfg is 1959.7 kJ/kg. The dryness of the wet steam is found using
h − hf
the equation x = sup :
h fg
h − hf
x = sup
h fg
2756.36 − 830.3
x=
1959.7
x = 0.9828 or 98.28%

The total dryness is the product of the two dryness calculations using the
equation x = x1 × x2 :
x = x1 × x2
x = 0.9574 × 0.9828
x = 0.941
= 94.1% (Ans.)

Page 52
 Objective 5
Calculate the internal energy of steam under given
conditions.

INTERNAL ENERGY
Internal energy is another property of steam that is found in the Steam Tables. Internal
energy follows the First Law of Thermodynamics which states that work and heat are
equivalent and interchangeable. The equation associated with the First Law of
Thermodynamics states that heat added to a system causes either a change in the internal
energy or work done on the system:

Q = ∆U + W

In this equation, U represents internal energy. Q represents enthalpy, with a scale

beginning at an enthalpy of zero at 0°C. In other words, Q = h .

The above equation applies to any non-flow process. For flow processes, factors such as
velocity and elevation have to be considered and the production of steam in a boiler is a
common example. The work done on the fluid causes changes in pressure and
temperature. Therefore, the work W can be expressed as pv (pressure in kPa × specific
volume in m3/kg).

Equation Q = ∆U + W can thus be rewritten as:

h = ∆µ + pv

Note how this equation applies to a boiler. The feedwater enters the boiler at a pressure
of P kPa and a specific volume v1 so that the flow energy is Pv1 . Its internal energy at
this point is u1 . Thus the enthalpy is:
h1 = u1 + p1v1

Heat is added until the boiling point is reached. Most of the heat goes into increasing the
internal energy through an increase in temperature. The pressure is constant and there is
only a minor increase in the specific volume.

Page 53
 The enthalpy at the boiling point is:

h f = u f + p1v f

This can be verified from the Steam Tables. Taking a pressure of 2000 kPa in Table I at
the boiling point:
h f = U f + p1v f
1.1767
908.79 = 906.44 + 2000 ×
1000
908.79 = 906.44 + 2.35
908.79 = 908.79

During the next phase, the water is transformed from a liquid to a vapour. The pressure
and temperature remain constant while the specific volume increases to vg as the liquid
is turned into a vapour. Some of the heat is used to increase the internal energy to free
the molecules so that the water can be changed to a vapour and the remaining heat
increases the volume. The equation is now written as:

h fg = (u g − u f ) + p(vg − v f )

Example 7
Calculate the change in internal energy experienced in a boiler as 1 kg of feedwater at
40°C and 500 kPa is heated to produce steam with a dryness fraction of 0.97. Verify
with the internal energy column in the table.

Answer
The enthalpy of the feedwater, at 40°C, from the Steam Tables is 167.57 kJ/kg and the
specific volume is 1.0078 cm3/kg. The internal energy at 500 kPa, using the equation
h f = u f + p1v f , is:

h f = µ f + p1v f
u f = h f − p1v f
1.0078 cm3 /kg
u f = 167.57 kJ/kg − 500 ×
1000 cm3 /kg
u f = 167.57 kJ/kg − 500 × 0.0010078 cm3 /kg
u f = 167.57 kJ/kg − 500 × 0.0010078 cm3 /kg
u f = 167.57 kJ/kg − 0.5039 cm3 /kg
u f = 167.07 kJ/kg

Page 54
The enthalpy of the steam, at 500 kPa, is found using the equation h = h f + xh fg :

h = h f + xh fg
h = 640.23 kJ/kg + 0.97 × 2108.5 kJ/kg
h = 640.23 kJ/kg + 2045.25 kJ/kg
h = 2685.48 kJ/kg

The specific volume is calculated using the equation v = v f + x(vg − v f ) :

v = v f + x (vg − v f )
v = 1.0926 cm3 /g + 0.97(374.9 − 1.0926) cm3 /g
v = 1.0926 cm3 /g + 0.97(373.8074) cm3 /g
v = 1.0926 cm3 /g + 362.5932 cm3 /g
v = 363.69 cm3 /g
v = 0.36369 m3 /kg

The internal energy is:

u g = h2 − p2 v2
u g = h2 − p2 v2
u g = 2685.48 kJ/kg − 500 kPa × 0.36369 m3 /kg
u g = 2685.48 kJ/kg − 181.85 m3 /kg
u g = 2503.63 kJ/kg

Therefore, the change of internal energy is:

∆µ = u g − u f
∆µ = 2503.63 kJ/kg − 167.07 kJ/kg
∆µ = 2336.56 kJ/kg

Page 55
 The initial internal energy is read directly from the tables and is equivalent to the
calculated internal energy. The final internal energy is obtained from the tables with
allowance for the dryness fraction.
u g = u f + xu fg
u g = 639.68 kJ/kg + 0.97 × 1921.6 kJ/kg
u g = 639.68 kJ/kg + 1863.9 5kJ/kg
u g = 2503.63 kJ/kg ( Ans.)

Page 56
 Objective 6
Explain the concept of entropy and the use of the
temperature-entropy diagram. Calculate the change in
entropy for a particular change in enthalpy at a constant
temperature.

ENTROPY
A derived property called entropy is useful in calculating the effects of thermodynamic
processes. Entropy is derived from the measurable properties of heat and temperature
and can be defined as follows.

The entropy of a substance is calculated from the sum of all of the small quantities of
heat given to the substance, each divided by the absolute temperature at which it was
given.

Entropy is a property of steam that is derived from the Second Law of Thermodynamics.
This law states that work must be done to transfer heat from one system to another and
that it is impossible for heat to flow from a colder system to a hotter one without
expending energy in the form of work.

From the Second Law, the transfer of heat is a process that is dependent on the
temperature of the working fluid. Entropy is a function of the heat transferred during
parts of a thermodynamic cycle and the absolute temperature, and it serves to define the
relationship between heat flow and absolute temperature.

The symbol used for entropy is S . Change of entropy is ∆S and the units used are
kilojoule per kelvin (kJ/K). Specific entropy, which is entropy per unit mass, is
represented by the symbol s and the units used are kilojoule per kilogram kelvin
(kJ/kgK). Thus, for any small addition of heat ∆Q kJ, the increase in entropy ∆S will be

∆Q
∆S =
T

The symbol ∆ (Delta) indicates a small change.

Page 57
 TEMPERATURE –ENTROPY DIAGRAM
A temperature-entropy diagram is shown in Fig. 7. The temperature is plotted on the y-
axis and the entropy is on the x-axis. The line illustrates the conversion of water to
steam at constant pressure through the stages of water, wet steam, and superheated
steam. Notice that the areas under the curve are equal to the sensible heat h f and the
latent heat h fg .

Figure 7
Temperature-Entropy Diagram

An isothermal process is depicted as a straight horizontal line on this diagram. The most
important area of constant temperature is the wet steam phase. The calculation of
entropy for various dryness fractions is done using the familiar equation:

s = s f + xs fg

Page 58
Example 8
Calculate the specific entropy of wet steam at a pressure of 1400 kPa and a dryness of
0.96.

Answer
From the Steam Tables, the specific entropy of the saturated liquid is 2.2842 kJ/kgK and
the latent entropy is 4.1850 kJ/kgK. Using the equation 6 s = s f + xs fg , the entropy is:

s = s f + xs fg
s = 2.2842 kJ/kgK + 0.96 × 4.1850 kJ/kgK
s = 2.2842 kJ/kgK + 4.0176 kJ/kgK
s = 6.3018 kJ/kgK (Ans.)

CHANGE IN ENTROPY

Example 9
One kilogram of dry saturated steam at a pressure of 3000 kPa is throttled to a pressure
of 1000 kPa and then expanded at constant entropy. Calculate the increase in entropy.

Answer
3000 kPa hg = 2804.2 kJ/kgK sg = 6.1869 kJ/kgK
1000 kPa hg = 2778.1 kJ/kgK

Throttling process:

Enthalpy after = Enthalpy before

Enthalpy at 1000 kPa = 2804.2 kJ/kgK

Page 59
 Since the steam is superheated:

Enthalpy of superheat = 2804.2 kJ/kgK − 2778.1 kJ/kgK

= 26.10 kJ/kgK
At 1000 kPa, h = 2827.9 kJ/kgK for 200° C
h = 2778.1 kJ/kgK for 179.91° C ( Saturation temperature )
Increase h = ( 2827.9 kJ/kgK - 2778.1 kJ/kgK ) for 20.09° C
Increase h = 49.8 kJ/kgK for 20.09° C
Difference in temperature for h = 2804.2 kJ/kgK - 2778.1 kJ/kgK
h = 26.10 kJ/kgK
26.10 kJ/kgK
h= × 20.09° C
49.8 kJ/kgK
h = 0.5241 kJ/kgK × 20.09° C
h = 10.53° C
Degree of superheat at 1000 kPa = 10.53° C

Entropy at 1000 kPa, 10.5291ºC superheat:

Tsat = 179.91° C TSup = 179.91° C + 10.53° C

TSup = 190.44° C

Saturation:
1000 kPa T = 179.91° C s = 6.5865
°
T = 200 C s = 6.6940

6.6940 kJ/kgK − 6.5865 kJ/kgK

Change in entropy s = × (190.44° C − 179.91° C ) + 6.5865 kJ/kgK
200 C − 179.91 C
° °

0.1075 kJ/kgK
s= °
×10.53° C + 6.5865 kJ/kgK
20.09 C
s = 0.0054 ×10.53° C + 6.5865 kJ/kgK
s = 0.0569 + 6.5865 kJ/kgK
s = 6.6428 kJ/kgK

Increase in entropy = Change in entropy - Entropy of 3000 kPa steam

Increase in entropy = 6.6428 kJ/kgK - 6.1869 kJ/kgK
Increase in entropy = 0.4559 kJ/kgK ( Ans.)

Page 60
 Objective 7
Determine steam properties using a Mollier Chart.

MOLLIER CHART
A Mollier chart, useful for analyzing steam cycles, is provided at the end of this chapter
and can be downloaded from the Second Class Companion Website. Specific enthalpy
is on the y-axis and specific entropy is on the x-axis. The saturation line which separates
wet steam from superheated steam is shown on the chart along with lines for constant
pressure, constant temperature and constant dryness.

It is possible to use the entropy values in the Steam Tables to analyze steam conditions,
but the Mollier Chart is valuable for analyzing cycles. Throttling, which is a constant
enthalpy process, is represented by a straight horizontal line from the initial pressure and
condition to the final pressure.

During an adiabatic process, no heat transfer takes place to and from the surroundings. If
the process is reversible, it is then also isentropic (no change in entropy) and the process
is represented on the Mollier Chart by a straight vertical line.

Example 9
Steam, with a dryness of 0.96, is throttled from a pressure of 500 kPa. Using the Mollier
Chart, what is the final pressure required for the steam to be dry and saturated? What are
the enthalpies and entropies for these two points?

Answer
The starting point is found at the intersection of the pressure of 500 kPa and dryness of
0.96. From the Mollier Chart, the enthalpy is estimated as 2660 kJ/kg and the entropy as
6.61 kJ/kgK. Follow a horizontal line to the saturation line. The pressure is
approximately 70 kPa with the same enthalpy and an entropy of 7.48 kJ/kgK. These
values can be verified using Table I and finding that the enthalpy of 2660 matches that
given for a pressure close to 75 kPa.

Page 61
 Example 10
Superheated steam at a pressure of 10 000 kPa and a temperature of 700°C is expanded
isentropically to a pressure of 100 kPa. Using the Mollier Chart, what is the change in
enthalpy and the dryness fraction after expansion?

Answer
The starting point is found at the intersection of a pressure of 10 000 kPa and a
temperature of 700°C. From the Mollier Chart, the enthalpy is estimated as 3870 kJ/kg.
Follow a vertical line to a pressure of 100 kPa. The enthalpy is approximately 2610 with
a dryness of 0.97. The change in enthalpy is thus 1260 kJ/kg. These values can be
verified from the tables.

Page 62
 Objective 8
Calculate boiler thermal efficiency using test data
provided.

BOILER EFFICIENCY
When using a boiler, it is important to know the thermal efficiency at which it is
operating. A high efficiency boiler is economical and contributes to a high overall
efficiency for the whole plant. Many factors contribute to the thermal efficiency,
including the type of fuel used, the variation in the load factor of the boiler, the boiler
design and maintenance practices. Therefore, it is valuable to be able to calculate the
efficiency of a boiler to ensure economical operation.

The efficiency of a boiler is determined by taking the ratio of the heat transferred to
produce steam and the energy released by the fuel supplied to the boiler or:

Heat transferred to water and steam

Boiler efficiency =
Heat supplied by fuel

The heat energy transferred to the steam is found by taking the difference in the specific
enthalpies of the feedwater ( hw ) and the steam produced ( h1 ) and then multiplying this
difference by the amount of steam produced ( ms ) per unit time. The heat supplied by the
fuel is the amount of fuel used ( m f ) per unit time multiplied by the heating value of the
fuel ( HV f ). The efficiency is calculated using the equation:

ms (h1 − hw )
Eb =
m f HV f

If the mass of the steam and fuel are added, a variable that represents the mass of steam
produced/mass of fuel burned is obtained and the equation becomes:

msf (h1 − hw )
Eb =
HV f

Page 63
 Example 11
A small boiler generates 10.2 kg of steam per kg of fuel oil burned. The fuel oil has a
heating value of 30 200 kJ/kg. The feedwater is at 50°C and 1400 kPa. If steam is
generated with a dryness of 0.941, what is the boiler efficiency?

Answer
The enthalpy of the feedwater, at 50°C, is found in the Steam Tables, Table II (part of
the Academic Supplement) as 209.33 kJ/kg. The enthalpy of the steam, using the
equation h = h f + xh fg , is:

h = h f + xh fg
h = 830.30 kJ/kg + 0.941× 1959.7 kJ/kg
h = 830.30 kJ/kg + 1844.08 kJ/kg
h = 2674.38 kJ/kg

msf (h1 − hw )
The boiler efficiency is calculated using the equation Eb = :
HV f

msf (h1 − hw )
Eb =
HV f
10.2(2674.38 − 209.33)
Eb =
30 200
10.2(2465.05)
Eb =
30 200
25143.51
Eb =
30 200
Eb = 0.8326
Eb = 83.26 % (Ans.)

Page 64
 Chapter Questions

1. Define the following:

a) Sensible heat
b) Latent heat
c) Superheat

2. What is the enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 2000 kPa:

a) when dry and saturated
b) when 0.96 dry
c) when superheated by 85°C

3. Describe the principle of a throttling calorimeter and explain why a separating

calorimeter sometimes has to be added.

4. A combination separating and throttling calorimeter is connected to a main steam

header. The following data was collected:
• Steam pressure – 2410 kPa
• Amount of water collected in the separating calorimeter – 0.87 kg
• Amount of condensate after the throttling separator – 12.5 kg
• Pressure of the steam in throttling calorimeter – 185 kPa
• Temperature of steam in throttling calorimeter - 135ºC

Taking the specific heat of the throttled superheated steam as 2.25 kJ/kgK, calculate
the main steam line dryness fraction.

5. One kilogram of steam at a pressure of 100 kPa and 50 percent dry, receives heat
under constant volume raising the pressure to 300 kPa absolute.
Calculate the following:
a) volume of the steam
b) quality of the steam at the end of the process
c) work done
d) change in internal energy

6. 0.6 m3 of nitrogen is contained in a cylinder at 105 kPa and 22°C. The gas is then
compressed isothermally until the pressure is 3600 kPa. Calculate the change in
entropy. (R for nitrogen = 297 Nm/kgK)

Page 65
 7. Steam with a dryness of 0.97 is throttled from a pressure of 800 kPa. Using the
Mollier Chart, what is the final pressure required for the steam to be dry and
saturated? What are the enthalpies and entropies for these two points?

8. A boiler is fed with water at a temperature of 40°C and produces 2360 kg of dry
steam per hour at a pressure of 1750 kPa and a temperature of 250°C. Heat losses are
40% of the heat supplied and the heating value of the fuel is 31 400 kJ/kg. What is
the fuel flow required?

Page 66
 Practical Thermodynamic
Cycles

Learning Outcome
When you complete this learning material, you will be able to:

Explain the concepts and use of thermodynamic cycles using pressure-volume and
temperature-entropy diagrams.

Learning Objectives
You will specifically be able to complete the following tasks:

1. Explain the concept of a heat engine and describe the different types of heat
engines.

2. Describe the Carnot cycle.

3. Explain the Rankine cycle using pressure-volume and temperature-entropy

diagrams.

4. Explain the Otto cycle using pressure-volume and temperature-entropy diagrams.

5. Explain the Diesel cycle using pressure-volume and temperature-entropy

diagrams.

6. Explain the Brayton cycle using pressure-volume and temperature-entropy

diagrams.

7. Calculate thermal efficiencies for vapour cycles and explain efficiency limits.

8. Calculate thermal efficiencies for gas cycles and explain efficiency limits.

9. Calculate the heat balance at different points in a Rankine cycle system using test
data provided

Page 67
Page 68
 Objective 1
Explain the concept of a heat engine and describe the
different types of heat engines.

HEAT ENGINES
One of the most important applications of thermodynamics is in heat engines. A heat
engine converts heat energy into mechanical energy. This module will cover the most
common types.

A conceptual way of depicting the basic elements of a heat engine is shown in Fig. 1.
Every heat engine has three components:
1. A high temperature heat source usually obtained by combustion of a fuel.
2. A cyclic process that acts on a working fluid.
3. A low temperature heat sink to which heat is rejected.

Figure 1
Basic Elements of a Heat Engine

The following are three general statements about how heat engines operate:
1. The heat supply and rejection processes are carried out cyclically to produce
continuous work (or power).
2. The working fluid is able to return to its original state at the end of each cycle.
3. The work done during a cycle is equivalent to the difference between the heat
supplied and heat rejected.

There are different ways of constructing a heat engine and various cycles are used.

The heat engine can operate in reverse, so it becomes a refrigeration device, air
conditioner or heat pump. These applications are covered in other modules.

Page 69
 A SIMPLE HEAT ENGINE
Fig. 2 shows the basic elements of a simple heat engine. C is the cylinder, open at one
end and closed at the other, in which is fitted a gas-tight working face B, called a piston.
The piston moves in or out within the cylinder freely. A gas is trapped in the cylinder
space G. The rod R, fixed to the piston, is attached to the rack (or ratchet) N, at the joint
J, the rack being in contact with the toothed wheel M, or ratchet wheel. This is prevented
from turning in an anticlockwise direction by the pawl Q.

Figure 2
A Simple Heat Engine

The toothed wheel is attached to the drum D, around which is wrapped a cord A carrying
a mass W. It is clear that when the piston moves to the right, the ratchet wheel M will be
turned clockwise by the rack, but if the piston moves to the left the wheel will remain
stationary, held by the pawl Q. The motion of the piston to the right will be resisted by
the action of the mass W (through the ratchet wheel and rack) and by the pressure of the
atmosphere on the outer face of the piston. Such motion of the piston, however, will
cause work to be done in that the mass will be raised through, sax a height h.

If the gas in the cylinder is heated such that its volume increases, that is, the gas
expands, the piston R will move to the right, and work will be performed in lifting the
mass. The amount of work which may be done in this way is, however, limited by the
extent of the travel of the piston in the cylinder. By cooling the gas, the piston could be
made to move to the left, the volume of the gas decreasing in the cooling process (the
piston being moved to the left by virtue of the pressure difference between the
atmosphere and the gas in the cylinder). In this way, the condition of the gas might be
restored to its initial state, or condition, such that subsequent heating would produce
further work.

It is seen, therefore, that by alternate heating and cooling processes the engine can be
made to raise the mass through any desired height in stages.

This simple example allows for the following important observations to be made and
some conclusions drawn which apply equally well to all heat engines:

Page 70
 • A conversion of energy from heat to mechanical work has taken place. This has
been done through the alternate supply and rejection of heat to and from the
working fluid in the engine cylinder.
• It is apparent that these operations must be repeated to maintain the work output.
• There must be a relationship between the quantities of heat involved and the
amount of work produced.

These observations, supported by experiments and calculations lead to the following

statements:
• All heat engines must have a source of heat, a working fluid and a sink.
• In order to produce continuous work, the processes of heat supply and heat
rejection must be carried out cyclically.
• The working fluid must be capable of returning to its original state at the end of
each cycle.
• During the cycle of operations, the work done will be equivalent to the
difference between the heat supplied and the heat rejected.

TYPES OF HEAT ENGINES

Heat engines are known by the type of thermodynamic cycle they utilize. The cycles
explained in this module are:

1. The Carnot cycle: a theoretical cycle which has the highest possible efficiency
2. The Rankine cycle: applicable to steam plants
3. The Otto cycle: used by spark ignition engines
4. The Diesel cycle: used by compression ignition or Diesel engines
5. The Brayton cycle: applicable to gas turbines (closed and open)

Heat engines are divided into two types based on the type of working fluid:
• Gas cycle
• Vapour cycle

Gas Cycles
Gas cycles use air as the main working fluid. They take air from the atmosphere,
combust it with fuel and release it back to the atmosphere after the available energy has
been extracted. The Otto, Diesel and Brayton cycles are all gas cycles. The closed cycle
gas turbine, which can use any fluid because combustion is external with a heat
exchanger, is an exception.

Page 71
 Vapour Cycle
The vapour cycle features a condensable vapour which is in the liquid phase during a
part of the cycle. The most commonly used working fluid is steam. The Rankine cycle is
the classic vapour cycle.

Page 72
 Objective 2
Describe the Carnot cycle.

THE CARNOT CYCLE

Sadi Carnot proposed an engine cycle in 1824 which has remained as an ideal upper
limit of efficiency for heat engines of all types. In brief, he stated that this engine would
operate in such a way that all heat supplied must be at the top temperature of the cycle
and all heat rejected must be at the bottom temperature of the cycle. Further, the
expansion of the working fluid must take place without any heat transfer to or from the
surroundings and without any internal loss of energy of any kind.

Such an engine cycle is capable of producing the maximum work output of any cycle
working between the same temperature limits. The Carnot cycle of operations, taking
place on the working fluid in a heat engine, consists of an isothermal heat addition
followed by an adiabatic expansion, an isothermal heat rejection and finally an adiabatic
re-compression.

In considering this ideal engine, as shown in Fig. 3, imagine a cylinder and piston which
are perfect non-conductors and frictionless. Let the cylinder cover be a perfect conductor
in which the heat is added or removed through the cylinder cover.

At point a the hot body, A at temperature T1 having infinite capacity for supplying
heat, is placed in contact with the cover of the cylinder which contains 1 kilogram of a
perfect gas at temperature T1 , volume Va and pressure Pa . The piston is allowed to
move slowly so that isothermal expansion takes place at temperature T1 . The gas does
work during the expansion from PaVa to PV b b and must take in an amount of heat

equivalent to the work done.

Remove the hot body A and replace with a perfect nonconducting cover B and then
allow the piston to go on moving right. Since no heat can be taken in or rejected under
these conditions, the gas expands adiabatically doing work at the expense of its internal
energy and its temperature falls.

Let this adiabatic expansion go on until the temperature is T2 and let the pressure be PC
and the volume Vc .

Page 73
 Remove the non-conducting cover B and apply C , a body which is capable of taking
up any amount of heat, and let this body remain at some constant temperature T2 which
is lower than T1 . Now force the piston back slowly and the gas will be compressed
isothermally at T2 . Work is done on the gas and the heat equivalent of this work is
rejected to C . Let this isothermal compression be continued until a certain point is
reached such that if the fourth operation is carried out adiabatically from this point, the
cycle will be completed and the diagram closed.

Now remove the body C and again apply the nonconducting cover B . Continue the
compression which will now be adiabatic. The pressure and temperature will rise and if
the point d has been properly chosen, when the pressure comes back to its original value
Pa , the volume will be the original Va , and the temperature will have risen to its original
value T1 . In other words, the third operation must be stopped at a point so that an
adiabatic line drawn through this point will reach the original point.

This ideal engine suffers no losses from radiation, conduction or friction; in other words,
it is an engine in which all the heat supplied is accounted for by the sum of the heat
converted to work and the heat rejected.

Further, it is an engine in which all the heat supplied is supplied at a constant

temperature T1 , the temperature of the hot body; all the heat is rejected at a constant
temperature T2 , the temperature of the cold body.

Page 74
 Figure 3
Example of a Heat Engine Using the Carnot Cycle

Page 75
Page 76
 Objective 3
Explain the Rankine cycle using pressure-volume and
temperature-entropy diagrams.

THE RANKINE CYCLE

The Rankine cycle is the most fundamental vapour cycle and is in wide use in steam
power plants. A basic description of a steam plant is illustrated in Fig. 4. Heat is
supplied to a boiler to produce either saturated vapour or superheated steam. This steam
is then expanded through a turbine to extract mechanical work. The steam is then
converted to its liquid phase by being cooled in a water condenser. This condensate is
re-pressurized to the required boiler feed pressure with a boiler feed pump and then
returned to the boiler.

Figure 4
Basic Steam Plant

This cycle is more practical than the Carnot in that it specifies that the heat rejection
process (carried out in the condenser) be continued until the condensing process is
complete. The Rankine Cycle specifies that the heat addition and heat rejection
processes be carried out at constant pressure instead of constant temperature.
This allows the steam plant operating on a Rankine Cycle to employ superheating.

The heat addition and rejection temperature T1 and T2 of the Carnot Cycle are now
replaced by the pressures P1 and P2 , respectively.

Page 77
 PRESSURE-VOLUME DIAGRAM
The Rankine Cycle is illustrated on the pressure-volume ( PV ) diagram shown in Fig. 5.

Stage 1 to 2 - The boiler receives the working substance as a compressed liquid at point
1 at the pressure P1 . Heat is added in the boiler and the liquid
temperature rises until saturation point is reached. As further heat is
added the liquid evaporates, at constant pressure and temperature, until it
leaves the boiler as a dry saturated vapour at point b .

Stage 2 to 3 - This stage is an adiabatic expansion, taking place in the prime mover in a
similar manner to the corresponding Carnot stage.

Stage 3 to 4 - This is the heat rejection process, carried out at constant pressure until
the working substance leaves the condenser as a liquid at pressure P2 at
point d .

Stage 4 to 1 - This stage is an adiabatic compression to return the fluid to the original
condition at point a . This can be more easily achieved in a practical
plant than the comparable Carnot stage. The compression takes place in a
feedwater pump with very little heat addition; the majority of the heat
supplied from the feed heaters will be at a point following the feedwater
pump, that is, after the fluid has reached its P1 pressure again.

Figure 5
Pressure-Volume Diagram for the Rankine Cycle

Page 78
TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM
Fig. 6 illustrates the heat process occurring when the feedwater received in the boilers of
a power plant, at 40°C, is heated and converted into steam at a temperature of 200°C,
and then gives up heat in doing work. When the feedwater first enters the boiler its
temperature must be raised from 40°C to 200°C before any steaming begins. The
quantity of heat added to the water is indicated by the area MNCD . This area represents
approximately the difference between the enthalpies of the water. Using the steam
tables, this is shown to be (852 - 168) or about 684 kJ. The horizontal or entropy scale
shows that the difference in entropies of the water to be (2.33 - 0.57) or about 1.76
kJ/(kg.K).

The curve NC (the liquid line) is constructed by plotting, from the steam tables, the
values of the entropy of the water for a number of different temperatures between 40°C
and 200°C.

When water at 200°C is converted into steam at that temperature, the curve representing
the change is a constant temperature line, and therefore horizontal, represented by CE .
Provided the evaporation has been complete, the heat added in this process is the latent
heat, or the heat of evaporation ( h fg ), at 200°C which is found to be 1941 kJ/kg. This
quantity of heat, causing the water to change to steam, is indicated by the area DCEF .
The change in entropy during evaporation is found to be 4.10 kJ/(kgK).

Figure 6
Temperature-Entropy Diagram for the Rankine Cycle

Page 79
 Many variations on this basic cycle are in use. These include reheating after partial
expansion and then a second expansion through another turbine as well as regeneration
which preheats the feedwater before it enters the boiler.

Page 80
 Objective 4
Explain the Otto cycle using pressure-volume and
temperature-entropy diagrams.

THE OTTO CYCLE

The Otto cycle is applied to the spark-ignition that is used in internal combustion
engines. The defining feature of the Otto cycle is that the addition and rejection of heat
are done at constant (actually almost constant) volume. The main working fluid is air
which is taken in from the atmosphere and exhausted along with the products of
combustion.

Combustion occurs internally in the cylinder as opposed to the Rankine cycle steam
plant where combustion is external. Because the significant part of the Otto cycle occurs
inside the cylinder, it is called a non-flow process.

PRESSURE-VOLUME DIAGRAM
The variation in pressure and volume is shown in Fig. 7. The intake and exhaust strokes
are not shown on this diagram because thermodynamically, they cancel each other out.

The end of the intake stroke is at point 1. Between points 1 and 2, compression takes
place adiabatically and both the pressure and temperature rise as the volume is
decreased.

From points 2 to 3, internal combustion takes place. This occurs at approximately

constant volume when the piston is at the top part of its stroke.

From points 3 to 4, work is performed as the piston moves to the right by adiabatic
expansion until atmospheric pressure is reached.

From points 4 to 1, exhausting gas from the cylinder releases pressure at constant
volume. In practical terms, this process can be accomplished with either two strokes (or
one rotation of the engine) or with four strokes (two rotations of the engine).

Page 81
 Figure 7
Pressure-Volume Diagram for the Otto Cycle

TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM
The temperature-entropy diagram for the Otto cycle is shown in Fig. 8. Both the
compression and expansion are isentropic, that is, reversible and adiabatic. The other
two parts of the cycle cause a change in both temperature and entropy as heat is added
and rejected.

Page 82
 Figure 8
Temperature-Entropy Diagram for the Otto Cycle

Page 83
Page 84
 Objective 5
Explain the Diesel cycle using pressure-volume and
temperature-entropy diagrams.

THE DIESEL CYCLE

The Diesel cycle applies to the compression-ignition, internal combustion engines. The
important aspect of the Diesel cycle is that the addition of heat is done at almost
constant pressure. Air is the main working fluid. In contrast with the Otto cycle where a
mixture of air and fuel is compressed and a spark ignites it, the air is compressed to a
higher pressure and the fuel ignites spontaneously when the fuel is added.

PRESSURE-VOLUME DIAGRAM
The variation in pressure and volume is shown in Fig. 9. The intake and exhaust strokes
are not shown on this diagram because thermodynamically, they cancel each other out.

The diagram starts at point 1 which is the end of the intake stroke. Between points 1 and
2, compression takes place adiabatically. Both the pressure and temperature rise as the
volume is decreased.

From point 2 to point 3, internal combustion takes place. This occurs at approximately
constant pressure while the piston is moving to the right for the first part of the power
stroke.

From point 3 to point 4, work is done during the second part of the power stroke by
adiabatic expansion until atmospheric pressure is reached.

From point 4 to point 1, pressure is released at constant volume by the exhausting of gas
from the cylinder. This process can be accomplished with either two strokes (or one
rotation of the engine) or with four strokes (two rotations of the engine).

Page 85
 Figure 9
Pressure-Volume Diagram for the Diesel Cycle

TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM
The temperature-entropy diagram for the Diesel cycle is shown in Fig. 10. Both the
compression and expansion are isentropic, that is, reversible and adiabatic. The other
two parts of the cycle cause a change in both temperature and entropy as heat is added
and rejected. It is similar to the Otto cycle except that the addition of heat is at constant
pressure which changes the nature of the curve from points 2 to 3.

Page 86
 Figure 10
Temperature-Entropy Diagram for the Diesel Cycle

Page 87
Page 88
 Objective 6
Explain the Brayton cycle using pressure-volume and
temperature-entropy diagrams.

THE BRAYTON CYCLE

The Brayton cycle, also known as the Joule cycle, applies to gas turbines. Air is
compressed in a compressor and then fuel is added and burnt in a combustor. The
combusted air is mixed with secondary compressed air to reduce it to a temperature that
the turbine can safely handle. The very hot air is expanded through a turbine. A portion
of the work the turbine produces is used to power the compressor, and the remainder is
available for mechanical work to drive a generator or a process compressor.

Nearly all gas turbines are of the open cycle variety where the air is exhausted to the
atmosphere. Some gas turbines operate on a closed cycle which allows the incorporation
of a thermodynamically superior working fluid (such as helium). The efficiency of the
open cycle gas turbine has progressed sufficiently that a closed cycle gas turbine offers
little advantage.

The gas turbine shown in Fig. 11 is a single shaft version. The dual shaft and even triple
shaft configurations are also quite common.

Figure 11
Basic Gas Turbine

Page 89
 PRESSURE-VOLUME DIAGRAM
The pressure-volume diagram can be seen in Fig. 12. The Brayton cycle is a steady-flow
process. The compression and expansion are both adiabatic in nature. The combustion is
at constant pressure but also continuous in contrast with the Otto and Diesel cycles. Heat
rejection takes place at constant pressure in the atmosphere which reduces the volume.

Figure 12
Pressure-Volume Diagram for the Brayton Cycle

TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM
The temperature-entropy diagram for the Brayton cycle is shown in Fig. 13. The
compression and expansion stages are close to isentropic and the heat addition and
rejection are along the lines of constant pressure.

Figure 13
Temperature-Entropy Diagram for the Brayton Cycle

Page 90
Similar to the steam plant, a number of different cycle modifications are possible with
the gas turbine. In the past, it was common to install a regenerator which used heat
extracted from the exhaust to preheat compressed air prior to combustion. Some gas
turbines utilize intercooling in the compressor to increase efficiency and power output.
A very limited number of gas turbines apply reheat of the combustion gases with a
second turbine. A common cycle modification is the addition of a heat exchanger to the
exhaust to produce steam which is used in a steam turbine to run another generator
called a combined cycle. Another option, called cogeneration, is to use the steam for
industrial or heating purposes.

Page 91
Page 92
 Objective 7
Calculate thermal efficiencies for vapour cycles and
explain efficiency limits.

DEFINITION OF EFFICIENCY
The efficiency of any thermodynamic cycle is represented by the ratio of the net
mechanical work extracted from the cycle and the heat supplied. The heat converted into
work is equal to the heat supplied minus the heat rejected to the heat sink. This gives the
formula

Work done
Thermal efficiency =
Heat supplied
Heat supplied − Heat rejected
Thermal efficiency =
Heat supplied
Heat rejected
Thermal efficiency = 1 −
Heat supplied

For cycles that use air (Otto, Diesel and Brayton), the efficiency is often called the air
standard efficiency although the term thermal efficiency is equally applicable.

An important note is that the efficiency equations derived relate to ideal efficiency and
that actual values are always somewhat lower. Friction and other heat losses will result
in an increase in entropy so that compression and expansion processes are not
necessarily isentropic.

EFFICIENCY OF THE CARNOT CYCLE

The Carnot cycle, even though it is impractical to implement, has the highest possible
efficiency so it is a valuable means of comparison.

During the Carnot cycle, the heat is supplied during an isothermal expansion. For an
ideal gas, the heat can be expressed in terms of the properties of a gas using the
equation:

VB
Heat supplied = mRT1 ln
VA

Page 93
 The heat rejected occurs during the isothermal compression which is found using the
equation:

VC
Heat rejected = mRT2 ln
VD

The two volume ratios are equal which allows most of the terms to be cancelled out. The
result is that the efficiency is dependent only on the two absolute temperatures so that:

T2
η = 1−
T1
Example 1
A steam plant produces steam with a temperature of 520°C which is condensed back to
30°C. What is the theoretical upper limit for its efficiency based on the Carnot cycle?

Answer
T2
The efficiency is obtained by using the equation η = 1 − :
T1

T2
η = 1−
T1
(30 + 273)K
η = 1−
(520 + 273)K
303K
η = 1−
793K
η = 1 − 0.3821
η = 0.6179 or 61.79% (Ans.)

EFFICIENCY OF RANKINE CYCLE

Referring to the previous objective on the Rankine cycle, the efficiency of a steam plant
is determined from the heat the boiler supplies to the steam and the work extracted from
the steam turbine due to the expansion of the steam. The work the boiler feed pump does
is comparatively small so it can be ignored.

Heat supplied to the steam is the difference between the enthalpy of feedwater h1 and the
steam as it leaves the boiler h2 or h2 − h1 . Neglecting the work of the feed pump, h1 is
equivalent to h f and the heat supplied is equal to h2 − h f .

Work done is likewise the difference between enthalpy at the boiler exit h2 and the
enthalpy h3 at the exit of the turbine or h2 − h3 .

Page 94
Therefore, the efficiency is:

Work done
Efficiency =
Heat supplied
h −h
η= 2 3
h2 − h f

Example 2
Steam conditions at the exit of a boiler are 4000 kPa at 500°C. The condenser operates
at a pressure of 4 kPa and the dryness of the steam is 88%. What is the ideal thermal
efficiency?

Answer
Enthalpy ( h2 ) of 4000 kPa, 500°C steam at the boiler exit is 3445.3 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of the wet steam is:
4 kPa h f = 121.46 kJ/kg h fg = 2432.9 kJ/kg

h3 = h f + xh fg
h3 = 121.46 kJ/kg + ( 0.88 × 2432.9 kJ/kg )
h3 = 121.46 kJ/kg + 2140.95 kJ/kg
h3 = 2262.41 kJ/kg

h2 - h3
Efficiency can be found using the equation η = :
h2 - h f

h2 − h3
η=
h2 − h f
3445.3 − 2262.41
η=
3445.3 − 121.46
1182.89
η=
3323.84
η = 0.3559
η = 35.59% (Ans.)

Page 95
Page 96
 Objective 8
Calculate thermal efficiencies for gas cycles and
explain efficiency limits.

EFFICIENCY OF OTTO CYCLE

The Otto cycle operates with both heat supplied and heat rejected occurring at constant
volume. The heat can be determined using the specific heat at constant volume or Cv
multiplied by the mass and the temperature difference.

Using the basic definition of efficiency provided earlier, the efficiency can be derived:

Heat supplied − Heat rejected

Thermal efficiency =
Heat supplied
mCv (T3 − T2 ) − mCv (T4 − T1 )
=
mCv (T3 − T2 )
T4 − T1
η = 1−
T3 − T2

A more convenient representation of efficiency is using compression ratio based on

volume, since this is much easier to obtain from the physical dimensions of the piston
stroke and clearance. The derivation of this version of the efficiency equation is as
follows.

Looking at Fig. 7, the volume ratio for compression and expansion ratios are equal:

V1 V4
rv = =
V2 V3

Page 97
 Adiabatic compression and expansion for an ideal gas can be expressed with the
equations:

γ −1
T2 ⎛ V1 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
T1 ⎝ V2 ⎠
γ −1
T3 ⎛ V4 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
T4 ⎝ V3 ⎠

The compression ratio can be substituted into these equations so that:

T2 T3
= = ( rv )
γ −1

T1 T4

This expression can be rearranged in the following fashion:

T3 = T4 rvγ −1 and T2 = T1rvγ −1

T3 − T2 = rvγ −1 (T4 − T1 )

T4 − T1
These can be substituted into equation η = 1- to provide the air standard
T3 − T2
efficiency in terms of compression ratio:

1
η = 1−
rvγ -1

Internal combustion engines operating on the Otto cycle operate with a maximum
compression ratio of about 10:1 to prevent pre-ignition of the air and fuel mixture. The
corresponding ideal efficiency is 58.5% but the realistic value is somewhat less.

Example 3
Calculate the air standard efficiencies for a range of compression ratios (5, 10, 15 and
20) and describe the manner in which the efficiency increases with compression ratio.
Use a specific heat of 1.4.

Page 98
Answer
1
Using the equation η = 1 − , the efficiencies are:
rv γ −1
1
η = 1− 1.4 −1
= 0.4747
5
1
η = 1− = 0.6019
1.4 −1
10
1
η = 1 − 1.4−1 = 0.6615
15
1
η = 1 − 1.4−1 = 0.6983
20

From these results, it can be seen that efficiency increases with compression ratio but
not at a constant rate. As the compression ratio increases, the efficiency increases less
and less.

EFFICIENCY OF DIESEL CYCLE

The Diesel cycle differs from the Otto cycle in that heat is supplied at a constant
pressure and rejection is at a constant volume. The basic equation for efficiency is
written as:

Heat rejected
Thermal efficiency = 1 −
Heat supplied
mCv (T4 − T1 )
= 1−
mC p (T3 − T2 )

The specific heats can be replaced by the ratio of specific heats to give the general
equation for air standard efficiency:
(T − T )
η = 1− 4 1
γ (T3 − T2 )

As was previously determined, during the compression stroke the temperatures can be
related to the compression ratio:

T2 = T1rv γ −1

The expansion occurs for a portion of the power stroke after the cut-off point where the
constant pressure combustion ceases. To designate where the cut-off point occurs, it is
necessary to define a ratio:
V
R= 3
V2

Page 99
 The efficiency of the diesel cycle depends not only on the compression ratio but also on
the cut-off point. A short cut-off produces a higher efficiency but a longer one gives
greater power. The compromise is about 10% of the stroke.

Since the combustion period between points 2 and 3 is at constant pressure, the
temperatures and volumes can be related as:

T3 V3
=
T2 V2
T3
and =R
T2

Substituting for T2 :
T3 = T1rvγ −1 R

V3
Since =R
V2
V4
and =r
V2
V3 R
then =
V4 r

γ −1
T4 ⎛ V3 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
T3 ⎝ V4 ⎠
γ −1
⎛R⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎝ rv ⎠
γ −1
⎛R⎞
and T4 = T3 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ rv ⎠

Using the earlier expression for T3 , the following equation is derived:

γ −1
⎛R⎞
T4 = T3 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ rv ⎠
γ −1
γ −1 ⎛R⎞
= T1rv R⎜ ⎟
⎝ rv ⎠
= T1 Rγ

Page 100
 (T4 − T1 )
The general equation for air standard efficiency η = 1 − can now be expressed
γ (T3 − T2 )
in terms of compression ratio and cut-off ratio

(T4 − T1 )
η = 1−
γ (T3 − T2 )
(T1 Rγ − T1 )
= 1−
γ (T1rv γ −1 R − T1rvγ −1 )
( Rγ − 1)
η = 1 − γ −1
γ rv ( R − 1)

Since compression for a diesel engine is of air only, there is not the same restriction on
compression ratio as the Otto engine. Although the Otto cycle is more efficient for the
same compression ratio, the diesel engine can operate at substantially higher
compression ratios that make it more efficient. Mechanical considerations do limit
diesels to a maximum compression ratio of approximately 25:1. Note that all
temperatures are indicated as absolute temperatures.

Example 4
Calculate the air standard efficiency of a diesel engine with a compression ratio of 13:1.
The temperature at the start of compression is 60°C and, after combustion, it has reached
1400°C. Use a specific heat of 1.4.

Answer
Determine the temperature after compression so that the cut-off ratio can be established:

T2 = T1rvγ −1
T2 = (60 + 273) ×131.4−1
T2 = 333 × 130.4
T2 = 333 × 2.7898
T2 = 929.01 K

Page 101
 The cut-off ratio can be found from the ratio of temperatures:

T3
R=
T2

R=
(1400 + 273) K
929 K
1673 K
R=
929 K
R = 1.801

( Rγ − 1)
Then from equation η = 1 − , the air standard efficiency is:
γ rv γ −1 ( R − 1)

( Rγ -1)
η = 1 − γ -1
γ rv ( R -1)
(1.8011.4 − 1)
η = 1−
1.4 × 131.4−1 (1.801 − 1)
(2.2789 − 1)
η = 1−
1.4 × 130.4 (0.801)
1.2789
η = 1−
1.4 × 2.7898 × 0.801)
1.2789
η = 1−
3.1285
η = 1 − 0.4088
η = 0.5912
η = 59.12% (Ans.)

EFFICIENCY OF BRAYTON CYCLE

The Brayton cycle features adiabatic compression and expansion with combustion at
constant pressure. The efficiency is obtained from the basic equation for thermal
efficiency:

Heat supplied − Heat rejected

Thermal efficiency =
Heat supplied
mCv (T3 − T2 ) − mCv (T4 − T1 )
=
mCv (T3 − T2 )
T4 − T1
η = 1−
T3 − T2

Page 102
Note that all temperatures are indicated as absolute temperatures.

It can be seen that this is the same equation as was derived for the Otto cycle. However,
the version based on compression ratio is a bit different because, with the Brayton cycle,
the ratio of pressures is relevant as opposed to the Otto cycle where the pressure ratio is
based on the volume ratio. Referring to Fig. 12, the pressure ratio is defined as:

p2 p3
rp = =
p1 p4

The temperatures are related to the pressures with the equation:

γ −1
T2 ⎛ p2 ⎞ γ
=⎜ ⎟
T1 ⎝ p1 ⎠
γ −1
and T2 = T1 ( rp ) γ

γ −1
T3 ⎛ p3 ⎞ γ
=⎜ ⎟
T4 ⎝ p4 ⎠
γ −1
and T3 = T4 ( rp ) γ

γ −1
γ
T3 − T2 = rp (T4 − T1 )

T4 − T1
This can be substituted into equation η = 1 − which results in the efficiency being
T3 − T2
dependent on the pressure ratio:
1
η = 1− γ −1
γ
rp

In practice, compression ratios for gas turbines are mostly between 10:1 and 15:1
although some engines exceed 20:1. High compression ratios are difficult to achieve
efficiently due to increased compressor temperatures. There is also a metallurgical limit
to combustion and turbine components that limits the efficiency to a maximum of about
40%. The standard is 30-35%.

Example 5
A gas turbine operates with a pressure ratio of 12.5:1. Using an intake temperature of
20°C and a turbine inlet temperature of 1150°C, determine the temperatures at the exit

Page 103
 of the compressor and turbine as well as the thermal efficiency. Use a specific heat of
1.4.

Answer
Temperature at the exit of the compressor (T2 ) :
γ −1
T2 = T1 ( rp ) γ

1.4 −1
T2 = (20 + 273) K × (12.5 ) 1.4
0.4
T2 = 293 K × (12.5 ) 1.4

T2 = 293 K × (12.5 )
0.2857

T2 = 293 K × 2.0577
T2 = 293 K × 2.0577
T2 = 602.91 K
T2 = 602.91 K − 273
T2 = 329.91°C (Ans.)

Temperature at the exit of the turbine (T4 ) :

γ −1
T3 = T4 ( rp ) γ

γ −1
T4 ( rp ) γ = T3
T3
T4 = γ −1
(r ) p
γ

T4 =
(1150 + 273) K
1.4 −1
(12.5) 1.4
1423 K
T4 = 0.4
(12.5)1.4
1423 K
T4 =
(12.5)
0.2857

1423 K
T4 =
2.0577
T4 = 691.55 K
T4 = 691.55 K − 273
T4 = 418.55°C ( Ans.)

Page 104
 1
The efficiency is calculated using the equation η = 1 − γ −1
:
γ
rp
1
η = 1− γ −1
γ
rp
1
η = 1− 1.4 −1
(12.5) 1.4
1
η = 1− 0.4
(12.5)1.4
1
η = 1−
(12.5)
0.2857

1
η = 1−
2.0577
η = 1 − 0.4860
η = 0.5140
η = 51.40% (Ans.)

This is substantially higher than the practical values achieved. Values of 35% are
common for gas turbines with this pressure ratio.

Page 105
Page 106
 Objective 9
Calculate the heat balance at different points in a
Rankine cycle system using test data provided.

HEAT BALANCE ANALYSIS

The term “heat balance” is applied to a schematic flow diagram for a thermal power
cycle on which thermodynamic properties and mass flow are indicated for all major flow
streams in the power cycle. This diagram is the result of detailed calculations which
apply the laws of conservation of mass and conservation of energy, along with
manufacturers’ expected performance, to each component in the power cycle. In
addition to determining flow and state properties (pressure, temperature, enthalpy, and
entropy) for all flows in the cycle, the calculation also predicts the overall performance
(efficiency and output).

Heat balance calculations are first used to design the thermodynamic performance of
power cycles. Heat balance diagrams are prepared, along with studies for sizing,
selecting and optimizing the equipment in the cycle.

Heat balance diagrams are generally prepared in several stages that reflect various levels
of refinement in developing the cycle design. A steam turbine manufacturer provides a
heat balance for the turbine and feedwater system in which the performance for balance
of plant components not in the manufacturer’s scope of supply is estimated using
nominal values. This is usually called turbine vendor balance.

While these estimates (for such items as feedwater heater performance, pump
performance, condenser back pressure, auxiliary steam and water flows and variations in
controllable parameters at off-design loads) are reasonable when considering the turbine
portion of the conceptual project, they are prepared in greater detail later in the project.

Example 6
Calculate the heat balance on a basic steam plant operating on the Rankine cycle given
the following test data. Determine performance and output data (based on 1 kg of
steam). Compare your results with vendor specifications provided below.

• Boiler feedwater: 50°C

• Boiler outlet conditions: 2000 kPa, 300°C
• Fuel consumption: 8.9 kg of steam/ kg of fuel oil burned (heating value of 30
200 kJ/kg)
• Boiler vendor rated efficiency: 84%
• Turbine exit conditions: 200 kPa, dryness fraction 0.85
• Plant rated efficiency: 35%

Page 107
 Answer
Using the steam tables, the heat balance results for the boiler are:

Known: T1= 50°C P1=2000 kPa h1=209.33 kJ/kg

Known: T2= 300°C P2=2000 kPa h2=3023.5 kJ/kg

The boiler efficiency is calculated to be:

msf (h1 - hw )
Eb =
HV f
8.9 kg(3023.5 - 209.33) kJ/kg
Eb =
30 200 kJ/kg
8.9 kg × 2814.17 kJ/kg
Eb =
30 200 kJ/kg
25046.113 kJ/kg
Eb =
30 200 kJ/kg
Eb = 0.8293
Eb = 82.93 % (Ans.)

This compares favorably with the vendor rating of 84%.

Using the steam tables provided in the Academic Supplement, the heat balance results
for the turbine are:

Known: T2 = 300°C P2 = 2000 kPa From previous: h2 = 3023.5 kJ/kg

Known: P3 = 200 kPa dryness s = 0.85 Saturation temperature: T3 = 120.23°C

h3 = h f + xh fg
h3 = 504.7 kJ/kg + 0.85 ( 2201.9 ) kJ/kg
h3 = 504.7 kJ/kg + 1871.62 kJ/kg
h3 = 2376.32 kJ/kg

Page 108
The efficiency for the cycle is.

h2 − h3
η=
h2 − h f
3023.5 kJ/kg − 2376.32 kJ/kg
=
3023.5 kJ/kg − 209.33 kJ/kg
647.18 kJ/kg
=
2814.17 kJ/kg
= 0.23
= 23.00 % (Ans.)

This is substantially lower than the rated efficiency and there are likely steam and
turbine efficiency losses. A more detailed heat balance is required to discover the
specific problem areas.

Page 109
Page 110
 Chapter Questions

1. List the three components in every heat engine.

2. With the aid of a simple sketch, describe the operation of an engine based on the
Carnot cycle.

3. With the aid of a PV diagram, describe the various stages of a steam turbine
operating on the Rankine cycle.

4. An electricity generating station operates with boiler stop valve steam conditions of
3000 kPa and 370°C and maintains a condenser back pressure of 5 kPa. Steam
exhausts from the turbine with 15% wetness and the boiler feedwater returns at
140°C. Calculate the following:
a) Carnot efficiency
b) Rankine efficiency

5. Describe the main differences between the Otto and Diesel cycles. What practical
limits are there with respect to their efficiencies?

6. Calculate the air standard efficiency of a Diesel engine with a compression ratio of
15:1. The temperature at the start of compression is 20°C and, after combustion, it
has reached 1200°C. Use a specific heat of 1.4.

7. Air enters the inlet of a gas turbine operating on the ideal constant pressure cycle at a
temperature of 22°C and 103.25 kPa. The pressure of the air at the discharge of the
compressor is 600 kPa. If the temperature of the air at the turbine inlet is 745°C,
calculate the following:
a) Temperature at the end of compression
b) Temperature at the turbine exit
c) Ideal thermal efficiency
Use a specific heat of 1.4.

Page 111
Page 112
 Metallurgy

Learning Outcome
When you complete this learning material, you will be able to:

Discuss the structure and uses of various metals and metal alloys.

Learning Objectives
You will specifically be able to complete the following tasks:

1. Explain the study of metallurgy and the atomic and crystalline structure of
metals.

2. Explain the significance of the iron-carbon equilibrium diagram.

3. Explain the purposes of, and processes used, in the heat treatment of steels.

4. Explain how to interpret metal specifications.

5. Explain typical selection of metals for process plant applications (what is

selected and why).

6. Describe the composition, physical properties, and uses of copper, lead, and
tin.

7. Describe the composition, physical properties, and uses of aluminum and

aluminum alloys.

Page 113
Page 114
 Objective 1
Explain the study of metallurgy and the atomic and
crystalline structure of metals.

METALLURGY
Metallurgy is the study of metals and is the oldest science devoted to the study of
engineering materials. The growth of metallurgy has led to its division into three well-
defined groups:
• Extractive
• Mechanical
• Physical

Extractive Metallurgy
Extractive metallurgy, the study of the extraction and purification of metals from their
ores, is conducted in several steps. Each step increases the purity of the metal by
removing unwanted impurities. For example, the route from ore to refined metal may
follow one of three paths:
1. Pyrometallurgy: melting the ore in a furnace to release the metal.
2. Hydrometallurgy: dissolving the metal from the ore and recovering it as a
powder.
3. Electrometallurgy: dissolving the metal from the ore with the use of
electricity, plate the metal out of solution.

Mechanical Metallurgy
Mechanical metallurgy is the study of the techniques and mechanical forces that shape
and make the finished forms of metal. This includes studying the effects of stress, time
and temperature.

Physical Metallurgy
Physical metallurgy is the study of the structure of metals. Properties of metals are
intimately related to their structures. Careful modification of the structure can produce
more desirable and useful properties in a metal. For example, the structure of metals can
be changed by modifying chemical composition, alloys and heat treatments.

Metals may be defined as substances that are good conductors of heat and electricity.
They are generally malleable and ductile. They occur naturally in ores in the form of
chemical compounds such as sulphides or oxides. With the exception of the noble metals,
such as platinum and gold, metallic materials tend to react chemically with the
environment and revert to compound forms, a process known as corrosion.

Page 115
 Although a detailed discussion of the extraction of metals from their ores, their
subsequent refinement, and the principles of modification of properties by alloying are
beyond the scope of this module, the essential background material is outlined in the
following objectives.

Many non-ferrous materials are used in power plant construction, for example, copper-
based alloys for condenser tubing, copper for alternator windings, tin-based alloys for
bearings, and aluminum for bus bars, but the majority of components are made from
iron-based materials, and it is with these ferrous materials that this module is largely
concerned.

We shall examine the principles underlying the behaviour of ferrous materials and go on
to consider the assessment criteria used for selection, the requirements of fabrication into
components, and the problems caused by the operating environment.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF METALS

Metals, like other matter including water, can exist in three common physical states—
solids, liquids, and gases—depending on the temperature and pressure. For practical
purposes, we only work with metals in the first two states, solids and liquids, making
temperature our only concern.

If we could view the atomic structure of a solid metal as it was heated, we would see the
atoms of the material increasingly vibrate as the temperature increased. At a certain
temperature, the substance would melt, and the cohesive bonds holding the individual
atoms together would break, releasing them from their captive positions and allowing
them to travel freely throughout the liquid. At the melting point, as with water, heat
energy is absorbed without a further increase in temperature until all the metal is in the
liquid state. This transition phase is called the latent heat of fusion. Every metal and
alloy has a fixed melting point, and the internal arrangement of the atoms in the solid
state can also be temperature sensitive as we will see in the next objective. Our main
concern in metallurgy is to deal with and understand the complexity of the solid-to-
liquid-to-solid phase changes metals go through as they are refined, and the chemical
and physical properties exhibited by them during these transitions.

Fig. 1 shows a simple cooling curve for pure copper.

Page 116
 Figure 1
Cooling Curve - Pure Copper

As metal solidifies at the freezing point, A, a rigid atomic structure forms within the
solid, holding individual copper atoms in fixed configurations known as unit cells. In
most metals, the geometry of the atoms in these unit cells takes one of three basic
structures:
• Face-centered cubic (FCC)
• Body-centered cubic (BCC)
• Close packed hexagonal (CPH)

Face-Centered Cubic (FCC) Structure

Fifteen atoms form the FCC unit cell, shown in Fig. 2. This configuration gives the
metals that solidify in this pattern the properties of high ductility, low shear, and low
tensile strength but good heat and electrical conductivity. Examples of metals that are
FCC in the solid state are gold, aluminum, silver, lead, nickel, and gamma iron (iron
between the temperatures of 910°C and 1390°C).

Page 117
 Figure 2
FCC Unit Cell

Body-Centered Cubic (BCC) Structure

Nine atoms are contained in the BCC cubic structure shown in Fig. 3. Metals with this
configuration in the solid state exhibit high strength, low ductility, and are very resistant
to shear deformities. Metals included in this group are chromium, tungsten,
molybdenum, vanadium, alpha iron (iron in the solid state below a temperature of
910°C), and delta iron (iron above 1390°C).

Figure 3
BCC Unit Cell

Close Packed Hexagonal (CPH) Structure

Seventeen atoms make up the CPH unit cell structure, shown in Fig. 4. This
configuration gives the metals that comprise this group intermediate strength and
ductility. Metals that fit in this group include zinc, magnesium, cadmium, and titanium.

Page 118
 Figure 4
Close-Packed Hexagonal (CPH) Unit Cell

CRYSTALLINE STRUCTURE OF METALS

When molten metal cools and solidifies, unit cells become packed together to form
three-dimensional crystals that occupy a space lattice. Further growth of these crystals
forms dendrites, which look like the branches of an evergreen tree that extend
throughout the molten matrix until they contact neighbouring dendrites. These contact
surfaces become the crystal or grain boundaries. Any impurities that are not soluble in
this solid solution are pushed ahead of the growing crystals and become trapped at the
grain boundaries and between the limbs of the dendrites. Fig. 5 (a) shows the side view
of a growing metallic crystal dendrite while Fig. 5 (b) is a top view.

(a) (b)

Figure 5
Metallic Crystal Dendrite

Grain size determines important properties of metals. As a rule, smaller grain size
increases tensile strength and ductility while larger grain size tends to resist creep and
deformation under constant loading but may be more prone to cracking. At the atomic
level, the shear strength of metals is determined primarily by the type of unit cell
structure exhibited.

Fig. 6 shows the high-atom packed density in a FCC structure in which the top layer is
easier to pull than in the BCC structure. This type is found in lead which is ductile with
a low shear strength.

Page 119
 Figure 6
FCC Structure

Fig. 7 shows the low-atom packed density in a BCC structure. To move, the top line of
atoms has to jump over the atoms below them. This requires a large force. This type is
found in iron, which is hard with a high shear strength.

Figure 7
BCC Structure

Polymorphism
Polymorphism is defined as the ability of a metal to change to a different unit cell
structure depending on its temperature. Most metals and alloys exhibit this property;
most important for the study of iron.

Allotropy of Iron
The change in atomic cell structure, dependent on temperature, is known as the allotropy
of iron. The metal can exist in different physical forms that affect its melting point,
hardness, metal solubility, and alloying chemistry. This is very important in determining
the way iron reacts with carbon to form steel and cast iron.

Page 120
 Objective 2
Explain the significance of the iron-carbon equilibrium
diagram.

IRON-CARBON EQUILIBRIUM DIAGRAM

Pure iron is a relatively soft, ductile element with low strength that possesses few of the
noble properties commonly associated with steel. In large part, the science of
steelmaking has been an attempt to understand and control the phase changes of iron, in
the presence of carbon and other alloying metals, in order to make the high-strength
steels that modern industry relies on. Quality control and materials testing must meet
strict and exacting engineering specifications.

Carbon steels are produced by adjusting the carbon content in iron. Carbon steels refer
to alloys containing 2% or less carbon, while cast iron contains from 2% to 6% carbon.
Carbon steel is divided into three grades:
• Low (maximum carbon content 0.30%)
• Medium (maximum carbon content 0.30 to 0.60%)
• High (maximum carbon content 0.60 to 1.00%)

The form that carbon assumes in the iron matrix (single atoms, graphite flakes, spheres,
or molecular combinations such as cementite ( Fe3C ) an interstitial compound where the
smaller carbon atoms fit in the interstitial spaces between the larger iron atoms), the
carbon atom's final resting place (inside the unit cell structures or in the exterior intra-
granular spaces), and the carbon concentration determine a wide range of physical
properties exhibited in the final alloy. In steel, hardness and brittleness increase as the
carbon content increases. Softness, ductility and weldability increase as carbon content
decreases.

Iron–carbon equilibrium in steel is determined by the:

• Initial concentration of carbon in the ferrite mixture
• Temperature
• Cooling rate
• Presence of other alloying metals

Fig. 8 is an iron-carbon equilibrium (phase) diagram showing the phase changes that
occur as carbon content and temperature vary for carbon concentrations ranging from
0% to 6.5% in a pure iron solvent.

Page 121
 Figure 8
Iron-Carbide Equilibrium (Phase) Diagram

All phases below the solidus line are solids, and the phase above the liquidus line is
molten. The areas between these two lines are pasty state phases where the mixture
exists in a solid-liquid state at the corresponding temperature. To use this graph, draw a
vertical line through the diagram to indicate the carbon content to be studied and follow
the line up or down as the temperature changes. Refer to the definitions below.

Austenite
Austenite is the structural name of iron in a unit cell of face-centered cubic (FCC) form,
called gamma iron that can contain dissolved carbon atoms, up to 2%. All quenching
heat treatment procedures must begin from this phase.

Cementite
Cementite is the common name for iron–carbon in the form of molecular iron carbide
(Fe3C).

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Eutectic Reaction Point
Eutectic reaction point occurs when the liquid alloy changes directly into solid austenite
and cementite without going through a pasty state phase. As the diagram indicates, this
only occurs with an alloy composition of 4.0% carbon at a temperature of 1130°C; the
lowest melting point of any composition of an iron-carbon mixture.

Ferrite
Ferrite is the structural name for iron in the body-centered cubic (BCC) form. The
maximum amount of carbon atoms that ferrite can contain is 0.025% at 723oC. Ferrite
describes a structure not a composition.

Lower Critical Change Line

Lower critical change line is the temperature at which an iron alloy of any carbon
composition returns to a body-centered cubic unit cell structure. The diagram indicates
this temperature at 723°C.

Pearlite
Pearlite consists of a layered structure (microscopically) of ferrite and cementite. It
appears dark-grained in colour and forms in iron-carbon alloys below the lower critical
change line at 723°C.

Peritectic Reaction
Peritectic reaction is the point where liquid delta iron, in the body-centered cubic form,
changes directly into solid austenite without going through a pasty state phase. This
occurs at 1492°C.

At room temperature, the low and medium carbon steels (below 0.8% carbon) always
have a ferrite component that makes the steels tough and ductile and an iron carbide
influence from the pearlite that still makes them relatively hard. These steels have the
scientific name "hypoeutectoid steels." Steel having 0.8% carbon would, as it cools to
room temperature, change into 100% pearlite. This type of steel is used for railway rails
and is called "eutectoid steel."

When the carbon content exceeds 0.8%, steel exhibits hardness and high tensile strength
and is used in tools such as axes and chisels. At 723°C these steels become a mixture of
cementite and pearlite and have the scientific name "hypereutectoid steels."

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Page 124
 Objective 3
Explain the purposes of, and processes used, in the
heat treatment of steels.

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS

Heat treatment in steelmaking is a large secondary industry. Its importance is
commensurate with the costs and resources spent on the processes used to manufacture
steel products with a vast array of different mechanical and physical properties.
Definitions of these processes can be better understood by referring to the partial iron-
carbon diagram shown below in Fig. 9. In general, the purpose of heat treating a metal is
to force a physical and/or chemical transformation in the alloy and then cool it at a rate,
and in such a manner, that it retains the desired properties.

The transformation lines, shown on the previous iron-carbon diagram (Fig. 8), shift with
the rate of heating (transformation line rises) and the rate of cooling (transformation line
falls). The effect is shown below (Fig. 9) on a section of the iron-carbon phase diagram.

Figure 9
Eutectoid Reaction Region
Where

Al = Critical temperature between pearlite phase field and austenite phase

field (eutectic transformation line at 723°C)

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 Ar1 = Critical temperature between pearlite phase field and austenite phase field
on cooling
Ac1 = Critical temperature between pearlite phase field and austenite phase field
on heating
A3 = Critical temperature between ferrite-austenite phase field and austenite
phase field
Ar3 = Critical temperature between ferrite-austenite phase field and austenite
phase field on cooling
Ac3 = Critical temperature between ferrite-austenite phase field and austenite
phase field on heating
Acm = Critical temperature between cementite-austenite phase field and
austenite phase field
Arcm = Critical temperature between cementite-austenite phase field and
austenite phase field on cooling
Accm = Critical temperature between cementite-austenite phase field and
austenite phase field on heating

Note: The suffixes "r" and "c" are from the French words refroidissant (cooling) and
chauffant (heating).

ANNEALING PROCESSES
Annealing processes are heat treatments that produce pearlitic microstructures (ferrite,
pearlite, and cementite). They are performed to homogenize the microstructure, increase
ductility, remove residual stresses, and improve machinability.

Full Annealing
Annealing processes heat the steel to just above the transition temperature required to
produce austenite (Ac3 for < 0.8% carbon steels and A1 for > 0.8% carbon steels), hold it
at that temperature to allow uniform crystal restructuring, and then cool it very slowly to
room temperature at a maximum rate of 10°C/hour. The steel is usually left in the
furnace with the heat shut off or packed in sand or another material that is a good heat
insulator.

Annealing high carbon steels can induce brittleness by allowing larger grain formation;
this reduces toughness and ductility. Heat soaking for too long a period encourages grain
enlargement in any annealing procedure and increases brittleness in the metal.

Sub-critical annealing or process annealing is a similar process, but the steel is heated to
just below its austenite transformation temperature, and then cooled slowly to reduce
internal stresses in the metal.

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Normalizing
Carbon steels containing less than 0.8% carbon are normalized to:
• Relieve internal stresses embedded in the metal from welding, machining, or
forging
• Refine grain size and promote uniform composition to increase strength and
toughness
• Improve machinability

This process raises the temperature of the steel to approximately 55°C above the upper
transition temperature into the austenite region. The steel is held at that temperature just
long enough to ensure even heating throughout. It is then allowed to cool in still air at a
rate not exceeding approximately 100°C/hour. If a furnace is used, the furnace should
have a reducing atmosphere (no free oxygen present) to prevent oxide scale forming on
the surfaces.

Referring to the iron-carbon phase diagram in Fig. 8, the normalizing process produces
finer and more consistent pearlite layers in the ferrite matrix. Because all high-strength,
tough steels have less than 0.8% carbon in their alloy, no transformation products other
than pearlite and ferrite are produced by normalizing. The importance of normalizing,
which produces tougher steels than any other heat-treatment process, can be appreciated
by the fact that the ASME Codes require normalized and tempered materials in many of
their specifications for steel forgings and castings. Normalizing low carbon steels
makes the steels just hard enough to machine freely, leaving the surface free of tears.

Spheroidizing
Spheroidizing refers to any process of prolonged heating and cooling of steel, similar to
annealing, that converts the carbide content of the matrix into a rounded or spheroid
structure. Metal in this form is the softest and most workable.

HARDENING PROCESSES
Hardening processes involve heating mild steel to a temperature above its
transformation range (austenizing), and then cooling it quickly to increase hardness by
the formation of martensite. Martensite is a structure of fine carbide needle-like grains
that are extremely hard and are formed during the transformation from austenite. If the
temperature is dropped quickly, the carbon in the austenite does not have time to
precipitate as pearlite but instead forms distorted needle-like grains of carbide in the
ferrite matrix. The cooling rate varies with the material and is called the critical cooling
rate. Cooling is typically done in water, brine, oil, or air and is promoted by the agitation
of the liquid or the sample.

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 Case Hardening
Case hardening is a type of heat treatment process that produces martensite in the outer
layer only, leaving the interior to retain a tough ferrite-pearlite composition.

Metals parts surface hardened by these methods include: bearings, machine tools,
crankshafts, cams, valves, gears, rollers, and hand tools.

Two important thermochemical case hardening processes for low alloy steels are
carburizing and nitriding.

Carburizing is achieved by heating the part to its transformation temperature in an

atmosphere of carbon monoxide (CO). Carbon diffuses into the skin of the metal
increasing martensite formation in this area when the part is later quench hardened.

Nitriding is carried out in a furnace at a temperature below the transformation range of

iron (approximately 500°C to 600°C) in an atmosphere of ammonia (NH3). Ammonia
dissociates at this temperature into nitrogen and hydrogen. Atomic nitrogen diffuses into
the surface layer of the metal forming iron nitrides which are extremely hard. This
process, unlike carburizing, does not require subsequent quench hardening.

These two processes can be combined into one operation called carbonitriding when a
source of carbon and nitrogen is introduced into the furnace at a temperature above the
transformation range of the steel. A less severe quench hardening step is required after
this operation (than with carburizing), but the resulting hardening effect is comparable.
Nitriding, alone, produces the hardest surface.

Quenching
Quenching is the rapid cooling of a heated metal. This process is performed to obtain the
desired transformation products. Quenching a metal increases strength and hardness and
decreases toughness and ductility. Steel with a carbon content over 0.8% is heated above
the upper transformation temperature and held there to allow the formation of austenite.
The steel part is then quickly cooled by immersing it in a liquid such as water, brine, or
oil.

Tempering
Tempering refers to the process of heating quenched steels to a specific temperature
below their lower transformation ranges, which forces the saturated carbon in the
martensite to form back into a stable iron carbide (cementite) and ferrite mixture (see
Fig. 8), and then cooling the sample to room temperature at a rate that prevents
martensite reformation. The primary purpose of tempering is to improve the mechanical
properties of the steel. The goals are to increase ductility and toughness with slightly
reduced hardness. A sword that has been quench hardened and then tempered will not
shatter but will retain a hard sharp edge.

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 Objective 4
Explain how to interpret metal specifications.

METAL SPECIFICATIONS
In North America, specifications for metals used to construct pressure vessels and
process piping systems lie in the regulatory domain of the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME). They develop codes which are in turn approved by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The extensive complexity of these codes
are intended for professional engineers who design power and processing plants, and
rest, in most cases, outside the scope of responsibility of operating power engineers. A
career in power engineering, however, will almost certainly include exposure to
construction projects where, to some degree, the onus may fall on a power engineer to
monitor the correctness of the materials used. A chief engineer in a power plant may be
responsible for purchasing piping, fittings, and equipment to replace or repair plant
systems. To this extent, all candidates should be familiar with basic metal specifications.

It should be noted that under no circumstances should an unidentified metal ever be used
in a plant application or a careless substitution of materials ever be made. Material
specification and selection should be left to the design engineer.

One should also be aware of a problem with counterfeit products in the marketplace that
are stamped to suggest compliance with ASME code specifications but are, in fact,
inferior and have metallurgical compositions different than that required by the code.
These products are forgeries and are dangerous to use. Ordering materials from
reputable suppliers helps avoid this situation.

In general, piping, boiler and exchanger tubing, fittings, and structural materials can be
categorized as being manufactured from one of the following types of metals:
• Low carbon or mild weldable steels (carbon content < 0.30%)
• Medium carbon steels (carbon content > 0.3% but < 0.60%)
• High carbon steels (carbon content > 0.60% but < 1.5%)
• Cast irons (carbon content between 2% and 6%)
• Alloy steels (low carbon steels alloyed with manganese, chromium, vanadium,
nickel, molybdenum, tungsten, and other elements), for example, stainless steel
which contains 12% to 20% chromium and is a very valuable alloy.
• Non-ferrous metals (copper, aluminum, brass, nickel, tungsten and zirconium)

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 Most piping in a power plant is made from low carbon or alloy steels. Choosing a metal
for a particular job is done on the basis of safety and metal survivability. The engineer
has to ensure the material can withstand the most extreme environment it will be used in
and still retain a factor of safety.

An engineering piping specification will call for an ASTM (American Society for
Testing and Materials) "A" or "B" spec number material of specified grade, dimension,
and schedule (wall thickness). "A" material represents carbon steels and alloys while
"B" material represents non-ferrous material. ASME Codes B31.1 (Power Piping) and
B31.3 (Hydrocarbon Process Piping) offer a complete choice of carbon steel and alloy
piping suitable for defined applications in power plants and hydrocarbon processing
plants. Compatible flanges and fittings for a particular choice of piping can be found in
ASME Code B16.5 (Pipe Flanges and Fittings).

Table 1 shows an example of the most commonly used carbon steel pipe.

Table 1
Standards Comparison

STANDARD NAME ASTM A53 ASTM A106

Type Specification
Title Pipe, Steel, Black & Hot-
dipped, Zinc Coated,
Welded & Seamless
Commonly used Type E, Grade B
type/grade within
specification
Description Electric resistance welded,
slightly higher carbon
(stronger) than Grade A. Not
made to Fine grain
steelmaking practice
End-use Ordinary or general purpose
Specification
Seamless Carbon Steel
Pipe for High Temperature
Service
Grade B
Seamless, good balance
between strength &
weldability, slightly higher
carbon (stronger) than
Grade A. Made to fine grain
steelmaking practice for
more reliable properties
Critical service

Material Test Reports

Material test reports, or MTRs, are a good resource for monitoring material
specifications. Also referred to as certificates of testing, these reports are made
available by the vendor to the purchaser upon request. MTRs originate in the smelter
where the metal was made and they give a comprehensive chemical and physical
analysis of the metal used to manufacture the pipe or fitting. Molten metal is sampled
from every ladle after the smelting stage. Each batch of metal (or alloy) is given a heat
number which identifies the batch and all the products made from that batch and
follows them throughout their lifetime. An MTR identifies the pipe or fitting and

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specifies the heat number of the metal it was made from. It documents the chemical
composition, the ASME spec number, grade, schedule, tensile strength, and yield point
of that metal. The results of any specialized testing, such as a Charpy test for brittleness,
and any heat treatment processes that part underwent are also recorded. An example of a
material test report is shown in Table 2.

MTRs are valuable tools to monitor the properties and specifications of metals you have
purchased.
Table 2
Material Test Report

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Page 132
 Objective 5
Explain typical selection of metals for process plant
applications (what is selected and why).

METAL SELECTION
Plant operating engineers have many responsibilities, but in strict terms, these do not
usually include designating metal specifications for plant pressure piping, vessels, or
structural steels. This is the responsibility of professional design engineers. However,
close association with professional engineering and construction personnel during
construction and the duty to safely operate and maintain the plant afterward put the onus
on power engineers to become familiar with the procedures, specifications, and jargon of
the trade.

An outline for a construction project might take the following form, as shown in Fig. 10.

Figure 10
Construction Project Outline

An operating engineer would usually become involved in this project as the owner’s
inspector or be included in an operations staff group responsible for monitoring
construction progress and compliance. Operating engineers have to become familiar
with the operating systems and design philosophy. As you can see from the above
diagram (Fig. 10), all designations for pressure piping and fittings use a Canadian
Standards Association (CSA) reference or ASME metal specification.

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 Regulations controlling the "Design, Construction and Installation of Boilers & Pressure
Vessels” require, in part, the submission of "material specifications, size, schedule and
primary service rating of all primary piping and fittings used in that construction" for
approval and registration to the local boiler authority.

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI), a governing body, has established
minimum requirements for manufacturers to identify pipes, fittings, and flanges:
• Size
• Wall thickness
• Schedule designation
• Material type
• Manufacturer's identity stamp

Size
Size refers to as nominal pipe size (NPS); still measured in inches but may be in metric
or SI units (always measured in millimetres) and usually designates the outside pipe
diameter or the inside flange diameter.

Wall Thickness
Wall thickness, measured in inches or millimetres, refers to piping, steel plate, vessel
walls, and pipefittings other than flanges.

Schedule Designation
If you examine flanges and pipe elbows in a plant you will see this information stamped
onto every fitting. Piping is usually stencilled along its entire length to ensure it can be
identified when cut into shorter lengths during construction.

Flanges
Flanges are always referred to by the pressure rating class of ANSI schedule 150, 300,
400, 600, 900, 1500, or 2500. As per ASME Code B16.5 (Pipe Flanges and Fittings),
forged or cast flanges are identified in a material group and under a nominal designation
(alloy composition) by "A" numbers and grade. They have different maximum allowable
working pressures (MAWPs) depending on their schedule class number (ANSI 150
through 2500) and maximum service temperature. This sounds complicated, but it can
be more easily understood by referring to the following chart taken from ASME Code
B16.5 (Pipe Flanges and Fittings), page 15:

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 Table 3
ASME Pressure-Temperature Chart
(Courtesy of ASME)

For example, a common choice for a vapour line flange from the top of a propane chiller
in a gas processing plant might be a 12 inch, A 350 LF2, ANSI 300. "ANSI 300"
ensures that the flange meets the requirements for the maximum allowable working
pressure of the vessel with an included safety factor. Grade "LF2" allows a minimum
process temperature of -45°C. The ANSI class number "A" is commonly referred to as
the schedule number. Remember, flanges that comply with ASME B16.5 (the industry
standard) have to be stamped "B16." If they are not, they are not acceptable for pressure
equipment.

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 Piping
Piping schedule can be specified per the following partially complete list and is usually
referenced by "diameter–schedule" that indicates pipe size and minimum pipe wall
thickness.

Table 4
Piping Schedule

NPS diameter (inches) Schedule Wall Thickness

1 inch 40 (called standard wall) 3.38 mm (.133 in)
80 (heavy wall or XS extra heavy) 4.55 mm (.179 in)
2 inch 40 3.91 mm (.154 in)
80 XS 5.54 mm (.280 in)
4 inch 40 6.02 mm (.237 in)
80 XS 8.56 mm (.337 in)
6 inch 40 7.11 mm (.280 in)
80 XS 10.97 mm (.406 in)

For example, a 2-inch schedule 40 pipe has a wall thickness of 3.91 mm. Note that
commercial pipe sizes 6 -inches in diameter and up are only manufactured in even inch
diameters. In all pipe sizes, the outside diameter (OD) is more or less constant, and
varying wall thickness determines the resulting inside diameter of the pipe.

Although only two common pipe schedules are listed above (40 and 80), pipe schedules
range from schedule 10 through schedule 160 with increasing wall thickness. Above
schedule 40, the schedule designation is incremented by 40 (e.g. schedule 40, 80, 120,
and 160).

Table 5 shows a material selection of commonly used piping and fittings that applies to
power and processing plants complying with the following codes: ASME B31.1 (Power
Piping), ASME B31.3 (Hydrocarbon Process Piping), and ASME B31.4 (Liquid
Transportation Systems).

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 Table 5
Material Selection—Common Specifications for Carbon Steel Systems

In these carbon-steel systems, low temp means a limiting design temperature range from
−45°C to an upper specified value < 425°C, while high temp means a limiting range
from −29°C to an upper specified value < 425°C. These limits are the lowest
temperatures expected from either the processing fluid or the external environment that
will affect a particular piping system. They are a design specification based on
acceptable Charpy impact testing results that demonstrate these metals do not become
brittle within these ranges. Cryogenic systems are common in certain processes, but
stainless steels are used because of their resistance to fracture at very low temperatures.

Page 137
 In general, selection of a metal for a pressure piping system has to take into account its
suitability when exposed to the stresses of its operating environment, which may include
consideration of the following variables:
• Internal or external maximum pressures
• Maximum and minimum temperatures
• Tensile and compressive stress loads
• Vibration and cyclic stress loads
• Chemical corrosion exposure
• Temperature gradients and thermal expansion stress factors
• Nozzle loadings (on flange connections)
• Impulse stresses (liquid slugging, hydraulic shock, physical collisions)
• Heat conductivity

Cost saving will always be a consideration in the selection of a material if the design
engineer has a range of metals that can successfully meet a given specification.

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 Objective 6
Describe the composition, physical properties, and
uses of copper, lead, and tin.

COPPER
The symbol for copper (Cu) comes from the Latin word cuprum, which means
originating from the island of Cyprus. The Romans obtained it by smelting malachite, a
hydroxylated copper carbonate (Cu2CO3(OH)2). Although elemental copper can be
found free in nature, the most important sources of this metal are the mineral ores
chalcopyrite, cuprite, malachite, and bornite. Approximately 90% of the world's primary
copper occurs in the sulphide ores chalcopyrite (CuFeS2) and bornite (CuFeS4). Most
copper refining processes use acid leaching, smelting, or electrolysis to separate the
metal from its ores. Pure copper metal is reddish brown in colour and weighs 20% more
than iron. It is tough, malleable, and ductile and can be forged into sheets and bars and
drawn into wire. Other properties that make copper a desirable engineering material are
its excellent electrical and heat conductivity and its high resistance to general corrosion.
Industry uses this metal in its pure form as conductors in electrical switchgear and
related equipment and as electric wire. Copper and its alloys are used in the manufacture
of heat exchangers, tubing, piping, valves, pipefittings, sheet roofing, and as feed stock
for the production of brass and bronze alloys.

Copper Alloys
At the beginning of the 21st century, the world production of copper exceeded 16
million tonnes per year with more than half of this refined supply used to produce
electric wire and conductors and the remainder used for copper alloy production.
Recycling scrap copper in the form of used wire, tubing, and exchanger cores accounted
for almost 40% of the North American supply.

Copper, when mixed with other elements, produces a myriad of alloys having special
and superior properties to the virgin metal itself. The most commonly used copper alloys
are the various brasses and bronzes. There are well over 300 different copper alloys
commercially available.

Bronze
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin but may also contain phosphorus, lead, silicon,
nickel, zinc, and aluminum. It is used to make many groups of cast and wrought bronze
alloys including phosphor bronzes, leaded-tin bronzes, nickel-tin bronzes, aluminum,
and silicon-bronzes each having distinctive properties. Overall, these alloys have a high

Page 139
 resistance to corrosion and show better machinability and increased strength over the
parent metals.

Aluminum bronze, containing up to 12% aluminum, have superior wear resistance and
anti-galling properties, are very corrosion resistant and strong, and are used to construct
bearings, bushings and machine parts. Phosphor bronze (90% copper, 9.75% tin, and
0.25% phosphorus) is very strong, hard, and resilient and is used to make bushings and
high grade springs. Bronze has long been in artistic demand for casting statues, bells,
and coinage.

Brass
Brass is essentially an alloy of copper and zinc with small amounts of other metals
including tin, manganese, lead, nickel, iron, aluminum, and silicon. Ductility maximizes
with a 70/30 ratio of copper/zinc and this characteristic can be used, for example, in
cartridge brass where expansion sealing in the breech is required. Naval brasses are
alloys with small amounts of tin that result in a metal that shows superior resistance to
saltwater corrosion, and they are used extensively in these applications. Iron-tin brasses
have high strength and hardness and are used in the manufacture of bearings, valves,
fittings, and naval propeller castings. Brasses have good machinability and can be
welded.

LEAD
Lead is dense, malleable, soft, lubricious, highly corrosion resistant, and has a low
melting point. Lead is extracted from lead sulphide ore (galena). The recycling of scrap
from batteries, sheet, cable, bearings, and solder is also a major source of lead. Lead is
usually used as an alloy in applications such as lead-acid batteries, ammunition, cable
sheathing, bearings, construction and electrolytic refining and plating. Battery grids are
the largest single use of lead.

Bearing Metals
Tin-based and lead-based bearing metals are babbitts or alloys used for lining bearings.
Babbitts include compositions of 80% lead (Pb) and less than 5% tin (Sn) to
compositions of greater than 80% tin and 0% lead. The metals antimony and copper are
usually present as a small percentage. Other metals which may be used to add strength
are cadmium, nickel, bismuth, arsenic, zinc, and tellurium.

White Metal
Lead-based alloys are commonly called white metal. White metal is the name given to
alloys made from lead and tin with small amounts of other elements, specifically,
antimony, bismuth, silver, and zinc. White metals are used chiefly for bearing materials
because of their low melting point, which allows easy casting of bearing shells. This
metal shows sufficient strength and ductility not to crack and squeeze out under heavy
loads. In addition, white metals are soft enough to contour to a shaft, preventing high
points on bearing surfaces, and because of their good thermal conductivity, heat is
readily dissipated away from operating bearing surfaces.

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Babbitt metal is the common name for a tin-based alloy (89% tin, 7.5% lead, 3.5%
copper) that is widely used for high speed and light bearing load applications. An
example of a lead-based white metal used for bearing applications at slower speeds and
heavier shaft loads, is an alloy having a composition of 75% lead, 15% antimony, and
10% tin. This alloy is tougher but less ductile than the high-tin content Babbitt alloy.

TIN
Tin is extracted from oxide ores. It is a soft, white metal with good corrosion resistance
and lubricity. Tin is mainly used in tinplate and as an alloying addition. Tinplate
production is the largest single use of tin. Tin plate is used to make containers and
packaging for food and also non-food items.

Tin-Lead Solders
Solders are divided into tin-lead solders and other solders based on various metals. The
tin-lead group includes high-lead, general purpose, and high-tin solders.

High-lead solders, containing 80% lead, are used for joining tin-plated containers and
automobile radiators. General purpose solders vary from 25% tin/25% lead to 50%
tin/50% lead.

The tin-lead phase diagram, Fig. 11, indicates that a wide range of solder alloys are
possible, depending on the melting range (pasty stage) required. For example, wiping a
lead pipe to lead pipe joint requires a lengthy pasty stage, but electronic components
require the lowest melting point and no pasty stage (eutectic) to minimize damage to
printed circuit boards.

Figure 11
Tin–Lead Phase Diagram

Page 141
Page 142
 Objective 7
Describe the composition, physical properties, and
uses of aluminum and aluminum alloys.

ALUMINUM
Pure aluminum metal has a density of 2699 kg/m3. In the useful lightweight metal class,
it is only surpassed by magnesium at 1738 kg/m3. In comparison, iron has a density of
7870 kg/ m3. Light weight, with the additional properties of very good heat and
electrical conductivity, make this metal almost indispensable.

Aluminum has only been commercially produced in the last century because of the
difficulty of separating the pure metal from its abundant ores (which comprise over 8%
of the earth’s crust). Bauxite, a reddish-brown ore, with abundant sources located in
Australia and Jamaica, is a complex mixture of minerals containing mostly aluminum
hydroxides (Al2O33H2O). Through a caustic leaching operation called the Bayer
process, alumina (Al2O3) is produced from bauxite. Alumina is then fed to an
electrolytic cell in the presence of the mineral cryolite (Na3AlF6). An electric current
fuses these minerals together forming molten aluminum which settles and is tapped off
the bottom of the bed. This final refining step is known as the Hall-Heroult process.

Elemental aluminum has a relatively low tensile strength and is very malleable and
ductile, but, as with other metals, its alloys have properties that are far superior, and it is
these alloys that are widely used in industry.

ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Aluminum is combined with other metals such as copper, silicon, manganese, zinc,
nickel, magnesium, chromium, and lithium to produce hundreds of important alloys that
show a remarkable range of strength, fatigue resistance, toughness, and light weight.
These properties make them ideal for use in aircraft and spacecraft construction,
automobile design, industrial plant equipment, military hardware, and domestic
implements.

Aluminum, combined with copper, is a good example of a useful common alloy. This
alloy is produced by heating aluminum above 550°C and then saturating the crucible
with copper to form a solution that contains about 5 % copper by weight. Since this
matrix is not positively soluble in the solid state, the copper tends to be rejected by the
aluminum during cooling. But, if the mixture is quenched with cold water, the copper
does not have time to precipitate into copper crystals and instead forms an intermetallic

Page 143
 compound (CuAl2). This process is called precipitation hardening and produces an
alloy that is 5 to 6 times stronger than pure aluminum.
The CuAl2 micro-particles are extremely hard and interfere with the surrounding
aluminum atoms by preventing easy slippage of their atomic-plane structures, resulting
in a hard, strong alloy. Carbon atoms in an iron matrix react very much the same way in
converting iron into steel.

Recently, strong interest has been shown in aluminum-lithium alloys and aluminum
metal matrix composites (MMC) which have very high strengths, are heat resistant,
durable, and light weight. They are used to manufacture machine parts, such as diesel
engine pistons and high load-bearing components for the aerospace industry. Metal
matrix composites are made by solidifying molten alloys that have been reinforced with
boron or ceramic fibres. Further research in this direction holds promise for many new
applications.

Aluminum has another remarkable property. It is unique in being the only metal known
that increases in tensile strength as its temperature decreases. This property is utilized in
the construction of large plate-fin, aluminum-alloy heat exchangers, called cold boxes,
with multiple internal flow paths that display incomparable heat exchange efficiency in
cryogenic process plants. A pair of these cold box heat exchangers installed in an ethane
extraction plant under construction is shown in Fig. 12. Temperatures drop to −100°C in
the coldest sections. Note the number of flanged connections; each represents an
associated internal passage.

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 Figure 12
Cold Box Heat Exchangers

Aluminum and its alloys are also used extensively in the electrical field as conductor-
metal in large electric transmission lines, switchgear equipment, and motor control
centre main bus bar connectors. This electrical conductor does not have to be surface
protected because aluminum becomes highly resistant to corrosion by forming a thin
surface oxide layer that protects the underlying base metal from any further
deterioration. For this reason, and because of its high electrical conductivity, strength,
and light weight, most high-voltage transmission systems use strand-twisted aluminum
alloy conductor cable that, in systems above 250 kV, can exceed 28 mm in diameter.
Because of the mass reduction when compared to copper-clad steel cable, utility
companies can place the transmission towers much farther apart and realize large cost
savings when constructing these lines using aluminum wire cable.

Cross-sectional views of modern conductor cables used in large electric transmission

systems are shown in Fig. 13. The conductor is made from an aluminum-magnesium-
silicon alloy with high electrical conductivity and, due to its rigorous corrosion
resistance properties (no steel core), it is usually installed in areas that have severe,
corrosive environments such as seacoasts. This type of cable is also used in urban areas,
where supports are close together, omitting the need for higher strength steel core cable
which is more expensive.

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 Figure 13
All Aluminum Alloy Conductors (AAC)

The conductor, shown in Fig. 14, is made with a solid or stranded steel core surrounded
by aluminum stranded wire and can be manufactured with a wide range of tensile
strengths that vary with the size of the inner steel core. They are used for river crossings
and other long-span installations.

An advantage of this type of conductor is its:

• High tensile strength

Disadvantages are:
• A greater diameter is required to carry a given electrical load
• The inner steel core is prone to corrosion
• They are comparatively costly

Figure 14
Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced (ACSR)

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In an attempt to increase tensile strength without sacrificing load carrying capacity, an
innovative manufacturing method uses a continuous carbon fibre-polymer resin
composite to replace the steel inner core of the ACSR conductor. The aluminum
conductor composite core (ACCC), shown in Fig. 15, is 75% lighter than steel with
comparable tensile strength for a given wire diameter and completely unaffected by
corrosion.

Figure 15
Aluminum Conductor Composite Core (ACCC)

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Page 148
 Chapter Questions
1. a) Explain the differences between face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic and
close-packed hexagonal unit cell structures in metals and give examples of each.
b) What is the allotropy of iron and why is this process important to understand?
c) A metal is prone to cracking under stress if its grain boundaries are contaminated
with impurities. Explain how this can occur and give an example.
d) At the atomic level, what generally determines the shear strength of a metal?

2. a) Define austenite and cementite structure in steel.

b) What occurs at the lower critical change line with a dropping temperature in an
alloy of 3% carbon in iron that is significant in forming cast iron?
c) Why is cast iron brittle?

3. a) Which heat treatment process produces the maximum toughness in mild steels?
Describe this process.
b) How are steels hardened? Why are some steels only case hardened? Give five
uses for case hardened steel.
c) Tempering and quenching steel is a process used to control the diffusion and
precipitation of which element in the matrix?

4. a) What information does a material test report give you?

b) What regulatory body governs the metal specification of steam piping used in a
power plant?

5. a) What term generally refers to the wall thickness in a steel pipe? The pressure
rating of a steel flange?
b) Piping, fittings, and flanges have to be permanently stencilled with what
minimum information?

6. a) List two main sources of copper supply.

b) Describe why copper is an important metal.
c) List five uses of pure copper in industry.
d) How does the composition of brass differ from bronze? Describe the different
properties of these two alloys.
e) What is white metal? Name the most important alloy of white metal and its uses.

7. a) Describe the process that produces our major supply of aluminum.

b) Name three main uses of aluminum and why its alloys are so important.

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 Testing of Metals

Learning Outcome
When you complete this learning material, you will be able to:

Discuss the common procedures and parameters for testing of metals.

Learning Objectives
You will specifically be able to complete the following tasks:

1. Explain the procedures and interpretation of tensile, hardness, and impact tests.

2. Explain how to monitor and test metals for creep, fatigue and corrosion.

3. Explain the causes and significance of welding discontinuities.

4. Explain visual inspection, and the procedures used.

5. Explain magnetic particle inspection and the procedures used.

6. Explain liquid penetrant testing and the procedures used.

7. Explain ultrasonic testing and the procedures used.

8. Explain radiography, the procedures used and how to interpret the results.

9. Explain acoustic emission testing and the procedures used.

10. Explain the methods of leak testing.

11. Explain the procedure for a proof test.

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Page 152
 Objective 1
Explain the procedures and interpretation of tensile,
hardness, and impact tests.

MATERIAL TESTING
Non-destructive Examination (NDE) is the testing of materials without destroying the
integrity of the material or lowering its ability to perform its primary function. The
pressure equipment industry uses a wide variety of NDE techniques that test the
properties of materials. The most common NDE techniques are:
• Hardness Testing
• Visual Testing (VT)
• Liquid Penetrant Testing (PT)
• Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
• Radiographic Testing (RT)
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT)
• Acoustic Emission (AE)
• Leak Testing (LT)

ASME Section V, Non-destructive Examination is a reference code that supports

construction codes such as ASME Section I, III, IV, VIII (Div. 1 and Div. 2) and X.
Some non-ferrous materials are used in power plant construction. For example, copper-
based alloys for condenser tubing, copper for alternator windings and tin-based alloys for
bearings, but the majority of components are made from iron-based or ferrous materials.
The tests covered in this module are for ferrous materials.

Testing Definitions
In NDE, the misuse of the terms defect, discontinuity, flaw, indication, interpretation, and
evaluation can create much confusion.

The following definitions are used in the module:

• Flaw: An imperfection in the material that may or may not be harmful
• Indication: A noticeable response to an NDE test that requires interpretation to
determine its significance
• Discontinuity: Any local variation in material continuity including changes in
geometry, properties or composition, holes, cavities, cracks, or structure
• Defect: A discontinuity or flaw, whose size, shape, type, location, or orientation
creates a substantial chance of material failure. The discontinuity is detrimental to
the integrity of the pressure equipment

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 • Interpretation: A study to determine the cause of an indication (labeling or
naming the discontinuity, i.e. cold lap, fatigue crack)
• Evaluation: A judgment made based on codes, standards or engineering
assessment on the significance of an indication. The judgment decides whether
the indication is detrimental to the service life of the component under test

NDE Applications
In the pressure equipment industry, NDE techniques are used for testing materials for
three types of defects:
1. Inherent defects created during the initial production of the material
2. Processing defects created during the processing/manufacturing of the pressure
equipment
3. Service defects created in the equipment during service

There are four main benefits to NDE techniques, namely:

• Safety
• Cost savings
• Service reliability
• Material verification

Safety
• Prevent accidents, damage to property, injuries and loss of life

Cost Savings
• Eliminating faulty raw material reduces scrap, manpower required for rework and
prevents waste
• Repeat business is increased due to customer satisfaction
• Manufacturing control provides continuous improvement because it monitors the
process to pinpoint sources of trouble
• Eliminating delivery of faulty products reduces servicing costs
• Insurance costs are reduced by eliminating risks of equipment failure

Service Reliability
• Faults can be sized for critical engineering assessment
• Remaining life span of used equipment can be estimated - faults can be located
before failure occurs
• Service and operating costs are lower as testing can often be completed on line
• Inspection intervals can be established for maximum benefit
• Prevents unscheduled downtime

Material Verification
• Differences in chemical properties can be identified
• Differences in metallurgical properties can be identified
• Material can be identified for sorting

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 • Differences in zones of heat treating can be identified
• Differences in physical properties can be identified

TENSILE TESTING
A tensile or tension test is the fundamental type of mechanical test performed on
material. Tensile or tension tests are simple, relatively inexpensive, and fully
standardized. By pulling on something, a tensile stress is put on the material. It is used to
show how the material reacts to forces being applied in tension. As the material is
stressed or pulled, the elongation and stress of the material are determined. Though a
tensile test is simple and has been around for a long time, consideration is given to the
specimen shape and dimensions and the choice of grips and faces to ensure valid results.

Specimen
The standard or specification being utilized, e.g., ASTM E8 or D638, defines the
specimen’s shape. Its shape is important to avoid having a break or fracture within the
area being gripped. The standards specify the shape of the specimen ensuring the break
occurs in the “gauge length” by reducing the cross sectional area or diameter of the
specimen throughout the gauge length. Fig. 1 shows a specimen prior to testing. The
testing device is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Figure 1
Specimen Prior to Testing

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 Figure 2
Testing Base and Actuator

Fig. 3 shows how the specimen deforms as more stress is applied to the specimen. This
increases the stress in the gauge length because stress is inversely proportional to the
cross-sectional area under load:
Load
stress (σ ) =
cross sectional area
P
stress (σ ) =
a

Figure 3
Tensile Stress Test

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Modulus of Elasticity
In a tensile test, a sample is extended at constant rate, and the load needed to maintain
this is measured. The stress ( σ ), calculated from the load, and strain ( ε ), calculated
from the extension, can be plotted as stress against strain as shown in Fig. 4.

Figure 4
Graph Illustrating the Nominal Stress and Strain

Referring to Fig. 4, points on the graph are defined as:

(A) Limit of proportionality

The point beyond which Hooke's Law is no longer obeyed. This is the point at which
slip (or glide) due to dislocation movement occurs in favourably oriented grains. The
graph is linear up to this point and begins the transition from elastic to plastic
deformation above this. Dependant on the material being tested, this point is poorly
defined as in the graph above or well defined.

(B) Yield stress

The stress at which yielding occurs across the whole specimen. The stress required
for slip in a particular grain varies depending on how the grain is oriented, so points
A and B are not generally coincident in a polycrystalline sample. Polycrystalline is a
material composed of variously oriented, small individual crystals. At this point, the
deformation is purely plastic.

(C) Proof stress

A third point is sometimes used to describe the yield stress of the material. This is the
point at which the specimen has undergone a certain (arbitrary) value of permanent
strain, usually 0.2%. The stress at this point is then known as the 0.2% proof stress.
This is used because the precise positions of A and B are often difficult to define and
depend to some extent on the accuracy of the testing machine.

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 (D) Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
The point at which plastic deformation becomes unstable and a narrow region (a
neck) forms in the specimen. The UTS is the peak value of nominal stress during the
test. Deformation will continue in the necked region until fracture occurs.

(E) Final instability point

This is the point at which fracture occurs is the failure point.

Strain
There are two main types of strain:
• Elastic
• Plastic

Elastic Strain
Elastic strain is the stretching of atomic bonds, and is reversible. Elastic strain can be
related to the stress using Hooke’s Law:
σ = Eε
E = Young's Modulus

Plastic Strain
Plastic strain, or plastic flow, is irreversible deformation of a material. There is no
equation to relate the stress to plastic strain.

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The amount of stretch or elongation the specimen undergoes during tensile testing can
also be found. This can be expressed as an absolute measurement in the change in length
or as a relative measurement. Strain can be expressed in two different ways:
• Engineering
• True

Engineering Strain
Engineering strain is probably the most easily understood and the most common
expression of strain used. It is the ratio of the change in length to the original length:
extension
strain (ε ) =
original length

True Strain
True strain is similar but based on the instantaneous length of the specimen as the test
progresses.
⎛L ⎞
true strain (ε ) = ln ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ LO ⎠
L1 = Instantaneous length
L0 = the initial length.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

One of the properties determined about a material is its ultimate tensile strength (UTS).
This is the maximum load the specimen sustains during the test. The UTS may or may
not equate to the strength at break. This is depending on what type of material is tested:
brittle, ductile, or a substance that even exhibits both properties. Sometimes a material
may be ductile when tested in a lab, but, when placed in service and exposed to extreme
cold temperatures, it may transition to brittle behaviour.

HARDNESS TESTING
Hardness is a measurement of the resistance of a material to surface indentation. There is
no absolute scale for hardness. Therefore, a number of tests have evolved for determining
hardness, and each type of test has its own scale for hardness. These scales are arbitrary
and express hardness purely quantitatively. This module describes four hardness tests that
are based on a material's resistance to indentation.

Indentation Hardness Testing

Indentation hardness, or the resistance of a material to indentation, can be measured in
two ways. The first method measures the depth of penetration or the area the indentation
produces. This method utilizes a specified force. The second method measures hardness
based on the load applied to the indentor. The most important criteria for an indentor is
its

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 ability to provide impressions that are geometrically similar and well defined. The four
common hardness testing methods, based on indentation methodology, are known as the:
• Brinell
• Rockwell
• Vickers
• Knoop

Brinell Hardness Testing Equipment

Brinell hardness testing equipment includes both laboratory and portable testing systems.
Testers use a number of means to apply test loads, including dead weight, pneumatic,
spring, hydraulic, and impact methods. A hydraulic Brinell hardness tester, shown in Fig.
5, uses the principle of a constant load applied for a period of time, using an indentor
with a predetermined diameter.

Figure 5
Brinell Hardness Testing Machine

The test is carried out using the following sequence of steps:

1. The specimen is placed on the anvil.
2. The load is applied.
3. The indentor penetrates the specimen for a given period of time from 10 to 30
seconds.
4. The round impression indication is measured.
5. Taking the mean diameter of the indication determines the hardness.
6. The Brinell hardness number is calculated.

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The calculation of the Brinell hardness number (BHN) is based on the load applied and
the dimension of the impression.

L
BHN =
π
D
2
(D- D2 - d 2 )
Where:
D = Indentor ball diameter, mm
d = Diameter of the indentation, mm
L = Load, kg

This calculation is not routinely completed. Tables are available that provide Brinell
hardness numbers based on the load and the diameter of the actual impression. Tables
have Brinell hardness numbers for loads ranging from 500 to 3000 kg in increments of
500 kg. The table used also indicates the indentor ball diameter (typically 10 mm).

The diameter of the actual indentation is measured with the aid of a microscope. Errors in
determining the actual diameter are a result of incorrect instrument readings and the poor
definition of the indentation boundary. The error in reading a Brinell microscope should
not exceed 0.01 mm over the entire 7 mm scale.

Poor definition of the indentation boundary is a result of the material characteristics of

each sample. Some materials develop a ridge around the indentation, extending above the
original surface, as shown in Fig. 6(a). Other materials have no sharp line of demarcation
between the surrounding surface and the indentation. This is due to a sinking or rounding
off of one surface into another, as shown in Fig. 6(b).

Figure 6
Typical Indentations

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 Rockwell Hardness Testing
Rockwell hardness testing is the most widely used method for determining hardness
because it is simple to perform. Rockwell hardness testing equipment is used in
laboratories, in automated systems for high production, and portable test units. The
testers use either a 120° diamond cone for the Rockwell B test, or a 1.6 mm diameter ball
as the indentor for the Rockwell C test. The Rockwell hardness test involves applying
two loads to a specimen and measuring the difference in depth of penetration between the
light (minor) load and the heavy (major) load.

Rockwell Testing Method

In Rockwell testing, the minor load is 10 kg and the major load is 60, 100, or 150 kg,
regardless of the type of indentor used. The minor load is applied first to zero the setting
on the dial depth gauge; the major load is then applied for a definite time and released.
The Rockwell hardness number is indicated on a dial gauge.

Rockwell test results are described using a numerical value related to the depth of
indentation and a letter scheme that describes the conditions of the test. Fig. 7 illustrates
the measurement of penetration depth using a diamond cone indentor.

Figure 7
Rockwell Hardness Testing

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The letters describe the scale symbol, type of indentor, and the major load. For example,
every Rockwell test value is followed by the letter H for hardness, then R for Rockwell
and, finally, the scale used either “B” or “C.”

Vickers Hardness Testing Method

The Vickers hardness test employs a 136° diamond pyramid as an indentor (square based
pyramid with an angle of 136° between faces). The loads applied, for a period of 10 to 15
seconds, to the diamond indentor range from 1 to 120 kg with standard loads of 5, 10, 20,
30, 50, 100, and 120 kg.

The Vickers hardness number (HV) is provided by the following ratio:

Load
HV =
Indented Area
1.8544 L
HV =
d2

Where:
d = Mean diagonal of indentation, mm
L = Load, kg

The indented area is calculated using the average readings of both diagonals. The
diagonals of the indentation are measured using a micrometer microscope.

The Vickers hardness number is determined using a table for the appropriate load,
identifying the average diagonal value, and reading the appropriate hardness value. On
materials that are homogenous, the Vickers hardness number is independent of the test
load.

Vickers hardness numbers are reported with the hardness value and the load used. For
example, a hardness value of 820 found under a 50 kg load is reported as 820HV50.

The Vickers hardness testing method has a number of advantages over other types of
hardness testers:
• The method is accepted world wide
• The indentor is accurate and shape is not distorted under loads
• The impressions made are small, and thus limit damage to finished products
• Light loads of 1 kg allow for the testing of thin materials
• There is only one scale for the hardness of all materials
• Damage to indentors is readily apparent as viewed under the microscope
• The diagonal of a square impression can be measured more accurately than the
diameter of a ball impression

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 Vickers Hardness Testing Guidelines
• Sufficient time for the application of the full test load is required, 15 seconds is
recommended

• The spacing of indentations is important. A rule of thumb is that a distance of

two and one half (2½) times the length of the diagonal of the impression should
be provided from the edge of the specimen or between any two impressions
• Diagonals of indentations are measured with the impression centered in the field
of the microscope
• The micrometer microscope is calibrated against a stage micrometer

Table 1 shows a comparison of Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell hardness values.

Table 1
Brinell, Vickers and Rockwell Hardness Values

Brinell Vickers Rockwell Tensile

Hardness C B Strength
Diameter Hardnes Number 150 kg load 100 kg load (Approximate)
(mm) s 120° diamond 283 mm. 6.9 MPa
300 kg load Number Cone Diameter Ball
10 mm Ball
2.35 682 886 64 337
2.75 496 540 50 117 247
3.30 341 350 36 109 166
3.90 241 241 23 100 119
4.50 179 179 8 89 89
5.00 143 143 79 72
5.70 107 107 64 56

Knoop Microhardness Testing

The Knoop microhardness test utilizes a rhombic-based pyramidal diamond that produces
a diamond shape with a long diagonal of seven times the short diagonal. The expected
depth of the indentations is about 1/30th of the long diagonal axis. Typical testing loads
are less than 500 g. Knoop microhardness testing is strictly confined to laboratory
applications.

Industrial Application of Hardness Testing

Hardness testing is described in the following three categories:
1. Microhardness testing, using up to 200 g of load
2. Low-load hardness testing, using 200 g to 3 kg of load
3. Macrohardness, using greater than 3 kg of load

Brinell hardness testing falls in the macrohardness testing category. It can also be
described as bulk hardness testing. Bulk hardness is an adequate description as Brinell
hardness testing averages out small imperfections.

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Rockwell hardness testing is a macrohardness test based on minor and major loads great
than 3 kg. The diameter of the indentations commonly used is significantly smaller than
those used with the Brinell indentor. The Rockwell hardness test is not considered a bulk
hardness test.

The Vickers hardness test is considered either a low-load microhardness test or a

macrohardness test. Test loads can range from 1g to 120 kg. Because of the diamond test
point, the Vickers hardness test is used for testing hard materials with high loads and for
measuring the hardness of small areas.

The Knoop hardness test is a microhardness test. It tests for the hardness of micro-
constituents of a matrix. Knoop microhardness testing is utilized in failure analysis of
components and for the testing of extremely brittle materials.

Hardness Testing and Quality

Hardness testing, specifically indentation hardness testing, is a simple, inexpensive, non-
destructive test for evaluating material properties during production.

In welding applications, hardness tests determine if the base and weld metal strengths are
matched, and also provide indications of any effects the welding process may have on the
HAZ (heat affected zone).

When materials are purchased, the manufacturing process influences the hardness of
materials. Hardness testing ensures uniformity of heat treated components. Hardness tests
are completed on materials that have been cold worked, quenched and tempered, or
precipitation hardened. Mill test reports provide hardness readings and are used to
determine the suitability of pressure component materials for their intended use.

Indentation hardness testing is used in the fabrication and repair of pressure components
to identify the misuse of welding consumables or to identify fabrication techniques that
require post-weld heat treatment. Hardness tests completed in the shop or in the field on
pressure components are Brinell portable hardness tests.

The Brinell hardness test is a bulk hardness test and therefore it is not practical for use on
the heat affected zone (HAZ) of weldments produced in the shop or field. Portable
Brinell hardness testing devices test the weldments’ macrohardness.

To effectively test the hardness of a weld, it is advisable that the Welding Procedure
Specification (WPS) be supported by a Procedure Qualification Report (PQR) that has
had hardness tests completed by the Rockwell Superficial Hardness or Vickers Diamond
Pyramid Hardness testing technique.

For butt welds, traverse hardness testing from the base metal through the HAZ, weld
metal, and ending in the adjoining base metal, is recommended. The spacing of the
indentations is as described in the guidelines for testing with the Rockwell or Vickers

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 hardness techniques. A number of traverses across the cross-section of the weld at
different elevations are necessary to provide a representative sample of the weld.

The acceptance criteria are established by the end user's specifications. For carbon steels
that are subject to sulphide stress cracking (SSC), the recognized acceptance criteria is
the National Association of Corrosion Engineers MR-01-75 Standard, which states a
maximum hardness of 22 HRC for carbon steel welding procedure specifications.

IMPACT TESTING
One property of metals that must be tested is the impact toughness which is the ability of
a metal to resist fracture under the effect of shock loading. It is the energy required to
break a piece of metal of standardized shape with a cross-sectional area of 1 cm2. A test
called the Charpy test is used to measure a metal's impact toughness.

The metal to be tested is formed into a rectangular bar, with a 45 degree V-shaped notch
taken out of it. This is then carefully placed on the apparatus' anvils with precision tongs.
Then the bar is struck, behind the notch, with a striker mounted on a pendulum. The
height to which the pendulum rises is a measure of the energy absorbed in the fracture.
Charpy impact testing is illustrated in Fig. 8.

Figure 8
Charpy Impact Testing

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Precise details of the type of specimen and the procedure for the test are described in
written standards. One complication is that there are several different standards - the ISO
standard International Organization for Standardization), the ASTM (American Society
for Testing and Materials) standard as well as several national European standards. The
metrological parameters of the striker, machine and test pieces are slightly different so
the results from these tests are subtly different and therefore difficult to compare.

The notch behaviour of the face-centred cubic metals and alloys, a large group of
nonferrous materials and the austenitic steels can be judged from their common tensile
properties. If they are brittle in tension, they will be brittle when notched. If they are
ductile in tension, they will be ductile when notched, except for unusually sharp or deep
notches (much more severe than the standard Charpy specimens). Even low temperatures
do not alter the notch behaviour of these materials. In contrast, the behaviour of the
ferritic steels under notch conditions cannot be predicted from their properties as the
tension test reveals.

Some metals that display normal ductility in the tension test may break in brittle fashion
when tested or used in the notched condition. Notched conditions include restraints to
deformation in directions perpendicular to the major stress, or triaxial stresses, and stress
concentrations. It is in this field that the Charpy tests prove useful for determining the
susceptibility of steel to notch-brittle behaviour though they cannot be directly used to
appraise the serviceability of a structure.

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Page 168
 Objective 2
Explain how to monitor and test metals for creep, fatigue
and corrosion.

CREEP
Certain materials, such as lead piping, undergo slow and continuous deformation with
time when subjected to stress. Rupture of a ferrous material occurs when it is subjected to a
constant stress at elevated temperatures for a sufficiently long time, even though the
load applied is considerably lower than that necessary to cause rupture in the short time
tensile test at the same temperature.

The creep rupture test is used to determine both the rate of deformation and the time to
rupture at a given temperature. The test piece, maintained at constant temperature, is
subjected to a fixed static tensile load. The deformation of the test sample is measured
during the test and the time to rupture is determined. The duration of the test may range
from 1000 to 10 000 hours, or even longer. A diagrammatic plot of the observed length
of the specimen against elapsed time is often of the form illustrated in Fig. 9.

Figure 9
Typical Creep Curve for Steel

Referring to Fig. 9, the curve representing creep is divided into three stages. It begins
after the initial extension (0-A), which is simply the measure of deformation of the
specimen the loading causes. The magnitude of this initial extension depends on test
conditions, varying with load and temperature and normally increasing with increases in

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 temperature and load. The first stage of creep (A-B), called primary creep, has a
decreasing rate of deformation during the period.

The second stage (B-C), called secondary creep, has an extremely small variation in rate
of deformation. This period is essentially one of constant rate of creep. The third stage
(C-D), called tertiary creep, has an accelerating rate of deformation leading to fracture.
Some alloys, however, display very limited or no secondary creep and spend most of their
test life in tertiary creep.

To simplify the practical application of creep data, it is customary to establish under

laboratory conditions two values of stress (for a material at a temperature) that produce two
corresponding rates of creep (elongation): 1.0% per 10 000 and 100 000 hours,
respectively.

For any specified temperature, several creep rupture tests are run under different loads.
The creep rate during the period of secondary creep is determined from these curves and is
plotted against the stress. When these data are plotted on logarithmic scales, the points for each
specimen often lie on a line with a slight curvature. The minimum creep rate for any stress
level can be obtained from this graph, and the curve can also be extrapolated to obtain
creep rates for stresses beyond those for which data are obtained. The shape of the creep
curve depends on the chemical composition and microstructure of the metal as well as the
applied load and test temperature.

In general, rapid rates of elongation indicate a transgranular (ductile) fracture and

slow rates of elongation indicate an intergranular (brittle) fracture. As a rule, surface
oxidation is present when the fracture is transgranular, and visible intercrystalline
oxidation may or may not be present when the fracture is intergranular. Because the
presence of intercrystalline oxides produces discontinuities, the time to rupture at a given
temperature-load relationship may be appreciably reduced. A complete creep rupture test
program for a given steel consists of a series of tests at constant temperature with each
specimen loaded at a different level. Because tests are not normally conducted for
more than 10 000 hours, extrapolation is used to determine longer rupture times. The
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Committee use several methods of extrapolation.
These depend on the behavior of the particular alloy for which design values are being
established and on the extent and quality of the database that is available. Several informative
discussions on these methods may be found in ASME publications.

Design data is usually given as a series of curves for constant creep strain (0.01-0.03%,
etc.), relating stress and time for a given temperature. It is important to know whether the
data used are for the secondary stage only or whether they also include the primary stage.

In designing plants that work at temperatures well above atmospheric temperatures, the
designer must consider carefully what possible maximum strains he can allow and what
the final life of the plant is likely to be. The permissible amounts of creep depend largely
on the component and service conditions. Typical examples for steel are shown in
Table 2.

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 Table 2
Permissible Creep Values

Maximum
Rate of Creep, Time,
Permissible
mm/min Hours
Strain, mm
Turbine rotor wheels, shrunk on
10-11 100 000 0.0025
shafts
Steam piping, welded joints, boiler
10-9 100 000 0.075
tubes
Superheated tubes 10-8 20 000 0.5

Monitoring for Creep Damage

Superheater and reheater tubing are critical components. Creep is a function of
temperature, stress and operating time. Higher operating temperature and other damage
mechanisms, such as erosion and corrosion that cause tube wall thinning and increased
stresses reduce the creep life of superheater tubes. Excessive stresses associated with
thermal expansion and mechanical loading can also occur leading to tube cracks and leaks
independent of the predicted creep life.

Water-cooled tubes operating at or below saturation temperature are not subject to significant
creep. Monitoring of the superheater tubes includes visual inspection, ultrasonic thickness
testing and tube sample analysis. Problems due to erosion, corrosion, expansion, or
excessive temperature can generally be located with visual examination.

High temperature steam-carrying headers are a major concern because they have a finite
creep life and their replacement cost is high. The high temperature headers are the
superheater and reheater outlets which operate at a temperature of 485°C or higher. Headers
operating at high temperature experience creep under normal conditions and also experience
thermal and mechanical fatigue. Creep stresses in combination with thermal and mechanical
fatigue stress lead to early failures.

There are three factors influencing creep fatigue in superheater high temperature
headers: combustion, steam flow and boiler load. Heat distribution within the boiler is not
uniform: burner inputs can vary, air distribution is not uniform; slagging and fouling can
occur. The net effect of these combustion parameters is variations in heat input to individual
superheater and reheater tubes. When combined with steam flow differences between tubes
within a bank, significant variations in steam temperature entering the header can occur.
Changes in boiler load further aggravate the temperature difference between the individual
tubes and the header. As boiler load increases, the firing rate must increase to maintain
pressure. During this transient, the boiler is temporarily over fired to compensate for the
increasing steam flow and decreasing pressure. During load decreases, the firing rate
decreases slightly faster than steam flow in the superheater with a resulting decrease in
tube outlet temperature relative to that of the header. As a consequence of these temperature
gradients, the header experiences localized stresses much greater than those associated with
steam pressure and can result in cracks forming in the ligament.

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 In addition to the effects of temperature variations, the external stresses associated with
header expansion and piping loads is evaluated. Header expansion can cause damage to
cycling units which causes fatigue cracks at support attachments, torque plates, and tube
stub to header welds. Steam piping flexibility can cause transmission of excessive loads to
the header outlet nozzle. These stresses cause externally initiated cracks at the outlet nozzle to
header saddle weld.

In Situ Monitoring
Monitoring of high temperature superheater tubes and headers should include a
combination of NDE techniques which are targeted at the welds where cracks are most likely
to develop (stress raisers.) Stress raisers are defined as the flaws having the ability to
amplify an applied stress in the locale.

Creep of the header causes it to swell and the diameter is measured at several locations on
the header and the outlet nozzle. To examine the header for creep damage,
metallographic replication is performed. This test is the most effective and is done on
any high temperature header. Ideally, the evaluation corresponds to the hottest location
along the header.

Metallographic Replication
Metallographic replication is used to study the grain microstructure of a component
without taking samples from the component. This method is used when repeated
observations are required. One method used for metallographic replication is illustrated
in Fig 10.

Figure 10
Metallographic Replication

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The objective is to reproduce as faithfully as possible the surface topography of the
specimen on to an acetate film which can then be examined under a microscope. The
surface of the specimen is cleaned of surface oxides to the bare metal. The metal is
polished with a series of grits and diamond pastes to achieve a scratch free surface and
then etched with 2 – 5% Nital. Nital is a 5% solution of nitric acid in absolute ethyl or
methyl alcohol, used for the general etching of normal carbon steels. A cellulose acetate
film is softened by soaking one side of the film with acetone and immediately applying
the softened film to the etched surface and pressing the film firmly into place. After
approximately 20 minutes the film hardens and may be carefully peeled from the metal
and examined in the laboratory under a microscope. To improve the contrast, the side of
the film which was not in contact with the metal is placed against a black surface. The
grain boundaries are studied to ascertain the amount of carbide spheroidization and
cavities that have formed. The films are kept and compared at each outage. Typical
cavity assessments from microstructure are shown in Fig. 11.

Figure 11
Cavity Assessment

Action required from the diagram.

A – No action required at this stage
B – Schedule regular metallographic replication testing
C – Limit the service of the component and schedule repairs
D – Repair immediately as failure is imminent

Limitations of this method are:

• The area to be monitored must be accessible
• The same area of the tube or header is monitored each time to ensure an accurate
record.
• The surface temperature of the tube or header is comfortable to the touch. If it is
too hot, then the cellulose acetate film dries too fast and does not have time to

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 penetrate between the grains. If it is too cold, the water content in the Nital
affects the surface

FATIGUE
Metals undergoing high temperature service may also be subject to fatigue. Failure may
arise after exposure to cycles of alternating stress, with or without the superimposition of
a mean stress. Although it is the most common cause of metal failure in general
engineering, it is rare in a power plant. This is because it is possible to design away from
high levels of alternating stress, and that the predominant failure mechanism at high
temperatures is creep and not fatigue. In a power plant, it is possible to encounter
situations that are classified as thermal fatigue. In these the frequency of straining is
given by the number of stops and starts endured during the full life of the plant, (say 5 000
to 10 000). Fig. 12 is an example of the original design of reinforcing ring and a
replacement preformed drum end forging to eliminate cracking found in a boiler drum.

Figure 12
Manhole Reinforcement Changes

CORROSION
Good mechanical designs that minimize cracks crevices and high stress zones reduce the
likelihood of accelerated corrosion attack on the waterside of a boiler. Corrosion occurs
in a boiler and is allowed for in the design.

Most metals form an oxide or hydroxide corrosion film when exposed to water. This
oxide layer acts as a coating on the metal and protects the metal from most types of
corrosion. Boiler water treatments are designed to stabilize the protective oxide films so
corrosion decreases with time. The metal losses associated with protective oxide films
are uniform and occur at a predictable rate. This known rate of metal loss is the corrosion
allowance designed in the vessel.

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Corrosion of metal in industrial systems is complex and takes many different forms.
The result of all corrosion is the loss of strength of the material and the structure.
Understanding the various forms and combinations of corrosion is essential to
determining the importance of each and to finding the most appropriate technologies
for detection and characterization of corrosion.

Technology Applications
The areas where corrosion occurs, the materials in which it occurs, and the conditions under
which it occurs combine to make the inspection for and detection of corrosion a difficult
matter. All industrial systems experience some sort of corrosion and there are certain
known problem areas.

The typical process of finding and identifying corrosion begins with visual inspection. Any
damage that can be observed by visual means requires closer inspection. Field inspection
using other means usually entails eddy current and/or ultrasonic inspection. These
inspections can be accomplished during routine maintenance without impacting
operational availability. If additional inspection is necessary, specialists conduct the
inspection under controlled conditions, such as in a protected space or in an NDE
laboratory.

Factors affecting corrosion are: the type of material selected for the application, the
heat treatment of the material, the environment of the application, and the presence of
any contaminants in the material itself. Table 3 summarizes the types of corrosion that
can damage structures and their characteristics.
Table 3
Corrosion Types and Characteristics
Corrosion Cause Appearance By-Product Type
Uniform Attack Exposure to corrosive Irregular roughening of Scale, metallic salts
environment the exposed surface
Pitting Impurity or chemical Localized pits or holes Rapid dissolution of
discontinuity in the with cylindrical shape the base metal
paint or protective oxide and hemispherical
coating bottom
Crevice Afflicts mechanical Localized damage in the Same as scale and
joints, such as coupled form of scale and pitting pitting
pipes or threaded
connections. Triggered
by local difference in
environment
composition (Oxygen
concentration)
Galvanic Corrosion Corrosive condition Uniform damage, scale, Emission of mostly
caused by contact of surface fogging or molecular hydrogen gas
different metals tarnishing in a diffused form
Stress Corrosion Mechanical tensile Micro-macro-cracks Initially produces scale-
Cracking stresses combined with located at shielded or type indications.
chemical susceptibility concealed areas Ultimately leads to
cracking

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 Caustic Attack. Concentration of salts in Wide smooth groove Rapid dissolution of
(Grooving or high heat zones found generally free of the base metal
Gouging) in upper surfaces of deposits
incline steam
generating tubes
Acid Attack Low pH in boiler water Irregular roughening of Rapid dissolution of
the exposed surface the base metal

Intergranular or Presence of strong Appears at the grain or Produces scale type

Exfoliation potential differences in phase boundary as indications at smaller
grain or phase uniform damage magnitude than stress
boundaries corrosion
Erosion-Corrosion Flowing particles, found Appears as gullies, Rapid dissolution of
at restrictions, bends or grooves or pits the base metal
disruptions in the fluid (cavitation damage)
stream damage
protective films

Corrosion Detection
Corrosion detection is a subset of the larger fields of Non-Destructive Evaluation
(NDE). Many of the technologies of NDE lend themselves to the detection,
characterization and quantification of corrosion damage. Table 4 summarizes the major
advantages and disadvantages of corrosion detection technologies.

Table 4
Summary of Corrosion Detection NDE Technologies

Technology Advantages Disadvantages

Visual ƒ Relatively inexpensive ƒ Highly subjective
ƒ Large area coverage ƒ Measurements not precise
ƒ Portability ƒ Limited to surface inspection
ƒ Labor intensive

Enhanced Visual ƒ Large area coverage ƒ Quantification difficult

ƒ Very fast ƒ Subjective - requires experience
ƒ Very sensitive to lap joint ƒ Requires surface preparation
corrosion
ƒ Multi-layer

Eddy Current ƒ Relatively inexpensive ƒ Low throughput

ƒ Good resolution ƒ Interpretation of output
ƒ Multiple layer capability ƒ Operator training
ƒ Portability ƒ Human factors (tedium)

Ultrasonic ƒ Good resolution ƒ Single-sided

ƒ Can detect material loss and ƒ Requires couplant
thickness ƒ Cannot assess multiple layers
ƒ Low throughput

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Radiography ƒ Best resolution (~1%) ƒ Expensive
ƒ Image interpretation ƒ Radiation safety
ƒ Bulky equipment

Thermography ƒ Large area scan ƒ Complex equipment

ƒ Relatively high throughput ƒ Layered structures are a problem
ƒ "Macro view" of structures ƒ Precision of measurements

Robotics and ƒ Potential productivity ƒ Quality assurance

Automation improvements ƒ Reliability

It is also important to know if corrosion does not exist. If deep corrosion could be
detected reliably and efficiently, the substantial costs associated with shutdowns and
inspections would be dramatically reduced. Maintenance plans typically call for shutting
down and inspection of equipment to determine their condition. If an NDE method could
accurately determine the level of corrosion, including the probability that there is no
corrosion present, then the huge costs associated with shutdowns could be avoided.
Providing an accurate assessment of the condition of equipment supports the concept of
condition-based maintenance.

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Page 178
 Objective 3
Explain the causes and significance of welding
discontinuities.

WELDING DISCONTINUITIES
The objective of good welding practice is to produce weldments with the integrity to
ensure they perform adequately for the service intended. However, even with the very
best of efforts, discontinuities occur.

Weld discontinuities, which may lead to defects, are caused by one or more of the following:
• Departures from qualified procedures
• Altering weld designs
• Substituting or using defective materials
• Substituting or using defective electrodes

Any one of these factors produces weld defects which cause a structure to fail in service.
This has costly and sometimes disastrous results for the owner/operator and may
jeopardize public safety.

The identification, evaluation, and disposition of weld discontinuities is an important

welding activity. Visual identification of imperfections in welds is the first
step in welding inspection and can usually reveal 80% of weld imperfections. With the
aid of non-destructive techniques such as dye penetrant, magnetic particle, radiographic,
and ultrasonic testing, the location and size of most defects the human eye cannot detect are
determined.

To evaluate weld imperfections, the inspector judges whether or not the discontinuity is
likely to become a defect leading to failure. This requires experience and knowledge of
the flaws associated with a particular welding process and procedure, the metallurgy of
the base metals and filler metals used, and the design of the weld joint. Evaluation
also involves the use of specifications, standards, and codes which provide
acceptance and rejection criteria for types of weld discontinuities.

Evaluation of weld discontinuities leads to disposition or a decision as to whether the

weldment is acceptable, requires rework, or is unsuitable for the service intended and
must be removed. Personnel involved in inspection may not be involved in the
final disposition decisions, especially when these decisions are of a critical nature
requiring an engineering assessment.

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 Welding Terminology
The communication of information from the personnel involved in the inspection and
evaluation of weld discontinuities to the personnel who make decisions on redesign, repair,
and rework of welded structures is made in a common technical language that all
understands and accept. Industry specific and shop language are still used but may not be
technically precise. It is recommended that welding specialists and those involved with
evaluating welds use standard terminology.

Organizations and authorities involved in welding technology and science have developed
terminology and classification systems to identify weld discontinuities and to describe
the criteria used to evaluate and dispose of weld discontinuities.

Although there is some variation associated with industry specific terminology, there is
broad agreement in the welding industry on the need for standardization of welding terms.
Most welding codes use terminology that is standard for the industry. Most codes include
a definitions section where departures from standard terms are identified and described.

The definitions and terms used are referenced to the ANSI/AWS Standard Welding Terms
and Definitions A 3.0-89, except where noted. The definitions provided in this module are
those which the pressure containing and piping industries accept as the norm.

The terms defect, discontinuity, fault, flaw, and imperfection require definition. They
all refer to inconsistencies in weld integrity, but are often misunderstood and used
incorrectly.

Defect: A discontinuity or flaw whose size, shape, type, location, or orientation

creates a substantial chance of material failure. The discontinuity is detrimental to the
integrity of the pressure equipment.

Discontinuity: Any local variation in material continuity; including changes in geometry,

properties of composition or structure, holes, cavities, or cracks.

Fault: The word "fault" is often used to denote defect. However, it can also be
interpreted to mean an imperfection or flaw. The word fault is not included in the
ANSI/AWS Standard Welding Terms and Definitions. Because the term lacks
definition in a welding sense, it should not be used. Rather, the terms discontinuity,
defect, and flaw are precise and should be used.

Flaw: An imperfection in the material that may or may not be harmful.

Imperfection: This term is used extensively in some codes; for example, Chapter V of
ANSI/ASME B31.3 Chemical Plant and Petroleum Refinery Piping. It is not defined in
the ANSI/AWS Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, but because it is used in a
major code it should be understood to have the same meaning as flaw.

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Classes of Discontinuities
Weld discontinuities are usually grouped into broad categories. One method is to group
discontinuities according to causes. One major authority relates weld defects to one of
the following three causes:
• Weld procedure
• Weld design
• Metallurgical causes

However, before examining causes of defects, first identify and describe discontinuities.
For this purpose, it is useful to group discontinuities into types that provide an organized
approach to their identification. This module uses the system of dividing discontinuities
into three broad classes:
• Dimensional
• Structural
• Base metal properties

Dimensional Discontinuities
Dimensional discontinuities relate to any inconsistencies or departures from specified
dimensions in the weld, weld joint, or parent metal. Also included in this general category
are welds with imperfect shapes or unacceptable contours, including undercut, underfill,
and overlap.

Structural Discontinuities
Structural discontinuities are flaws in the weld deposit or heat affected zone. The flaw's
potential for failure is directly related to its shape and location in the weld. Planar
defects, such as cracks and lack of fusion, are sharp and pointed and create severe
notching and high potential for failure. Pores and non-metallic inclusions are usually
rounded and pose less potential for failure.

Base Metal Discontinuities

Base metal discontinuities are deficiencies in the chemical, physical, or mechanical
properties of the base metals which may contribute to a defect in the weldment. Base
metal discontinuities arise mainly from the production of the metal and its subsequent
processing and manufacturing. When a metal is produced, all of the data relating to its
chemical composition, method of manufacture, heat treating, mechanical properties (such
as tensile, yield, and impact properties), relative hardness, and ductility are given on a
document to verify its standard of quality.

Even though production quality standards are high, metals that do not meet the required
chemical composition standards can sometimes be delivered to the fabricator. Heat
treating reduces impact or other mechanical properties. In the rolling, forging, and casting
operations which follow the production of the metal, base metal imperfections such as
laminations, laps and seams, or casting defects find their way into the product and cause
defects in the weldment.

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 Defects in Weld Metals
Discontinuities that occur in welds create conditions which lead to failure in service.
Weld strength is the property most affected by weld defects. Planar- type defects can
cause rapid propagation of cracking through a weldment.

Discontinuities that create notching (abrupt changes in the contour of the weld where it
fuses to the base metal) can be sites for fatigue failure. Fatigue failure in welded joints is
associated with cyclical loading of the joint, such as that caused by vehicular traffic
over a bridge, which creates many reversals of stress at the weld. Notches can reduce
the fatigue resistance of welded joints and cause failure even though the yield strength of
the original base metal was never exceeded. Spherical type defects, although not as
serious, do create voids, displace weld metal, and reduce the intended volume of deposited
weld metal. Failure to fill a joint or melting away of the base metal causes a reduction of
the through thickness of the base metal.

Inappropriate chemical properties can cause a weldment to lose impact and tensile strength
in a very hot or cold environment. Failure to match base metal and electrodes correctly can
cause a loss of resistance to corrosion at the surface of a metal.

Defects in Weld Joints

There are five basic weld joints:
• Butt
• Tee
• Lap
• Edge
• Corner

Even though the weld deposit forming the joint may be sound, a weld failure may occur
because the joint has some undesirable features. Highly restrained tee and corner joints,
unless properly designed, are sites for weld failure. Misaligned butt joints can also be
areas of high stress. Steep transitions between thick and thin lapped material can create areas
of high stress.

The degree of weld quality possible is not the same as the degree of weld quality
necessary. The function imposed on the weldment determines the required degree of weld
quality. Welds designed for the pressure containing industry must conform to high
standards because of potential danger to the public from failure in service.

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 Objective 4
Explain visual inspection and the procedures used.

Any form of inspection is based upon an initial visual assessment of the geometry of the
component and the type and nature of the defect which is likely to be present. Visual
inspection is the most widely used technique for surface inspection, alignment of
mating surfaces, and evidence of leaking.

Visual inspection ranges from the use of the naked eye to remote visual examination with
electronic video systems. For remote visual examination, the system used must have a
resolution capability at least equivalent to that obtained with direct visual observation.
Direct visual examination may be completed with the aid of mirrors, magnifying lenses,
and artificial illumination. The criteria for conducting a visual examination are:
• Access allowing placement of the eye within 610 mm of the surface being
examined
• The angle of view must not be less than 30 degrees to the surface being
inspected
• A minimum illumination of 162 lux (15 foot candles)
• For study of small anomalies a minimum illumination of 538 lux (50 foot
candles) is required
• Personnel capable of reading standard J1 letters on a standard Jaeger eye test
chart

The ASME Section V Article 9: Visual Examination sets out the procedure
requirements for an authorized inspector to follow if the Code Section requires a visual
examination to be completed on the component.

Requirements
When the referencing Code sections require, the examination is performed in accordance
with a written procedure the manufacturer prepares. The manufacturer makes available to
the authorized inspector the procedure and a list of the examinations to be performed. The
procedure includes at least the following:
• How the examination is performed
• Type of surface condition and criteria for surface cleaning
• Cleaning instructions or reference to a cleaning procedure
• Methods and/or tools used for surface preparation
• Whether direct or remote viewing is used

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 • Special illumination, instruments, or equipment used
• Sequence of performing the operation, when applicable;
• Data to be tabulated
• Report forms or statement of examination results

Procedures may be general or specific for a certain application. The procedure

contains or refers to a report of the test method used to demonstrate the procedure's
adequacy.

Techniques used are direct viewing, remote viewing, and translucent examination.
Specific requirements for each technique are provided in the ASME Section V.
Article 9.

When the ASME Code Section requires, a written report is filled out and maintained.

Page 184
 Objective 5
Explain magnetic particle inspection and the procedures
used.

MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION

This method is valuable for the detection of cracks present at the surface of a component
made from a ferromagnetic material. The range of ferromagnetic materials includes: cast
irons, all kinds of steel and its alloys with the exception of austenitic steels. The method
is based on the fact that the faces of a crack tend to form north and south poles if a
magnetic flux is established in the component. This flux may be induced using a
permanent magnet or an electromagnet, causing current flow through the component or by
wrapping coils around it and then passing a current through the coils. If the system is arranged
so that the crack interrupts the flux lines, the application of either dry iron powder or iron powder
in suspension in a liquid may reveal the crack. The particles of iron are attracted to the
poles formed at the crack which is delineated as a black line.

AC transformers are often used to supply the necessary flux when searching for surface
defects. Heavy DC currents, which produce a flux below the surface of the material, can be
used to indicate subsurface defects to a depth of approximately 4 mm.

Magnetic Particle Examination

ASME Code Section V Article 7 describes the requirements and methodology for the
performance of the magnetic particle examination test method. Magnetic particle
examination is a widely used by the ASME Code and is referenced as a requirement in
many Code Sections. Article 25 contains SE-709, a reference standard and users should
consult it when establishing their test procedures. Also, when a referencing Code Section
specifies Article 7, the requirements of Article 1 apply. In some cases, the referencing Code
Section alters the Article 1 and Article 6 requirements. It is important to review the
referencing Code Section requirements when establishing the test procedure. Article 7
has two Mandatory Appendices: Mandatory Appendix I covers examination of coated
ferritic materials using the AC yoke technique, and Mandatory Appendix II covers
the definition of terms.

Article 7 describes five magnetization techniques that can be used on ferromagnetic

materials to detect cracks and other discontinuities on or near the surface of the
material. Sensitivity is greatest for surface discontinuities. The examination is termed
"continuous" when the magnetizing current remains on while the examination medium is
being applied and the excess is being removed. The five magnetization techniques are:
prod, longitudinal, circular, yoke, and multidirectional

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 Magnetic Particle Procedures
Article 7 requires magnetic particle examination procedures. The procedure includes the
following:
• Magnetic particles
• Surface conditioning
• Examination techniques
• Acceptance criteria

Magnetic Particles
Dry, wet, or fluorescent particles are used in accordance with the applicable technique
selection. When using fluorescent particles, the examination is performed using an
ultraviolet light (black light) in a darkened area.

The black light has an intensity of 1000 µW/cm2 at the surface of the part. The light
intensity is measured using a black light metre at least once every 8 hours and
whenever the work station is changed. It is important to maintain records of the intensity
measurements and frequency for subsequent audit verifications. Pretest requirements for
use of the black light include a warm-up period of 5 minutes. The inspector must be in
the darkened area for 5 min. before starting the examination to enable the inspector’s
eyes to adapt to dark viewing. Photosensitive eyeglass lenses are not permitted.

Surface Conditioning
Surface conditioning is normally not necessary, and satisfactory results are obtained when
surfaces are, for example, in the as-welded, as-rolled, as-forged, or as-cast condition.
However, surface preparation using any mechanical means may be required if the surface
irregularities can mask indications. Before the examination, the surface and adjacent areas
within 25 mm are cleaned with any suitable means to ensure removal of extraneous
materials that can interfere with the examination. In Article 7, paragraphs T-741.1 and T-
741.2 provide additional requirements regarding cleaning and use of surface contrast
enhancement coatings for enhancing particle contrast.

Examination Techniques
At least two separate examinations are performed on each test area. For the second
examination, the lines of flux are perpendicular to those used for the first examination.
The examinations are conducted with sufficient overlap to ensure 100% coverage.
Article 7 provides examination details for the five techniques previously mentioned. It is
important to refer to the detailed requirements for the technique used for the
examination.

Prod Technique
The prod technique uses portable prod contacts pressed against the test surface in the area to
be examined. Care is taken to prevent arcing. The heat produced from arcing can create

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local hard spots that can cause service problems. Article 7, T-743 has the recommended
magnetizing spacing for current and prod.

Longitudinal Magnetization Technique

This technique uses coils wrapped around the surface being examined. The current, passing
through the coils, produces a longitudinal magnetic field parallel to the axis of the coil. The
required field strength is based on the length to diameter ratio of the part being examined
(see T-744.3). Crack indications with coil magnetization: transversal cracks.

Circular Magnetization Direct Contact Method

Using this method produces circular magnetic fields perpendicular to the part being tested
(see T-745.1). Generally, this method is used for small parts with no openings through
the interior. Contact electrodes introduce the current into the test piece which behaves
like a current carrying conductor. The circular shaped magnetic field established around
the test piece develops stray fields across defects lying in the same direction as the
connecting line between the current contacts, i.e. longitudinal cracks.

Circular Magnetization Central Conductor Method

With tube or ring-shaped parts, magnetization is achieved without contact using a current
carrying conductor. The test piece is surrounded by the circular magnetic field so that
both longitudinal cracks together with star-shaped cracks running from the centre to the
outside of the plane surfaces can be detected.

The Electromagnetic Yoke Technique

The electromagnetic yoke technique uses a coil wound around a U-shaped core of soft iron.
The part being examined becomes the path completing the magnetic circuit. A
permanent magnetic yoke works on the same principle. The lifting power of yokes is
checked annually or when the yoke has been damaged. AC yokes must have a lifting
power of 4.5 kg while DC permanent yokes must have a lifting power of 20.4 kg at
maximum pole spacing. With yoke magnetization, a magnetic field from a coil system is
generated over the pole of an iron core and then transmitted into the test object. The iron
core and the workpiece form a closed magnetic circuit. The magnetic field lines flow in
the test piece in a direct connection line between the poles enabling the detection of
transverse cracks. Longitudinal cracks are not detected.

Multidirectional Magnetization Technique

This technique uses high amperage power packs operating up to three circuits. The
circuits energize one at a time in rapid succession producing an overall magnetization of
the part in multiple directions. This method requires only one processing step.

Acceptance Criteria
The acceptance criteria are as determined by the Code of Construction. It is suggested
that the student read ASME Section V. Article 25- SE-709 "Standard Practice for Magnetic
Particle Examination.”

Page 187
 Typical Test Procedure
1. Observe guidelines as per Code of Construction.
2. Preparation of the test part (for example: cleaning, degreasing, descaling, rust
removal).
3. Visual examination of readily apparent cracks or other surface conditions.
4. Check inspection conditions (ambient light, UV light intensity).
5. Measure the applied magnetic field, in turn adjusting for the appropriate magnetic
field intensity.
6. Clamp the material to be inspected or apply hand yoke magnet.
7. Switch on the magnetizing field.
8. Spray the part with the test medium containing the magnetic particles.
9. Switch off the magnetizing field.
10. Visually evaluate the surface for defect indications.
11. Repeat #5 to #10 at 90 degrees to original test orientation
12. Demagnetize the part. (if required)
13. Document the indications (position, size, number, orientation)
14. Classify the inspected part (acceptable, reject, possible rework)

Page 188
 Objective 6
Explain liquid penetrant testing and the procedures
used.

LIQUID PENETRANT TEST (PT)

Liquid penetrant testing is one of the oldest non-destructive testing methods in existence.
This method enhances the visibility of material surface cracks that are open to the surface
of the specimen under inspection. The material to be inspected may be magnetic or non-
magnetic such as steel, aluminium, magnesium, titanium, glass, ceramic or plastic. The
flaws to be detected must be open to the inspected part's surface.

The principle of liquid penetrant inspection is based on a liquid with a low surface
tension that is spread on the surface of the material. The liquid penetrant is allowed to
soak into any cracks that are open at the surface. After a period of time, the excess liquid
penetrant fluid is removed and a developer is applied to the test surface to draw the liquid
penetrant remaining in the cracks back to the surface and make it visible. The surface
flaws become increasingly more visible to the human eye because the liquid penetrant
contains a dye indication that broadens the trace of the surface crack. The dye indicator is
coloured either red or blue on a white background or appears greenish yellow on a dark
violet background when the surface is illuminated by an ultraviolet lamp.

Detection
Detection of flaws depends on the general condition and finish of the surface of the
material. Defects and surface conditions which limit the effectiveness are:
• Materials which are porous
• Subsurface defects
• Very wide and shallow defects
• Contaminated surfaces that have not been thoroughly cleaned
• Insufficient penetrant dwell time
• Surface temperature too high or too low

Page 189
 TESTING PROCEDURE

Test Preparations
Test guidelines or specifications are considered (Code of Construction, company
specifications, special customer specifications). If there are no know applicable
specifications, the test is performed according to ASME Section V. Article 6 and a test
procedure written. The procedure includes:
• The inspection conditions (ambient light and ultraviolet (UV) illumination
conditions)
• The penetrant, penetrant remover, emulsifier and developer to be used
• The pre-cleaning and post-cleaning required
• The penetrant dwell time, removal of excess and the drying of the surface before
the application of the developer
• The developer dwell time before interpretation

Pre-Cleaning
Pre-cleaning of the specimen is an important part of the dye penetrant inspection process.
The care taken in this initial step determines the level of inspection success. The pre-
cleaning process insures the surface of the specimen is free of all dirt, scales, oil, finger
prints and all surface residues so the penetrant medium can penetrate into surface defects.
Layers of paint or galvanic corrosion are removed chemically or mechanically.

Care is taken while grinding the specimen surfaces because grinding can roll material
over an exposed surface crack and prevent the crack from opening up to the surface.

Dye Penetrant Application

Covering the entire surface of the specimen with the dye penetrant liquid medium
initiates the dye penetrant process. This is accomplished by dipping, coating, spraying,
immersing, or electrostatically applying the liquid. The appropriate method depends on
the dimensions and/or the location of the part to be inspected.

The test liquid medium is applied within a temperature range between 15°C and 50°C.
The penetrant dwell time depends on the specific test medium, the specimen material, the
ambient and material temperature, and the desired defects detection sensitivity. The dwell
time is between 5 and 30 minutes depending upon the above mentioned parameters.

Interim Cleaning
During the interim cleaning process, the residual dye penetrant medium is removed from
the surface. The test medium can be dissolved or re-emulsified so that it can be washed
with water. During this interim cleaning, the surface is checked for residual penetrant.
With fluorescent dye penetration media, the interim cleaning is executed under UV light.

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A low pressure water spray is applied so that the penetrant soaked into the surface cracks
is not agitated out of the cracks. This can lead to crack washouts that can reduce the test
sensitivity or completely remove the penetrant from the crack.

Drying
The surface of the specimen is dried. This can be done with very low pressure air drying
or oven drying at a maximum temperature of 50°C.

Developing Procedure
The developing procedure causes the residual penetrant medium to be drawn to the
surface through the application of wet or dry developers, enhancing the detected crack
indication.

The application of the developer is done with spraying (aerosol cans, low pressure
spraying systems, spraying pistols or compressed air) or electrostatic pistols. Brushing on
or painting the developer on the material is not acceptable.

Through the lateral expansion of the penetrant medium within the crack, the crack width
is enlarged, and the visibility of even the smallest defects and hair line cracks is ensured.
The developing time is similar to the penetrant dwell time, normally 5 to 30 min.
"Austenitic" steels may require more than 60 min.

Inspection
During the visual inspection of the part surface, the operator controls the inspection
parameters, making sure that ambient light intensity and UV intensity are constant. To
make sure that the specimen has not been overwashed, the interim cleaning allows a low-
level coloured background to remain after the developing procedure. The negative
indications remain in clear contrast to the background color.

The measurements are documented with reference to position, size, number and location.
Typical indications are:
• Continuous line
• Intermittent line
• Rounded areas
• Small dot
• Diffuse
• Brilliance

According to typical test specifications and procedures, the inspection status of the
inspected specimen is categorized as: acceptable, reject, or re-work required.

Final Cleaning
If the inspected surface must be free of developer (for subsequent visual checks, further
processing, coloring, anodizing), a final post-cleaning process is necessary. The

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 developer coating can be removed with water, an air-liquid mixture, or in a liquid solvent
immersion tank.

Quality Control
ASME Section V. Article 6 deals with maintaining the highest quality for liquid dye
penetrant processes to provide consistent inspection results in accordance with Article 24
SE standards:

1. SE-165 Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Inspection Method.

2. SE-1209 Standard Test Method for Fluorescent Penetrant Examination Using
the Water Washable Process.
3. SE-1219 Standard test Method for Fluorescent Penetrant Examination Using
the Solvent Removal Process.
4. SE- 1220 Standard Test Method for Visible Penetrant Examination Using the
Solvent Removal Process.

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 Objective 7
Explain ultrasonic testing and the procedures used.

ULTRASONIC TESTING
Mechanical vibrations can be propagated in solids, liquids and gases. The particles of
matter vibrate, and if the mechanical movements of the particles have a regular motion,
the vibration is assigned a frequency in cycles per second, measured in hertz (Hz), where
1 Hz = 1 cycle per second. If this frequency is within the approximate range 10 to 20 000
Hz, the sound is audible. Above about 20 kHz, the “sound” waves are called ultrasound
or ultrasonic.

The ultrasonic principle is based on the fact that solid materials are good conductors of
sound waves. The waves are not only reflected at the interfaces but also by internal flaws
(such as material separations and inclusions).

Piezoelectric Transducers
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations, and the conversion of
returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic
testing. The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical
energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa. The active element is a piece of polarized
material (i.e. some parts of the molecule are positively charged, while other parts of the
molecule are negatively charged) with electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces.

When an electric field is applied across the material (Fig. 13), the polarized molecules
align themselves with the electric field producing induced dipoles within the molecular or
crystal structure of the material. This alignment of molecules causes the material to
change dimensions. This phenomenon is known as electrostriction. In addition, a
permanently polarized material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3)
produces an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result of an imposed
mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect.

Figure 13
Piezoelectric Transducers

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 When a disc of piezoelectric materials is attached to a block of steel (Fig. 14), either with
cement or a film of oil (couplant), and a high- voltage electrical pulse is applied to the
piezoelectric disc, a pulse of ultrasonic energy is generated in the disc and propagates
into the steel. This pulse of waves travels through the metal. The waves are reflected or
scattered at any surface or internal discontinuity such as an internal flaw in the specimen.
This reflected or scattered energy is detected using a suitably-placed second piezoelectric
disc on the metal surface. A pulse of electrical energy is generated in the second disc.

Figure 14
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector

The time interval between the transmitted and reflected pulse is a measure of the distance
of the discontinuity from the surface. The intensity of the return pulse is a measure of the
size of the flaw. This is the basic principle of the ultrasonic flaw detector and the
ultrasonic thickness gauge. The piezoelectric discs are the “probes” or “transducers”.
Sometimes it is convenient to use one transducer as both transmitter and receiver. In an
ultrasonic flaw detector, the transmitted and received pulses are displayed in a scan on an
oscilloscope as shown in Fig. 15. Time is the X axis on this type of graph while Y is the
intensity of the pulse from the defect.

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 Figure 15
Ultrasonic Pulses

Transducers
Transducers may be purchased in various shapes and sizes to suit an application.
Cylindrical crystal wafers are most commonly used. Small diameter, high frequency
transducers are used to locate small discontinuities. Large transducers are capable of
generating more energy, permitting the inspection of thicker specimens.

To detect defects quickly in a specimen with a large surface area, a paintbrush

transducer up to 150 mm wide is used. If a defect is identified, a smaller transducer is
used to find the specific location and size.

The transducer may have one or two crystals. In a single crystal design, the crystal
acts as both the sending and receiving unit. Units with two crystals in the same probe
allow one to act as the sender and the other as the receiving unit.

Transducer Orientation
The orientation of the transducer determines the angle at which the pulse strikes the
specimen. For longitudinal wave testing, the transducer is located flat on the specimen.
To create a shear wave, the pulse must enter the specimen at the desired angle. To
accomplish this, the transducer is mounted on a plastic wedge which is part of the probe.

Generation of Pulse Waves

When a transducer is placed on the surface of a specimen and the pulse wave travels
directly into the specimen, a longitudinal or compression wave is produced. It travels
into the specimen at 90° to the surface and, if the far surface is parallel, returns directly
to the transducer as shown in Fig. 16(a) below. This system is used for measuring the
thickness of materials and is capable of locating discontinuities directly under the
transducer.

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 If the transducer is placed on a wedge-shaped plastic shoe, the pulse wave strikes the
surface of the specimen at an angle. Just as light is refracted into the colours of the
rainbow when it passes through a prism, refraction occurs when the ultrasonic pulse
enters the specimen from the plastic shoe. The longitudinal (compression) and shear
(transverse) waves are refracted at different angles and begin to separate as shown in
Fig. 16(b).

As the angle of the wedge is increased, the separation of the two waves increase until, at
some point, the longitudinal wave travels parallel to the surface as in Fig. 16(c). This is
known as the critical angle. As long as the angle of the wedge is larger than the critical
angle, only shear waves are being used to locate discontinuities.

If the angle of the wedge is increased to the point where the shear wave is refracted to the
surface of the specimen, a surface wave is produced. This wave travels along the surface of
the specimen until it strikes a discontinuity and an echo is generated. The surface wave only
locates defects within a few millimeters of the surface.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 16
Transducer Operation

Frequency
The size of the discontinuities to be located determines the frequency selection. To locate
small discontinuities, short wavelengths are used. The shorter the wavelength, the higher
the frequency required. For a high frequency, a thinner (and more fragile) crystal is used.

Couplant
For efficient testing, the ultrasonic pulses must be able to travel freely between the
transducer and the specimen. If air is located between the two, its low acoustic
impedance (low ability to conduct sound) causes most of the energy to be reflected from
the surface of the specimen with little or no energy entering to examine the specimen. To
remove the air, a liquid or paste couplant with higher acoustic impedance is used. This
allows a larger percentage of the energy to travel into the specimen.

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One solution to the low impedance is to immerse the specimen in a water tank. The
water bath acts as the couplant. Adding wetting agents and removing any air trapped in
the water increases efficiency. It is not practical to immerse larger specimens such as
pressure vessels in water baths. In these cases, the specimen surface is covered with oil
or grease that serves to bond the transducer to the specimen. The couplant used for these
purposes is a substance that does not react with or contaminate the specimen, is easy to
remove, and does not leak away during the test.

For relatively flat, smooth surfaces, a mixture of glycerin and water is used as a
couplant. For rough surfaces, light motor oil with a wetting agent is used. As the
surface temperature increases, heavier oils are used.

Signal-to-Noise Ratio
The detection of a defect involves many factors other than the relationship of wavelength
and flaw size. For example, the amount of sound that reflects from a defect is dependent
on the acoustic impedance mismatch between the flaw and the surrounding material. A
void is generally a better reflector than a metallic inclusion because the impedance
mismatch is greater between air and metal than between metal and another metal.

Often, the surrounding material has competing reflections. A good measure of

detectability of a flaw is its signal-to-noise ratio (S/N). The signal-to-noise ratio is a
measure of how the signal from the defect compares to other background reflections
(categorized as "noise"). A signal-to-noise ratio of 3 to 1 is often required as a minimum.
The absolute noise level and the absolute strength of an echo from a “small” defect
depend on a number of factors such as:
• The probe size and focal properties
• The probe frequency, bandwidth and efficiency
• The inspection path and distance (water and/or solid)
• The interface (surface curvature and roughness)
• The flaw location with respect to the incident beam
• The inherent noisiness of the metal microstructure
• The inherent reflectivity of the flaw which is dependent on its acoustic
impedance, size, shape, and orientation

Cracks and volumetric defects can reflect ultrasonic waves quite differently. Many cracks
are “invisible” from one direction and strong reflectors from another. Multifaceted flaws
tend to scatter sound away from the transducer.

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 Advantages and Limitations
Advantages of ultrasonic inspection include:
• It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities
• The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other
NDE methods
• Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is used
• Its high accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size and shape
• Minimal part preparation required
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results
• Detailed images can be produced with automated systems
• It has other uses such as thickness measurements in addition to flaw detection

As with all NDE methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include:
• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound
• Skill and training required is more extensive than with some other methods
• It requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound energy into test
specimen
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin or not
homogeneous are difficult to inspect
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low
sound transmission and high signal noise
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected
• Reference standards are required for equipment calibration and characterization
of flaws

ASME Section V
Article 4 was written to accommodate ultrasonic examination requirements for ASME
Section XI - Rules for In-service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components. This
article can also be used by other Code Sections.

Article 5 is used to select and develop ultrasonic procedures for thickness

determination, welds, materials, parts and components. Article 5 contains all of the basic
technical and methodological requirements. The Code of Construction is referenced for
the following:
1. Extent of examination and/or volume to be scanned
2. Personnel qualification
3. Certification requirements
4. Examination system characteristics
5. Acceptance criteria
6. Necessary records and documentation
7. Report requirements
8. Procedure requirements

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Written Procedure Requirements
Ultrasonic examinations are performed according to a written procedure. The procedure
includes the following:
1. Ultrasonic instrument type(s)
2. Description of calibration including blocks and techniques
3. Technique (straight and angled beam, contact, and or immersion)
4. Search unit type with frequency and transducer size
5. Special search units (wedges, shoes or saddles)
6. Angles and mode(s) of wave propagation in the material
7. Directions and extent of scanning
8. Couplant type and brand name
9. Weld and/or material types
10. Configurations to be examined (thickness dimensions) and form (casting,
forging, plate)
11. The surface(s) from which the examination is completed
12. Condition of the surface
13. Data to be recorded
14. Alarms
15. Rotating, revolving or scanning mechanisms
16. Post examination cleaning

Materials
Article 5 applies to the following material product forms:
1. Plate
2. Forgings
3. Bars
4. Tubular goods
5. Castings
6. Bolting (studs and nuts)
7. Welds
8. Cladding

Each form of material has a section devoted to it describing the equipment, calibration,
and examination to be used. Article 23 covers the requirements for examinations. It
contains standards for ultrasonic examination such as SA-435 "Standard Specification
for Straight-Beam Ultrasonic Examination of Steel Plate".

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 Reports
For each ultrasonic examination a report is required. The documentation is as per the code of
construction. Typical information required on reports is as follows:
1. Procedure
2. Ultrasonic equipment used
3. Level of certification and identity of personnel completing the examination
4. Location of weld or area scanned
5. Surface from which the examination was conducted
6. Record of indications detected
7. Date and time
8. Surface condition
9. Calibration block identification
10. Couplant used
11. Frequency used
12. Special equipment
13. Calibration sheet identity

Records of calibration are also important. The calibration block identification is also
included with equipment calibration reports (see T-530 to T-534).

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 Objective 8
Explain radiography, the procedures used and how to
interpret the results.

RADIOGRAPHIC TESTING
Radiographic testing (RT) is an NDE technique used for detecting flaws that are internal
or on the inside surface. It is one of the oldest NDE techniques used in the pressure
equipment industry.
The use of industrial radiographic testing is legislated provincially through the Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Act or the equivalent Act that specifies “Codes of Construction” for
pressure vessels and pipelines.

Electronics and computers allow technicians to capture images digitally. Filmless

radiography captures an image, digitally enhances it, and sends the image anywhere in
the world. Digital images do not deteriorate with time. Technological advances have
provided industry with small, light, and portable equipment that produces high quality x-
rays. Linear accelerators generate extremely short wavelength, highly penetrating
radiation. The technology has evolved to allow radiography to be widely used in
numerous areas of inspection.

The principle behind RT techniques is that in the presence of flaws there is a differential
absorption of penetrating radiation. Variations in density, composition and thickness result
in the component being radiographed while absorbing different amounts of penetrating
radiation. The unabsorbed radiation passes through the test component and exposes a
film. The exposed film indicates the varying amounts of radiation passing through the
component and gives a permanent record of the test.

Penetrating radiation can be x-rays or gamma rays. These sources of radiation differ
primarily in the manner in which they are produced. X-rays are produced by high-speed
electrons striking a metal target, causing a transfer of energy. An x-ray tube in an x-ray
machine produces the high-speed electrons. Gamma rays are emitted from radioisotopes
(radioactive materials), such as Cobalt 60 and Iridium 192, as they decay (disintegrate).
The maximum penetration in steel for the various sources is shown in Table 5.

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 Table 5
Gamma Ray Penetration for Steel

Source Max. Thickness (mm)

X-ray 76.2
Cobalt-60 177.8 - 203.2
Iridium - 192 76.2

Radiography can be used on all materials. RT is best suited for detecting three-
dimensional internal flaws. RT is useful for determining if something is inside a pressure
component (an object stuck in a pipe or elbow or liquid trapped between double-walled
expansion joints). Material thickness measurements can also help to determine corrosion
rates. Another application in the pressure equipment industry is the NDE testing of welds.

Discontinuities that can be detected are:

• Voids
• Porosity
• Incomplete penetration
• Cupping
• Incomplete fusion
• Internal Bursts
• Thickness variations
• Corrosion, thinning and pitting
• Shrinkage cracks
• Slag inclusions

Radiography can only detect cracking when cracking is oriented parallel to the
radiation beam.
When completing an RT there are four essential steps:
• Source selection
• Set-up
• Exposure of test component to the radiation source.
• Film development

It is interesting that approximately sixty percent of the time is spent on set-up. Of all the
NDE techniques, RT requires constant attention to safety. Large doses of x-rays or
gamma rays kill human cells and massive doses can cause severe disability or death.
Safety is not only a concern for the operator(s) of the RT equipment but for any
individual in areas where RT is used. The power engineer/inspector reviews the NDE
Company’s safety program and reviews dosages RT workers have received.

Workers wear a device call a dosimeter (Fig. 17) to measure their exposure to radiation.
A dosimeter is a pen shaped device that measures the cumulative dose of radiation it
receives. Referring to Fig. 17, the dosimeter is a precision instrument consisting of an
ionization chamber (1) which is sensitive to a desired radiation. It also consists of a
quartz fibre electrometer (2) to measure the charge and a microscope (3) to read the

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shadow of the fibre on a reticle (4). A reticle consists of a network of dots, wires,
crosshairs or fine lines in the focal plane of an optical instruments eyepiece. The
electrometer contains two electrodes, one of which is a movable quartz fibre. When the
electrometer is charged to a predetermined voltage, the electrodes assume a calibrated
separation.

When the dosimeter is exposed to a radiation source, ionization occurs in the surrounding
chamber which decreases the charge on the electrodes in proportion to the exposure. The
deflection of the movable quartz fibre is then projected, by a light source, through an
objective lens (5) to the calibrated reticle and read through a microscope eyepiece (6).

Illumination for the optical system is obtained by pointing the dosimeter at any
convenient light source. Light passes through the clear glass bottom seal (7) to illuminate
the reticule. The button is sealed by a bellows (8) which contains an insulated charging
pin (9).

When charging, the charging pin moves up to contact the electrometer, thereby closing
the circuit. Sufficient voltage is applied to recharge the system. The entire dosimeter is
hermetically sealed in a protective barrel (10). The dosimeter is usually clipped to
worker’s clothing to measure the actual exposure to radiation. For personal use, this is the
most useful device to measure radiation because biological damage from radiation is
cumulative.

Figure 17
Dosimeter

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 When selecting an RT technique, the following points are considered:
• The size and geometry of the component being tested
• Typical defect type, size location and orientation
• Shop or field testing
• Personnel safety
• Generally flaws must be at least as large as 2% of the penetration thickness to
be detected
• Access to both sides of the component is required to place the film

In addition to producing high quality radiographs, the radiographer is also skilled in

radiographic interpretation. Interpretation of radiographs takes place in three basic steps
which are:
1. Detection
2. Interpretation
3. Evaluation

All of these steps make use of the radiographer's visual acuity. Visual acuity is the ability
to detect a spatial pattern in an image. The lighting condition in the place of viewing, and
the experience level for recognizing various features in the image affects an individual’s
ability to detect discontinuities.

Discontinuities
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These interruptions
may occur in the base metal, weld material or heat affected zones. Discontinuities,
which do not meet the requirements of the codes or specifications used to invoke and
control an inspection, are referred to as defects. The following discontinuities are typical
of all types of welding.

Cold lap is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base
metal or the previous weld pass material (interpass cold lap). The arc does not melt the
base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into base material
without bonding. This is illustrated in Fig. 18.

Figure 18
Cold Lap

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Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many
shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks
appearing singularly, in clusters or rows. Sometimes porosity is elongated and may
appear to have a tail. This is the result of gas attempting to escape while the metal is still
in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material
having a radiographic density more than the surrounding area. Porosity is illustrated in
Fig. 19.

Figure 19
Porosity

Cluster porosity (Fig. 20) is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with
moisture. The moisture turns into gases when heated and becomes trapped in the weld
during the welding process. Cluster porosity appears like regular porosity in the
radiograph, but the indications are grouped close together.

Figure 20
Cluster Porosity

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 Slag inclusions are non-metallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld
and base metal. An example is shown in Fig. 21. In a radiograph, dark, jagged
asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag
inclusions.

Figure 21
Slag Inclusions

Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld metal
fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most serious weld discontinuities. Lack of
penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The
appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows
the land or root face down the centre of the weldment. Incomplete penetration is shown
in a weld and on a radiograph in Fig. 22.

Figure 22
Incomplete Penetration

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Incomplete fusion is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with
the base metal. Appearance on a radiograph is shown in Fig. 23. It appears as a dark line
or lines oriented in the direction of the weld seam along the weld preparation or joining
area.

Figure 23
Incomplete Fusion

Internal concavity or suck back is condition where the weld metal has contracted as it
cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks similar to
lack of penetration (Fig. 24), but the line has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in
the centre of the weld image.

Figure 24
Suck Back

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 Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In
the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centreline of the
weld as shown in Fig. 25. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does
not follow a ground edge.

Figure 25
Root Undercut

External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the
weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the
weld area (see Fig. 26).

Figure 26
External Undercut

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Offset or mismatch is a condition where two pieces being welded together are not
properly aligned. On the radiographic image (Fig. 27) there is a noticeable difference in
density between the two pieces. The difference in material thickness causes the
difference in density. Failure of the weld metal to fuse with the base metal causes the
dark, straight line.

Figure 27
Mismatch

\Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal
deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is easy to determine by
radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement. The image density in the area of
suspected inadequacy is darker than the image density of the surrounding base material
as in Fig. 28.

Figure 28
Inadequate Weld Reinforcement

Page 209
 Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld, which has weld metal added in excess
of that engineering drawings and codes specify. The appearance on a radiograph is a
localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection determines if the weld
reinforcement is in excess of that the individual code used for the inspection specifies.
An example is shown in Fig. 29.

Figure 29
Excessive Weld Reinforcement

Cracking can be detected in a radiograph only if the crack is propagating in a direction

that produces a change in thickness parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks appear as jagged
and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as “tails” on inclusions
or porosity, as shown in Fig. 30.

Figure 30
Cracking

Discontinuities in Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welds

The following discontinuities are peculiar to the TIG welding process. These
discontinuities occur in most metals welded using TIG, including aluminium and
stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous weld which,
when radiographed, is easily interpreted.

Page 210
Tungsten Inclusions
Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in tungsten inert
gas welding. If improper welding procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in the
weld. Radiographically, tungsten is denser than aluminium or steel. It shows as a lighter
area with a distinct outline on the radiograph. See Fig. 31.

Figure 31
Tungsten Inclusions

Oxide Inclusions
Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially
aluminium). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding materials and appear as
dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the radiograph (Fig. 32).

Figure 32
Oxide Inclusions

Page 211
Page 212
 Objective 9
Explain acoustic emission testing and the procedures
used.

ACOUSTIC EMISSION TESTING

Most materials and structures emit energy in the form of mechanical vibrations (acoustic
emission) as a result of sudden change or movement. This is usually due to a defect-
related phenomenon such as cracking or plastic deformation. These acoustic emissions
propagate from the source throughout the structure. The technique of electronically
“listening” to these acoustic emissions detects and locates defects as they occur, across
the entire monitored area, providing early warning of pending failure in a timely and
cost-effective manner. An example is volcano and earthquake seismic [acoustic]
monitoring.

All types of structures and production processes undergo continuous loading and
stressing. On pipelines and vessels, the process itself, both temperature and pressure,
supply the stress. In production processes, machines apply stresses to materials as they
are being formed, shaped and joined (e.g. in welding). These stresses eventually cause
defect growth (e.g. cracking) in weaker or fatigued areas of the structure. Acoustic
emission (AE) is unique to all other non-destructive test (NDT) methods because it
detects the defect growth, in real time, as it is occurring. It is important to have such a
non-destructive test method that can detect and locate flaws as early as possible. As a
result, the structure can be repaired or replaced long before a catastrophe occurs, thereby
preventing loss of life, environmental damage, and costly repairs.

ASME Section V Articles 11, 12 and 13 address acoustic emission examination

methodology. To date, no Code Section has adopted any of these articles. A few Code
Case requests have been allowed for very specific applications.

ACOUSTIC EMISSION PROCEDURES

Acoustic emission (AE) is the class of phenomena whereby transient elastic waves are
generated by the rapid release of energy from localized sources within a material.
Although this definition sounds rather complex, it can easily be explained with the aid of
Fig. 33, showing a material cracking under stress.

Page 213
 Figure 33
Acoustic Emission Testing

The material cracking emits acoustic waves that emanate in an omnidirectional manner
from the source. An acoustic emission sensor (usually piezoelectric based) is in contact
with the material being monitored. It detects the mechanical shock wave and converts the
very low displacement, high frequency mechanical wave, into an electronic signal that is
amplified by a preamplifier and processed by the AE instrument. Stress plays an
important role in the AE generation process. In many AE applications, the process
automatically applies stress (e.g. pipelines), and in others, an externally induced force
applies the stress. The key is that the stresses being applied are non-destructive and well
below the expected defect tolerance of the material.

AE systems operate in a range of 1 kHz to 2 MHz or greater in frequency. Background

noises such as friction, outside impacts, or process generated signals, that tend to mask
acoustic emission impose the lower frequency limit. Attenuation, which tends to limit the
range of detection of acoustic emission signals, imposes the upper frequency limit. A
critical part of the AE application process is the selection of a suitable frequency range
for AE detection and signal processing. It must be above the non-AE related background
noises, and provide the necessary detection range (distance/frequency) and sensitivity to
AE related signals. This is accomplished through the selection of AE sensors (that
operate in various narrow-band or wide-band frequency ranges) and electronic signal
filtering.

Acoustic emission is generally transient in nature, occurring in discrete bursts. Analyzing

various aspects of the waveforms associated with each hit one at a time, AE systems
process these bursts as AE “hits.”

Fig. 34 shows an AE hit waveform and a few of the AE features that are processed by the
AE system. “Time of hit,” “rise time,” “AE amplitude,” “AE counts,” “duration,”
“frequency content,” and even the waveform itself are AE features that can be analyzed
to help identify the source of AE as noise or defect-related.

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 Figure 34
Acoustic Emission Waveform

Acoustic Emission Systems

AE systems come in many varieties. They range from simple single-channel, single
purpose devices to complex multi-channel, multi-processing systems.

The basic AE system consists of one or more AE sensors and a preamplifier (per channel)
that is connected to an AE processor. The processor receives signals from the AE
sensors/preamplifiers as well as signals from external sensors or control inputs, which
might be following the process or the stress (or load) being applied to the materials under
test.

The job of the AE processor is to process these inputs together to form outputs indicative
of the activity detected and correlated to the process or stress measured. These outputs
can be a pass/fail signal for control purposes an indicator or set of graphical outputs.
Outputs can illustrate trending, or the relationship of AE to the load or stress on the
structure. The display might show plots of AE “locations” on a structure with a cluster
analysis to help the operator determine areas of concern.

Location of Sensors
The sensor may be located some distance from the source (subject to attenuation) and
still detect the signal. If multiple sensors are placed on the same structure, analyzing the
time difference of arrivals to each sensor and processing triangulation calculations makes
it possible to determine the location of the source.

To determine location in one dimension (a line), two sensor arrivals are required. To
determine location in two dimensions (over a surface or plane) three sensor arrivals are
required. To determine location in three dimensions, a minimum of four sensor arrivals
are required. Monitoring multiple AE events in the same area and applying a cluster
analysis analyses the severity of a source.

Source location is an extremely powerful tool in AE analysis and can be used to monitor
a relatively large structure with a minimum number of sensors. This is a tremendous
advantage in the case of vessels, especially when they are insulated, because very few

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 access holes are needed for placement of AE sensors to determine structural integrity of
the vessel. All other NDT techniques require all the insulation to be removed for full
inspection, making them much more expensive than AE examination techniques.

ACOUSTIC EMMISSIONS APPLICATIONS

Crack Detection
One of the oldest and most successful applications of acoustic emission has been in
manufacturing with the detection of cracking in various materials during bonding,
forming or pressing operations. AE systems are interfaced to programmable controllers
and are set to monitor for cracking only during the high-stress point of the process. When
a crack occurs, the AE system provides a failure output for part rejection. Many AE crack
detection systems provide continual monitoring and real time inspection.

Vessel Inspection
One of the most successful applications of AE is in vessel inspection for the
petrochemical industry. Sensors are placed on the vessels in arrays to monitor the entire
pressure boundary. The vessel is then subjected to pressures typically 10 percent above
previous operating levels (well below the vessel pressure rating) with the test pressures
being applied in a “pressure rise-hold-rise-hold” fashion, while monitoring the AE
activity during each of these pressurization segments. AE examination of vessels is a
sensitive and cost-effective method for vessel inspection.

Leak Detection
In leak detection, the instrumentation detects the AE signal that is generated from the
turbulent or cavitational flow through a crack, valve, seal or orifice. Acoustic energy is
transmitted through the fluid, through air or the structure to a piezoelectric sensor. The
signal is then processed, filtered and compared to a leak profile located using
triangulation techniques. Existing installations include monitoring of pipelines in utility
and petrochemical plants as well as leak detection in boilers, vessels, and through valves.

These systems offer the capability to connect and monitor multiple sensors throughout a
plant. The systems can be operated in a stand-alone mode, interfaced to programmable
controllers, or tied into plant-wide distributed control systems. They also offer the ability
to plot plant piping and vessel drawings on cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors that can
pinpoint leak locations.

Pulp and Paper Industry

AE applications within the paper industry have exposed cracks in rotating pressure
vessels such as steam-heated rollers and paper machine dryers, and in rotating equipment
such as felt rolls, reel spools, calendar rolls, and suction rolls. AE has uncovered the
delamination of bonded materials, including thermal spray metal coatings and rubber roll
covers.

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 Objective 10
Explain the methods of leak testing.

LEAK TESTING
Leak testing is used to verify the integrity of a completed pressure vessel or fitting before
it is placed into service or to determine if a vessel currently in service may continue
to be used. Leak testing identifies discontinuities in the vessel perimeter. For example,
it shows cracks and pinholes in welds, but does not show porosity within a weld or
small cracks that do not penetrate the vessel wall.

PRESSURE TESTING
Regulations require that pressure vessels and pressure piping built to the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Code be pressure tested when they are completed. The
test pressure generally ranges from 1.25 to 1.5 times the maximum allowable working
pressure (MAWP). This test serves two purposes, namely that it verifies that:
• The vessel can withstand the pressure for which it was designed
• No leaks are present

Pressure testing is also used on piping and vessels that have been in service, particularly
when they are subject to corrosion or cracking. The test verifies that the vessel or piping
can still safely withstand the operating pressure with a proven margin of safety and that no
through cracks (that is, cracks that penetrate the vessel wall) or holes have developed.
Pressure testing is especially useful if, due to the design of the equipment, the inspector
does not have adequate access to conduct a visual inspection.

Many jurisdiction inspectors, as well as owners, require the organization performing

the pressure test to provide written test procedures. Reviewing and approving these
procedures prior to the test averts potential problems.

The first step in leak testing is to determine whether, in fact, leaks are present. The
following types of pressure tests are used to aid in the detection of a leak:
• Hydrostatic
• Pneumatic

Hydrostatic Testing
Hydrostatic tests are generally carried out by filling the vessel with water and
pressurizing the fluid to the required pressure. The vessel is then examined for leaks.

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 Preparation
In a new vessel, all connections such as flanges and couplings are closed off with blind
flanges and plugs. A drain valve is located at the low point of the vessel to allow removal
of the water after the test. The filling connection must have an isolating valve, and a
vent valve is required at the top to allow all air to be expelled.

For testing of in-service vessels, more preparation is required. If the fluid the vessel
normally handles is toxic or flammable, the vessel is cleaned and purged. The vessel is
isolated from the rest of the system. Existing valves are used if they are in good condition.
Otherwise, piping connections at the vessel are opened and blind flanges installed. Control
line connections to the vessel are removed and closed off. The procedures listed for the
preparation of new vessels are also carried out.

If a vessel is filled with water during standard operation, the hydrostatic test should not
pose a problem. However, large vessels that normally contain a gas may not be designed
to hold water. In such cases, additional supports may be required for the vessel, and the
foundation is inspected to ensure that it can carry the additional weight. Vessels have been
known to sink through concrete floors because of the load the water puts on them.

The test pressure is usually monitored on a pressure gauge. Many jurisdictions insist that
these gauges be calibrated regularly to ensure an accurate reading. As an additional
precaution, two gauges are used. There are cases on record where vessels have been
permanently deformed because a defective pressure gauge indicated a pressure lower
than that applied.

Fluid Selection
The most common fluid for hydrostatic testing is water. It is inexpensive and readily
available. However, if the test is to be performed when ambient conditions are near
or below freezing, use of a glycol/water mixture or methanol should be considered.
These are more expensive than water, and disposal poses environmental problems, but
their use avoids the possibility of frozen drain lines when the test is completed.

In some cases, it is not desirable to have water in the equipment because of its effect on the
process fluid. With the approval of the owner and jurisdiction inspector, another more
compatible fluid may be used.

Temperatures and Pressures

For new vessels, the code of construction dictates the test pressure. For example, the
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1 requires a hydrostatic
test of 1.5 times the maximum allowable working pressure. For used equipment, the owner
or jurisdiction inspector may determine the test pressure, but it should not exceed the test
pressure used for testing when the vessel was new. If the inspector is only concerned with
leaks that may have developed in service, a hydrostatic test at the operating pressure is
acceptable.

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The temperature of the test fluid is also important, especially if the material of
construction is subject to brittle failure. It is recommended that water for pressure testing
boilers be above 27°C. For pressure vessels, water temperature should be at least 17°C
above the minimum design metal temperature. If in doubt, check the code of construction
for the required test temperature.

If the test fluid is below room temperature, condensation can form on the outer surface of
the vessel, hiding small leaks and thus defeating the purpose of the test.

Testing
Once the vessel has been filled with liquid and all the air vented, a pump may be used to
increase the pressure within the vessel to the required value. For low pressure tests, this is
generally carried out in one step. For higher pressure tests, the pressure is increased in
increments with a visual inspection conducted at the end of each step.

For pressures below 3000 kPa, the vessel may be inspected at the test pressure. Once test
pressures exceed this value, water jets issuing through a pinhole or crack become a danger
to the inspector. In these cases, the vessel is pressurized to the test pressure and held there
for a specified time. The pressure is then reduced to the operating pressure before the
inspection is made.

The visual inspection involves examining the entire surface of the vessel, looking not only
for wet areas that indicate a problem but also looking for small drops of moisture. A large
defect causes a significant amount of liquid to escape from the vessel. However, a
small crack may allow only a few drops to escape, even at the test pressure.

Another indication that defects are present is a drop in the test pressure during the
hydrostatic test, as escaping liquid causes the pressure to drop. However, a constant
pressure should not be taken as proof that there are no leaks. First, a small leak of a few
drops may not produce a noticeable pressure drop. Second, an increase in the
temperature of the test liquid can create sufficient expansion to compensate for any losses
due to leakage. When testing is complete, the pressure is released slowly.

Safety Concerns
Liquids are used for testing because they do not expand significantly when the pressure
drops. The theory is that if a failure should occur, only a small, harmless flow of water is
released. In practice, because all the air cannot be vented from vessels, some gases are
trapped and compressed. Therefore, in the event of a failure, there is still danger to
personnel in the vicinity. Blind flanges whose bolts failed during a hydrostatic test have
been known to travel up to 20 meters, and plugs have left couplings with enough force to
kill a person. In one instance, the head of a propane storage tank failed, deluging the entire
fabrication shop with 100 m3 of water. For this reason, all non-essential personnel should
leave the area when pressure tests are being conducted.

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 Advantages
Pressure testing, especially using water, is inexpensive, easy to conduct because minimal
preparation is required, and does not require highly skilled operators. It identifies leaks
through cracks and pinholes in the pressure envelope. By demonstrating that the vessel is
capable of withstanding 1.5 times the operating pressure, a degree of confidence in the
integrity of the vessel is assured.

Pneumatic Testing
Pneumatic testing involves the pressurization of a vessel or piping system with a
compressible gas, such as air or nitrogen, to determine if any leaks are present. The air or
nitrogen may be the only suitable test substance if water can damage the interior of the
vessel, as in the case of refractory linings or catalyst beds. As this may be a hazardous test,
it should only be used when other methods are not acceptable.

Preparation and Gas Selection

As with the hydrostatic test, the preparation for pneumatic testing involves isolating the
vessel from the system and controls. Using a gas as a test medium does not place a
significant amount of load in the vessel. For general applications, air is an inexpensive and
readily available test medium. However, if a possibility of combustion exists, an inert gas
such as nitrogen may be used.

Temperatures and Pressures

Because of the inherent danger in testing with compressed gases, some Codes allow the use
of a lower test pressure than that used for hydrostatic tests. If the pneumatic test is used as
an additional test to the hydrostatic test or as a leak test prior to the hydrostatic test,
pressures below the operating pressure may be acceptable.

With this test, it is even more important that the proper test temperature be maintained. If
there is any possibility of brittle failure of the test vessel, another method of testing is used.
As the testing gas is usually delivered to the test site as a liquid or at a very high pressure,
a pressure reducing system is used to produce the required test pressure. The pressure
reduction causes a refrigerating effect which can cool the vessel or piping enough to affect
the ductility of the metal. Heaters are used to maintain a minimum gas temperature.

If the supply pressure of the test fluid is higher than the test pressure, overpressure
protection must be provided to prevent the test vessel from being overpressured during the
test.

Testing
As with high pressure liquid testing, the pressure is increased in stages, with inspection
occurring at each stage. The method of inspection to locate leaks can vary from the basic
soap test to mass spectrometry. These techniques are discussed later.

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Safety Concerns
The primary hazard in pneumatic testing is the amount of energy stored in the compressed
fluid during the test. If a failure should occur, the results can be catastrophic. Pneumatic
testing should be done with all non-essential personnel removed from the danger zone.

Advantages
Pneumatic testing is useful in determining whether leaks exist in a piping system prior to
carrying out the hydrostatic test. At low pressures, the danger is reduced and a soap test
can be done to locate leaks. The test does not create a mass loading on the item being tested
and does not involve cleanup after the test because the gas may be vented to atmosphere.
Pneumatic testing may be the only acceptable test method in cases where the interior of the
vessel is lined with material that liquids can damage.

LOCATION OF LEAKS
Once it has been determined that leaks are present or suspected, other tests are used to
pinpoint the exact location of the leaks. ASME Section V Article 10 “Leak Testing” has
seven mandatory appendices to cover six specific types of tests, as follows:
• Appendix I, Bubble Test (Direct Pressure Technique)
• Appendix II Bubble Test (Vacuum Box Technique)
• Appendix III Halogen Diode Detector Probe Test
• Appendix IV Helium Mass Spectrometer (Detector Probe Technique)
• Appendix V Helium Mass Spectrometer (Tracer Probe and Hood Technique)
• Appendix VI Pressure Change Test

Bubble Leak Testing

The bubble test, sometimes called the soap test, is a basic method of locating a leak. It is
used when the pressurizing fluid is a gas and access is available to the surface where the
leak is suspected. This test method is quick, inexpensive, and does not require operator
training.

The early test method involved brushing or pouring a liquid soap solution over the
pressurized vessel or piping system. Escaping gas would form bubbles in the soap solution,
providing a clearly visible indication of where a leak was occurring. The number and size
of bubbles indicates the size of the leak.

While this type of test is acceptable in most applications, the soap leaves a film when it
dries. If hard water is used, the soap tends to curdle rather than bubble. In some cases,
impurities in the water can contaminate the material being tested. For example, chlorides
in the water can have an effect upon stainless steel.

Instead of soap, special solutions with enhanced surface tension, viscosity, and film
retention properties are now commonly used. These solutions enable the inspector to
locate smaller leaks than is possible when using soap and water. A more involved method
of bubble testing, called the immersion method, involves placing the pressurized specimen

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 in a water bath. The escaping gas forms a trail of gas bubbles as it rises to the surface
of the liquid.

Vacuum Testing
In vacuum testing, rather than pressurizing the interior of the vessel, a vacuum is used to
create the pressure difference necessary for leakage detection. Because the best possible
vacuum is 101 kPa below atmospheric pressure, the pressure differential is limited.
However, the danger of an implosion is also reduced.

To perform the test, the specimen is placed in a vacuum chamber, or a vacuum chamber is
attached to the side of the vessel. A pump is used to remove air from the chamber, causing
the pressure to drop. Because a pressure difference exists between the interior of the vessel
or sample and the vacuum chamber, leakage occurs through any cracks or other openings.
Any of the methods described later in this module may then be used to locate the leaks.

Vacuum testing is commonly used for testing electrical equipment and in the laboratory. It
is seldom used in the pressure vessel industry. It is sometimes used for testing the
floor plates of vertical tanks.

Dye Tracer Leak Testing

In the standard hydrostatic test, observing formation of water droplets on the vessel
surface detects leaks. When it is desirable to locate very small leaks, or visibility is a
problem, a fluorescent dye is added to the water inside the vessel. The dye is
similar to the fluorescent dye used in liquid penetrant inspection. The dye leaks
through cracks or openings to the outside of the vessel. By examining the external surface
of the vessel with an ultraviolet light, the dye is seen more readily than water.

Halogen Leak Testing

This testing method involves Freon or halogen gases and a halide torch to detect leaks.
Although the method is sensitive to leaks, the use of halocarbon gases poses environmental
problems and it will probably be discontinued in the future.

The halide torch burns compressed gas to heat a brass plate. A sample line consisting of a
rubber hose is moved over areas of suspected leaks and draws a sample into the gas burner.
Any presence of halide causes the formation of copper halide, creating a color change in
the flame.

This method is commonly used for leak testing refrigeration systems. However, filling a
pressure vessel with halide for the purposes of a test is very expensive compared to other
available methods.

Helium Mass Spectrometer Leak Testing

Mass spectrometers are the most sensitive leak detectors available. They introduce a
tracer gas such as helium into the test vessel and move the detector “sniffer” hose over the
surface to locate leaks. Because helium atoms are smaller than most other atoms, they

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penetrate through smaller cracks, providing a more sensitive test. The detector itself is able
to detect one part of helium in 10 million parts of air. Helium is an inert gas that does not
react with other gases or materials of construction. The amount of helium in the atmosphere
is not significant and does not interfere with leak testing.

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Page 224
 Objective 11
Explain the procedure for a proof test.

PROOF TEST OR HYDROSTATIC DEFORMATION TEST

For the most part, ASME Section I uses experience-based design method known as
design-by-rule. Other sections of the ASME Code, namely Section III, Subsection NB,
and Section VIII, Division 2, use a newer method, known as design-by-analysis. Design-
by-rule is a process requiring the determination of loads, the choice of a design formula,
and the selection of an appropriate design stress for the material to be used. Rules for this
kind of design are found throughout Section I, with most being in Part PG (the general
rules). Other design rules are found in those parts of Section I dealing with specific types
of boilers or particular types of construction.

The principal design rules are found in Part PG, paragraphs PG-16 through PG-55. There
are formulas for the design of cylindrical components under internal pressure (tube, pipe,
headers, and drums), heads (dished, flat, stayed, and unstayed), stayed surfaces, and
ligaments between holes. Rules are also provided for openings or penetrations in any of
these components, based on a system of compensation in which the material removed for
the opening is replaced as reinforcing in the region immediately around the opening,
called the limits of compensation (see PG-36). All of these formulas involve internal
pressure except for the rules for support and attachment lugs of PG-55, for which the
designer chooses the design loads on the basis of the anticipated mass or other loads to be
carried.

Another method of design permitted by Section I is a hydrostatic deformation or proof

test (PG-18, Appendix A-22). This is another experience-based method used to establish
a safe design pressure for components for which no rules are given or when strength
cannot be calculated with a satisfactory assurance of accuracy. In this type of proof test, a
full-size prototype of the pressure part is carefully subjected to a slowly increasing
hydrostatic pressure until yielding or bursting occurs (depending on the test). The
maximum allowable working pressure is then established by an appropriate formula that
includes the strength of the material and a suitable safety factor. ASME Section I joined
ASME Section VIII in allowing a burst test to be stopped before actual bursting occurs,
when the test pressure justifies the desired design pressure. The particular component so
tested may never be used for Code Construction because it might have been on the verge
of failure.

The design factor, or so-called safety factor, used in the burst test formula for ductile
materials has been 5 since the 1930s, when one of the factors used to establish allowable

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 design stress was one-fifth of the Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS). That factor on UTS
has been reduced over the years from 5 to 4 (circa 1950) and from 4 to 3.5 in the 1999
addenda. Thus the design factor used in the burst test was seen to be out of date and due
for a reduction.

In the ASME 2001 Edition, both Section I and Section VIII approved a reduction in this
factor to 4.0 for ductile materials only. The Subcommittee on Design is continuing to
study whether any further reduction is warranted, and also whether a similar change might
be appropriate for non-ductile cast materials.

Proof testing may not be used if Section I has design rules for the component and in
practice, such testing is seldom employed. However, it can be a simple and effective way
of establishing an acceptable design pressure for unusual designs, odd shapes, or special
features that difficult and costly to analyse even with the latest computer-based methods.
A common application of proof testing before the advent of sophisticated analytical
methods was in the design of marine boiler headers with D-shaped or square cross section.

Tests that are used to establish the maximum allowable working pressure of pressure parts
must be witnessed and approved by the Authorized Inspector, as required by ASME
Section I Appendix A-22.10. The test report becomes a permanent reference to justify the
design of such parts if the manufacturer wants to use that design again for other boilers.

Applications of Proof Testing

This information can be found in ASME Section IV Part HLW- Potable Water Heaters.
A proof test may be applied to determine the MAWP on the water heater. Hydrostatic
pressure is applied to a full-sized sample of a water heater. On the other hand, one
sample vessel may be tested to establish the MAWP for a series of water heaters. Water
heater vessels are in series under the following conditions:
• The heads are of the same geometry and thickness
• The cylindrical shell and tubes, differ only by length
• The openings are the same size and type as those on the proof-tested vessel

Test Procedure
Before the proof test, the outer surface of the water heater is cleaned and a brittle coating
is applied. The hydrostatic test pressure is slowly increased in steps of one-tenth the
anticipated MAWP until it is approximately half the anticipated MAWP. The inspection is
done at the end of every step to determine any permanent strain or displacement the flaking
of the brittle coating indicates. It is important to note that the hydrostatic test pressure
should be stopped when the intended test pressure is reached.

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Test Based on Yield Strength
The average yield strength is determined for use in the formulas for P. After completion
of the test, three specimens are cut from the tested part. The average yield strength from
these three specimens is used to calculate P by the following formula:

Ys
P = 0.5 H
Ya

where H = the hydrostatic test pressure at which the test was stopped, kPa
P = the maximum allowable working pressure, kPa
Y s = the specified minimum yield strength, kPa
Y a = the actual average yield strength from the test specimen, kPa

Test Based on Tensile Strength

If the test is stopped before any yielding, the MAWP is calculated using one of the
following given formulas:

For carbon steel with a maximum tensile strength of 480 MPa:

⎛ S ⎞
P = 0.5 H ⎜ ⎟
⎝ S + 5000 ⎠

where P = the maximum allowable working pressure, kPa

H = the hydrostatic test pressure, kPa
S = the specified minimum tensile strength, kPa

For any other material:

P = 0.4 H

Test Gauges
A gauge is connected directly onto the water heater for indicating hydrostatic
pressure. If the indicating gauge is not clearly visible to the operator, an additional
gauge is furnished. Also, a recording gauge is installed for larger water heaters. The
dial range of the indicating gauge is 1.5 times the intended maximum test pressure, and
both the indicating and the recording gauge are calibrated against the master gauge.

Collapsing of the Parts

The water heater parts should withstand (without major deformation) a hydrostatic test
pressure that is a minimum of 3 times the desired MAWP.

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 Test Records
The Manufacturer's designated person is required to witness the proof tests to establish
the MAWP of the water heaters. The authorized inspector also witnesses and accepts
the tests. All results are recorded on Form HLW-8 (Manufacturer's Master Data Report
Test Report for Water Heaters or Storage Tanks). The Manufacturer's designated person
certifies the completed form which is kept on file.

Hydrostatic Test
A hydrostatic test, in which the pressure is 1.5 times the MAWP, is required to be
performed on all water heaters. The MAWP is marked at a suitable location on the
water heater vessel. While the water heaters are under hydrostatic test pressure, all
joints and connections are inspected for leakage. The test pressure is kept under control
so that it cannot be exceeded by more than 69 kPa.

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 Chapter Questions
1. Define the following:
(a) Hooke’s Law
(b) proof stress
(c) plastic strain

2. Explain why a tensile test specimen piece must have a constant diameter or cross-
sectional area over the gauge length.

3. How is the indentation of a material by a harder object translated into a hardness

measurement?

4. Is hardness testing considered to be a qualitative or a quantitative test?

5. (a) Explain the difference between micro and macrohardness testing.

(b) Why is a macrohardness technique not the best method for testing weld
hardness?

6. What is “Creep”?

7. Explain how creep affects a high pressure boiler superheater header operating at a
steam temperature of 500° C.

8. Fatigue is the most common cause of metal failure. Explain the fatigue process.

9. Discontinuities are always flaws or defects.

True False

10. The term denoting rejectability is:

(a) flaw
(b) discontinuity
(c) fault
(d) defect

11. What are three broad classes of weld discontinuities?

12. The type of structural discontinuity which is more likely to lead to a serious defect
is:
(a) planar
(b) spherical

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 13. Fatigue failure is associated with:
(a) lack of fill
(b) notching
(c) base metal properties
(d) chemical properties of the weldment

14. Defective properties in joints usually involve:

(a.) misalignment
(b) edge joints
(c) high restraint
(d) lap joints
(e) butt joints

15. What codes determine acceptance criteria for NDE techniques?

16. (a) What NDE techniques are used for surface examination?
(b) Which technique is the most commonly used?

17. In magnetic particle testing, explain how a small surface crack may be detected?

18. In magnetic particle testing, what type of current is most effective in detecting
(a) surface defects
(b) subsurface defects

19. During the inspection phase of a liquid penetrant test,

(a) What are the typical indications that are looked for?
(b) How are these indications documented?
(c) What categories are assigned following an inspection?

20. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of ultrasonic testing.

21. How are ultrasonic waves used to detect defects within a solid piece of steel?

22. How are longitudinal and shear waves produced for ultrasonic testing?

23. What information is included in a typical ultrasonic test report?

24. What is the main requirement to be able to use radiography?

25. List 5 typical weld discontinuities that can be detected by radiography?

26. What is the principle of acoustic examination?

27. State two applications for the use of acoustic examination.

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28. An oil and gas treater has undergone repairs and requires a hydrostatic test prior to
being returned to service. Describe the procedure that should be followed in
preparing the vessel and conducting the test.

29. A natural gas fuel line has been installed at your facility. Describe the procedure
for conducting a soap bubble leak test at 50 kPa prior to placing the line in service.

30. Explain briefly, in your own words, what each of the following abbreviations
mean.
(a) RT, (b) UT, (c) MT, (d) PT, (e) AE, (f) VT, (g) LT.

Page 231
Page 2
 End of Chapter Questions
and Solutions

Chapter 1 Solutions
Thermodynamics of Gases

1. A receiver contains 1.5 m3 of air at 860 kPa and 20ºC. Calculate the final
temperature after 2.75 kg of air is added if the final pressure is 1325 kPa.
(R for air = 0.287 kJ/kgK)

Initial mass of air, using equation pV = mRT , is:

pV = mRT
mRT = pV
pV
m=
RT
860 kPa ×1.5 m3
m=
0.287 kJ/kgK × ( 20 + 273)
1290
m=
0.287 kJ/kgK × ( 20 + 273)
1290
m=
0.287 kJ/kgK × ( 293)
1290
m=
0.287 kJ/kgK × 293
1290
m=
84.09
m = 15.34 kg

Final mass of air = 15.34 kg + 2.75 kg

= 18.09 kg

Page 233
 Final temperature of air,

pV = mRT
mRT = pV
pV
T=
mR
1325 kPa ×1.5 m3
T=
18.09 kg × 0.287 kJ/kgK
1987.5
T=
5.19
T = 382.95 K
T = 382.95 K − 273
T = 109.82° C ( Ans.)

2. 2 m3 volumes of hydrogen at atmospheric pressure in a closed vessel needs to be

heated from 0°C to 21°C. If the specific heat is 10 070 J/kg°C, how much heat
will be required? (R for hydrogen = 4.124 kJ/kgK)

The mass of air is found using the equation PV = mRT :

PV = mRT
mRT = PV
PV
m=
RT
101.325 kPa × 2 m3
m=
4.124 kJ/kgK × (273 + 0)
202.65
m=
4.124 kJ/kgK × 273
202.65
m=
1125.85
= 0.18 kg

The amount of heat needed is obtained using equation Q = mCv (T2 − T1 ) :

Q = mCv (T2 − T1 )
= 0.18 kg × 10 070 J/kg°C × (21°C − 0°C)
= 0.18 kg × 10 070 J/kg°C × 21°C
= 38064.6 J
= 38.06 kJ (Ans.)

Page 234
3. A tank with a volume of 5 m3 is half full of water. The top half of the tank
contains 2.75 kg. of air at atmospheric pressure. If the partial pressure of water
is 7.3814 kPa, what is the temperature of the air in the tank? (R for air = 0.287
kJ/kgK)

The volume of gas above the water is a mixture of air and water vapour. Because the
partial pressure of the water vapour is 7.3814 kPa, the partial pressure of the air is:

Pair = Ptotal − Pwater

= 101.325 kPa − 7.3814 kPa
= 93.94 kPa

Since the partial pressure always refers to the total volume, the volume is 2.5 m3

The temperature of the air is calculated using the equation PV = mRT :

PV = mRT
mRT = PV
PV
T=
mR
93.94 kPa × 2.5 m3
T=
0.287 kJ/kgK × 2.75 kg
234.85
T=
0.7893
T = 297.54 K
T = 297.54 K − 273
T = 24.54°C (Ans.)

4. The values of the specific heats of a gas at constant pressure and at constant
volume are 0.9839 and 0.7285, respectively. Find the value of γ for this gas. If
1.8 kg of this gas is heated from 16°C to 155°C, find the heat absorbed if the
heating takes place at
a) Constant pressure
b) Constant volume.

Cp
γ for any gas is the ratio of specific heats
Cv
0.9839
γ=
0.7285
γ = 1.35 (Ans.)

Page 235
 (1) Heat absorbed at Constant Pressure:

= m C p (T2 - T1 ) kJ
= 1.8kg × 0.9839 (155°C-16°C)
= 1.8kg × 0.9839 ×139°C
= 246.17 kJ (Ans.)

(2) Heat absorbed at Constant Volume:

= m Cv (T2 - T1 ) kJ
= 1.8kg × 0.7285 × (155°C -16°C )
= 1.8kg × 0.7285 × 139°C
= 182.27 kJ (Ans.)

5. With respect to compression and expansion processes, define the following:

(a) Isothermal process
(b) Adiabatic process
(c) Polytropic process

a) An isothermal process is one that occurs at constant temperature.

b) An adiabatic process is one where no heat is added or subtracted from the

working fluid.

c) A polytropic process is one where some heat is added or subtracted from the
working fluid.

6. 100 m3 of a perfect gas at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 21°C is

compressed to 25 m3. What work is required if the gas is compressed:
a) Isothermally
b) Adiabatically (Assume γ = 1.32 )
c) Polytropically (Assume n = 1.18 n = 1.18)

a) Since the two volumes are known, the work at constant temperature is
V2
calculated using equation W = PV
1 1 ln :
V1

Page 236
 V2
W = PV
1 1 ln
V1
100 m3
W = 101.325 kPa × 100 m3 × ln
25 m3
W = 101.325 kPa × 100 m3 × ln 4 m3
W = 10132.5 × 1.3863
Isothermal compression = 14 046.63 kNm or kJ ( Ans.)

γ γ
1 1 = PV
b) Pressure P2 can be calculated from the equation PV 2 2 :

γ γ
1 1 = PV
PV 2 2
γ
PV
P2 = γ
1 1

V2
101.325 kPa ×100 m3 1.32
=
25 m3 1.32
101.325 kPa × 436.52 m3
=
70.03 m3
44230.39
=
70.03
= 631.6 kPa (abs.)

The work is calculated from the equation

1 1 − PV
PV
W= 2 2
γ −1
(101.325 kPa × 100 m3 ) − (631.6 kPa × 25 m3 )
W=
1.32 − 1
(10132.5) − (15790)
W=
0.32
−5657.50
W=
0.32
Adiabatic compression = 17, 680 kJ ( Ans.)

Page 237
 1 1 = PV
n n
c) Pressure P2 is calculated using the equation PV 2 2 :

1 1 = PV
n n
PV 2 2

2 2 = PV
n n
PV 1 1
n
PV
P2 = 1 1
V2 n
101.325 kPa × 100 m3 1.18
P2 =
25 m3 1.18
101.325 kPa × 229.09
P2 =
44.62
23212.54
P2 =
44.62
P2 = 520.23 kPa (abs)

1 1 − PV
PV
The work is calculated from the equation W = 2 2
:
n −1

1 1 − PV
PV
W= 2 2
n −1
(101.325 kPa ×100 m3 ) − (520.23 kPa × 25 m3 )
W=
1.18 − 1
10132.5 − 13005.75
W=
0.18
−2873.25
W=
0.18
Polytropic compression = 15962.5 kJ ( Ans.)

Page 238
 Chapter 2 Solutions
Thermodynamics of Steam

1. Define the following:

a) Sensible heat
b) Latent heat
c) Superheat

a) Sensible heat is the heat added to water before the boiling point.

b) Latent heat is the heat added between the boiling point and the point where all
water has been converted to steam. The temperature is constant during this
phase.

c) Superheat is the heat added to steam with no more moisture content. Superheat
results in an increase in both pressure and temperature.

2. What is the enthalpy of 1 kg of steam at 2000 kPa:

(a) when dry and saturated
(b) when 0.96 dry
(c) when superheated by 85°C

(a) Enthalpy of dry and saturated steam at 2000 kPa = 2799.5 kJ/kg.

(b) Specific enthalpy of 96% dry steam:

h = h f + xh fg
h = 908.79 + 0.96 × 1890.7
h = 908.79 + 1815.07
h = 2723.86 kJ/kg ( Ans.)

(c) Saturation temperature of steam:

2000 kPa = 212.42°C

Superheated steam temperature = Saturation temperature + Degrees of superheat

Superheated steam temperature = 212.42°C + 85°C
Superheated steam temperature = 297.42°C

Page 239
 Specific enthalpy of superheated steam at 297.42°C :

47.42
h at 297.42°C = h at 250°C + (h at 300°C - h at 250°C)
50
47.42
h at 297.42°C = 2902.5 + (3023.5 - 2902.5)
50
47.42
h at 297.42°C = 2902.5 + (121)
50
h at 297.42°C = 2902.5 + 0.9484(121)
h at 297.42°C = 2902.5 + 114.76
h at 297.42°C = 3017.26 kJ/kg (Ans.)

3. Describe the principle of a throttling calorimeter and explain why a

separating calorimeter sometimes has to be added.

The principle of the throttling calorimeter is that when steam pressure is

reduced through an orifice or constriction, the enthalpy remains the same since
there is no opportunity for the heat to be removed. If the steam has a moderate
amount of moisture in it, the wet steam is converted, or flashed, to superheated
steam at a lower pressure. The process is isenthalpic, which means that there is
no change in enthalpy.

If the moisture content in the steam is too high, a separating calorimeter must be
used to knock out most of the moisture before the remaining steam is passed to
a throttling calorimeter.

4. A combination separating and throttling calorimeter is connected to a main

steam header. The following data is collected:
a) Steam pressure – 2410 kPa
b) Amount of water collected in the separating calorimeter – 0.87 kg
c) Amount of condensate after the throttling separator – 12.5 k
d) Pressure of the steam in throttling calorimeter – 185 kPa
e) Temperature of steam in throttling calorimeter - 135ºC

Taking the specific heat of the throttled superheated steam as 2.25 kJ/kgK,
calculate the main steam line dryness fraction.

Page 240
 h f = 952.89 kJ/kg
Steam conditions for 2410 kPa
h fg = 1849.71 kJ/kg

hf for a pressure of 2410 kPa:

160
h f at 2410 kPa = h f at 2250 kPa + ( h f at 2500 kPa - h f at 2250 kPa)
250
160
= 936.49 kJ/kg + ( 962.11- 936.49 ) kJ/kg
250
160
= 936.49 kJ/kg + ( 25.62 ) kJ/kg
250
= 936.49 kJ/kg + 0.64 ( 25.62 ) kJ/kg
= 936.49 kJ/kg + 16.40 kJ/kg
= 952.89 kJ/kg

hfg for a pressure of 2410 kPa:

160
h fg at 2410 kPa = h fg at 2250 kPa + (h fg at 2500 kPa − h fg at 2250 kPa)
250
160
= 1865.2 kJ/kg + (1841.0 − 1865.2 ) kJ/kg
250
160
= 1865.2 kJ/kg + ( −24.2 ) kJ/kg
250
= 1865.2 kJ/kg + 0.64 ( −24.2 ) kJ/kg
= 1865.2 kJ/kg − 15.49 kJ/kg
= 1849.71 kJ/kg

Steam conditions for 185 kPa

steam temp. = 117.73°C

hg = 2703.04 kJ/kg

Page 241
 Steam temp. (ts) for a pressure of 185 kPa:
10
ts at 185 kPa = ts at 175 kPa + (ts at 200 kPa − ts at 175 p kPa)
25
10
= 116.06°C + (120.23 − 116.06 ) °C
25
10
= 116.06°C + ( 4.17 ) °C
25
= 116.06°C + 0.4 ( 4.17 ) °C
= 116.06°C + 1.67°C
= 117.73°C

hg for a pressure of 185 kPa:

10
hg at 185 kPa = hg at 175 kPa + ( hg at 200 kPa − hg at 175 kPa)
25
10
= 2700.6 kJ/kg + ( 2706.7 − 2700.6 ) kJ/kg
25
10
= 2700.6 kJ/kg + ( 6.1) kJ/kg
25
= 2700.6 kJ/kg + 0.4 ( 6.1) kJ/kg
= 2700.6 kJ/kg + 2.44 kJ/kg
= 2703.04 kJ/kg

Dryness fraction by the separator:

m2
x1 =
m2 + m1
12.5 kg
x1 =
12.5 kg + 0.87
12.5 kg
x1 =
13.37 kg
x1 = 0.9349

Page 242
Dryness fraction by the throttling calorimeter:

Enthalpy before throttling = Enthalpy after

952.89 kJ/kg + x2 × 1849.71 kJ/kg = 2703.04 kJ/kg + 2.25 kJ/kgK (135°C − 117.73°C )
952.89 kJ/kg + x2 × 1849.71 kJ/kg = 2703.04 kJ/kg + 2.25 kJ/kgK (17.27°C )
952.89 kJ/kg + x2 × 1849.71 kJ/kg = 2703.04 kJ/kg + 38.86°C
2703.04 kJ/kg + 38.86°C − 952.89 kJ/kg
x2 =
1849.71 kJ/kg
1789.01 kJ/kg
x2 =
1849.71 kJ/kg
x2 = 0.9672

Dryness fraction of the main steam header:

x = x1 × x2
x = 0.9349 × 0.9672
x = 0.9042 ( Ans.)

5. One kilogram of steam at a pressure of 100 kPa and 40 percent dry, receives
heat under constant volume raising the pressure to 250 kPa absolute.
Calculate the following:
(a) Volume of the steam
(b) Quality of the steam at the end of the process
(c) Work done
(d) Change in internal energy

100 kPa vg1 = 1.694 m3/kg hf1 = 417.46 kJ hfg2 = 2258 kJ

250 kPa vg2 = 0.7187 m3/kg hf2 = 535.37 kJ hfg2 = 2181.5 kJ

(a) Since the steam is 40 percent dry, its volume at the beginning of the process will
be:
0.40 × 1.694 = 0.6776 m 3 (Ans.)

(b) Quality of x2 of the steam at the end of the process:

0.6776 m3 /kg
x2 =
0.7187 m3 /kg
x2 = 0.9428 ( Ans.)

Page 243
 (c) Since the steam is at a constant volume, the work done during the process:
WD = 0 ( Ans.)

d) Heat required:
Q = u2 − u1 + WD
Q = u2 − u1 + 0
Q = u2 − u1

Find the values of u1 and u2:

h = u + pv
u = h − pv

Internal energy at the end of the process:

u2 = h2 − p2 v2
But h2 = h f 2 + x2 h fg 2
h2 = 535.37 + 0.9428 × 2181.5
h2 = 535.37 + 2056.72
h2 = 2592.09 kJ/kgK
p2 v2 = 250 × 0.6776
p2 v2 = 169.40 kJ/kgK
u2 = h2 − p2 v2
u2 = 2592.09 kJ/kgK − 169.40 kJ/kgK
u2 = 2422.69 kJ/kgK

Internal energy at the beginning of the process:

u1 = h1 − p1v1
But h1 = h f 1 + x1h fg1
h1 = 417.46 + 0.4 × 2258
h1 = 417.46 + 903.20
h1 = 1320.66 kJ/kgK
p1v1 = 100 × 0.6776
p1v1 = 67.76 kJ/kgK
u1 = h1 − p1v1
u1 = 1320.66 kJ/kgK − 67.76 kJ/kgK
u1 = 1252.90 kJ/kgK

Page 244
 Change in internal energy:
Q = u2 − u1
Q = 2422.69 kJ/kgK − 1252.90 kJ/kgK
Q = 1169.79 kJ/kgK ( Ans.)

6. 0.6 m3 of nitrogen is contained in a cylinder at 105 kPa and 22°C. The gas is
then compressed isothermally until the pressure is 3600 kPa. Calculate the
change in entropy. (R for nitrogen = 297 Nm/kgK)

pV = mRT
mRT = pV
pV
mRT =
RT
pV
m=
RT
105 × 102 × 0.6 m3
m=
297 Nm/kgK × ( 22°C + 273)
6300
m=
297 Nm/kgK × ( 295 )
6300
m=
87615
m = 0.0719 kg

⎛P⎞
s2 − s1 = mR ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ P2 ⎠
0.0719 kg × 297 Nm/kgK ⎡ ⎛ 105 kPa ⎞ ⎤
s2 − s1 = ⎢ln ⎜ 3600 kPa ⎟ ⎥
103 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
0.0719 kg × 297 Nm/kgK ⎡ ⎛ 3600 kPa ⎞ ⎤
s2 − s1 = − ⎢ ln ⎜ 105 kPa ⎟ ⎥
103 ⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎦
0.0719 kg × 297 Nm/kgK
s2 − s1 = − ⎡⎣ ln ( 34.2857 kPa ) ⎤⎦
103
s2 − s1 = −0.0214 × 3.5347
s2 − s1 = −0.0756
Decrease in entropy s1 − s2 = 0.0756kJ/K ( Ans.)

Page 245
 7. Steam with a dryness of 0.97 is throttled from a pressure of 800 kPa. Using
the Mollier Chart, what does the final pressure need to be for the steam to
be dry and saturated? What are the enthalpies and entropies for these two
points?

The starting point is found at the intersection of the pressure of 800 kPa and
dryness of 0.97. From the Mollier Chart, the enthalpy is estimated as 2705 kJ/kg
and the entropy as 6.51 kJ/kgK. We then follow a horizontal line until we come
to the saturation line. The pressure is approximately 200 kPa with the same
enthalpy and an entropy of 7.12 kJ/kgK

8. A boiler is fed with water at a temperature of 40°C and produces 2360 kg of

steam per hour at a pressure of 1750 kPa and a temperature of 250°C. Heat
losses are 40% of the heat supplied and the heating value of the fuel is 31
400 kJ/kg. What is the fuel flow required?

Saturation temperature of 1750 kPa steam = 205.76ºC, therefore, the steam is

superheated.

h of superheated stem with a pressure of 1750 kPa and 250 ºC:

750
h at 1750 kPa = h at 2000 kPa + (h at 2000 kPa − h at 1000 kPa)
1000
= 2902.5 kJ/kg + 0.75 ( 2902.5 − 2942.6 ) kJ/kg
= 2902.5 kJ/kg + 0.75 ( −40.10 ) kJ/kg
= 2902.5 kJ/kg + ( −30.075 ) kJ/kg
= 2902.5 kJ/kg − 30.075 kJ/kg
= 2872.43 kJ/kg

Enthalpy of the feed water at 40ºC = 167.57 kJ/kg

With heat losses of 40%, the boiler efficiency is 60%.

Page 246
Fuel flow required:
ms (h1 − hw )
Eb =
m f HV f
Eb m f HV f = ms (h1 − hw )
ms (h1 − hw )
mf =
Eb HV f
2360 kg/hr(2872.43 kJ/kg − 167.57 kJ/kg)
mf =
0.6 × 31 400 kJ/kg
2360 kg/hr × 2704.86 kJ/kg
mf =
0.6 × 31 400 kJ/kg
6 383 469.6 kg/hr
mf =
19 840.00 kJ/kg
Fuel flow required = 321.75 kg/hr ( Ans.)

Page 247
Page 248
 Chapter 3 Solutions
Practical Thermodynamic Cycles

1. List the three components in every heat engine.

Every heat engine has three components:
1. A high temperature heat source usually obtained by combustion of a fuel
2. A cyclic process that acts on a working fluid
3. A low temperature heat sink to which heat is rejected

2. With the aid of a simple sketch, describe the operation of an engine based on
the Carnot cycle.
In considering this ideal engine, as shown in Fig. 3, imagine a cylinder and piston
which are perfect non-conductors and frictionless. Let the cylinder cover be a perfect
conductor in which the heat is added or removed through the cylinder cover.

At point a the hot body, A at temperature T1 having infinite capacity for supplying
heat, is placed in contact with the cover of the cylinder which contains 1 kilogram of
a perfect gas at temperature T1 , volume Va and pressure Pa . The piston is allowed
to move slowly so that isothermal expansion takes place at temperature T1 . The gas
does work during the expansion from PaVa to PV b b and must take in an amount of

heat equivalent to the work done.

Remove the hot body A and replace with a perfect nonconducting cover B and then
allow the piston to go on moving right. Since no heat can be taken in or rejected
under these conditions, the gas expands adiabatically doing work at the expense of
its internal energy and its temperature falls.

Let this adiabatic expansion go on until the temperature is T2 and let the pressure be
PC and the volume Vc .

Remove the nonconducting cover B and apply C , a body which is capable of taking
up any amount of heat, and let this body remain at some constant temperature T2
which is lower than T1 Now force the piston back slowly and the gas will be
compressed isothermally at T2 . Work is done on the gas and the heat equivalent of
this work is rejected to C . Let this isothermal compression be continued until a
certain point is reached such that if the fourth operation is carried out adiabatically
from this point, the cycle will be completed and the diagram closed.

Now remove the body C and again apply the nonconducting cover B . Continue the
compression which will now be adiabatic. The pressure and temperature will rise
and if the point d has been properly chosen, when the pressure comes back to its

Page 249
 original value Pa , the volume will be the original Va , and the temperature will have
risen to its original value T1 . In other words, the third operation must be stopped at a
point so that an adiabatic line drawn through this point will reach the original point.

3. With the aid of a PV diagram, describe the various stages of a steam turbine
operating on the Rankine cycle.
Stage 1 to 2 - The boiler receives the working substance as a compressed liquid at
point 1 at the pressure P1 . Heat is added in the boiler and the liquid
temperature rises until saturation point is reached. As further heat is
added the liquid evaporates, at constant pressure and temperature,
until it leaves the boiler as a dry saturated vapour at point b .

Stage 2 to 3 - This stage is an adiabatic expansion, taking place in the prime mover
in a similar manner to the corresponding Carnot stage.

Page 250
Stage 3 to 4 - This is the heat rejection process, carried out at constant pressure
until the working substance leaves the condenser as a liquid at
pressure P2 at point d .
Stage 4 to 1 - This stage is an adiabatic compression to return the fluid to the
original condition at point a . This can be more easily achieved in a
practical plant than the comparable Carnot stage. The compression
takes place in a feedwater pump with very little heat addition; the
majority of the heat supplied from the feed heaters will be at a point
following the feedwater pump, that is, after the fluid has reached its
P1 pressure again.

Page 251
 4. An electricity generating station operates with boiler stop valve steam
conditions of 3000 kPa and 370°C and maintains a condenser back pressure
of 5 kPa. Steam exhausts from the turbine with 15% wetness and the boiler
feed water returns at 140°C. Calculate the following:
a) Carnot efficiency
b) Rankine efficiency.

a) Carnot efficiency:

T2
η = 1−
T1
140 + 273
η = 1−
370 + 273
413
η = 1−
643
η = 1 − 0.6423
η = 0.3577
η = 35.77% ( Ans.)

b) Rankine efficiency.

Enthalpy of superheated steam at 3000 kPa and 370ºC:

70
= Enthalpy at 300°C + ( Enthalpy at 400°C − Enthalpy at 300°C )
100
70
= 2993.5 kJ/kgK + ( 3230.9 kJ/kgK − 2993.5 kJ/kgK )
100
70
= 2993.5 kJ/kgK + ( 237.40 kJ/kgK )
100
= 2993.5 kJ/kgK + 166.18 kJ/kgK
= 3159.68 kJ/kgK

Conditions for 5 kPa dry saturated steam:

h f = 137.82 kJ/kgK h fg = 2423.7 kJ/kgK

Page 252
Enthalpy of the 5 kPa wet saturated steam:
= h f + xh fg
= 137.82 kJ/kgK + 0.85 ( 2423.7 kJ/kgK )
= 137.82 kJ/kgK + 2060.15 kJ/kgK
= 2197.97 kJ/kgK

Enthalpy of the 5 kPa condensed steam:

137.82 kJ/kg .

Rankine efficiency is:

h −h
η= 2 3
h2 − h f
3159.68 − 2197.97
η=
3159.68 − 137.82
961.71
η=
3021.88
η = 31.82% (Ans.)

5. Describe the main differences between the Otto and Diesel cycles. What
practical limits are there with respect to their efficiencies?

The Otto cycle operates with both heat supplied and heat rejected occurring at
constant volume. The important aspect of the Diesel cycle is that the addition of
heat is done at constant pressure.

Internal combustion engines operating on the Otto cycle typically run with a
compression ratio with a maximum of about 10:1o prevent pre-ignition of the air
and fuel mixture. Since compression for a diesel engine is on air only, there is
not the same restriction on compression ratio as the Otto engine. Although the
Otto cycle is more efficient for the same compression ratio, it is the fact that the
Diesel engine can operate at substantially higher compression ratios that makes it
more efficient. Mechanical considerations do limit diesels to a maximum
compression ratio of approximately 25:1.

Page 253
 6. Calculate the air standard efficiency of a Diesel engine with a compression
ratio of 15:1. The temperature at the start of compression is 20°C and, after
combustion, it has reached 1200°C. Use a specific heat of 1.4.

Temperature after compression:

T2 = T1rvγ −1
T2 = (20°C + 273) ×151.4−1
T2 = 293 K ×150.4
T2 = 293 K × 2.9542
T2 = 865.6 K

Calculation of cut-off ratio:

T3
R=
T2
1200°C + 273
R=
865.6 K
1473 K
R=
865.6 K
R = 1.7017

Therefore, the air standard efficiency is:

( Rγ − 1)
η = 1−
γ rvγ −1 ( R − 1)
(1.70171.4 − 1)
η = 1−
1.4 × 151.4−1 (1.7017 − 1)
(2.1049 − 1)
η = 1−
1.4 × 150.4 (0.7017)
1.1049
η = 1−
1.4 × 2.9542(0.7017)
1.1049
η = 1−
1.4 × 2.0729
1.1049
η = 1−
2.9021
η = 1 − 0.3807
η = 0.6193
η = 61.93% (Ans.)

Page 254
7. Air enters the inlet of a gas turbine operating on the ideal constant pressure
cycle at a temperature of 22°C and 103.25 kPa. The pressure of the air at
the discharge of the compressor is 600 kPa. If the temperature of the air at
the turbine inlet is 745°C, calculate the following:
a) Temperature at the end of compression
b) Temperature at the turbine exit
c) Ideal thermal efficiency

Use a specific heat of 1.4.

Conditions:
p1 = 103.25 kPa T1 = 22°C + 273
T1 = 295 K
p2 = 600 kPa T2 = ?
T3 = 745°C + 273
T3 = 1018 K
T4 = ?

Pressure ratio:
P2
rp =
P1
600 kPa
rp =
103.25 kPa
rp = 5.8111

γ − 1 1.4 − 1
=
γ 1.4
0.4
=
1.4
= 0.2857
⎛ γ -1 ⎞
⎜ ⎟
γ ⎠
rp ⎝ = 5.81110.2857
rp = 1.6533

Page 255
 a) Temperature at the end of compression:
γ −1
T2 ⎛ P2 ⎞ γ
=⎜ ⎟
T1 ⎝ P1 ⎠
γ −1
⎛P ⎞ γ
T2 = T1 × ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ P1 ⎠
T2 = 295 ×1.6533
T2 = 487.72 K
T2 = 487.72 K − 273
T2 = 214.72°C ( Ans.)

b) Temperature at the turbine exit:

γ −1
T3 ⎛ p3 ⎞ γ
=⎜ ⎟
T4 ⎝ p4 ⎠
0.2857
T3 ⎛ 600 ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
T4 ⎝ 103.25 ⎠
T3
= 5.81110.2857
T4
1018 K
= 1.6533
T4
1.6533T4 = 1018 K
1018 K
T4 =
1.6533
T4 = 615.74 K
T4 = 615.74 K − 273
T4 = 342.74°C ( Ans.)

Page 256
 c) Ideal thermal efficiency:
1
η = 1- γ -1
γ
rp
1
η = 1-
1.6533
η = 1- 0.6049
η = 0.3951
η = 39.51% ( Ans.)

8. A small boiler generates 7.5 kg of steam per kg of oil fuel burned, the
heating value of the oil being 30 500 kJ/kg. The feed water is supplied at
55°C and the boiler pressure is 2250 kPa.

A sample of the steam is passed through a separating calorimeter into a

throttling calorimeter, after which it is condensed and weighed. The mass of
water drained from the separating calorimeter is 0.65 kg, the temperature
and pressure in the throttling calorimeter are 150°C and 125 kPa
respectively, and the mass of condensate is 10.5 kg. Calculate the following:
a) Dryness fraction of the steam entering the throttling calorimeter
b) Dryness fraction of the steam exit the boiler
c) Boiler thermal efficiency

a) Enthalpy of steam at 125 kPa, 150°C:

b)
25
= Enthalpy of 100 kPa,150°C + ( Enthalpy of 200kPa,150°C − Enthalpy of 100kPa,150°C )
100
25
= 2776.4 kJ/kgK + ( 2768.8 kJ/kgK − 2776.4 kJ/kgK )
100
25
= 2776.4 kJ/kg K + ( −7.60 kJ/kgK )
100
= 2776.4 kJ/kgK − 3.04 kJ/kgK
= 2773.36 kJ/kgK

Page 257
 Enthalpy of dry steam at 2250 kPa:
h f = 936.49 kJ/kgK h fg = 1865.2 kJ/kgK
Let q2 be the dryness fraction of the steam entering the throttling calorimeter:
Enthalpy of steam in throttling calorimeter = h f + q2 hfg
2773.36 kJ/kgK = 936.49 kJ/kgK + q2 (1865.2 kJ/kgK )
936.49 kJ/kgK + q2 (1865.2 kJ/kgK ) = 2773.36 kJ/kgK
1865.2 kJ/kgK q2 = 2773.36 kJ/kgK − 936.49 kJ/kgK
2773.36 kJ/kgK − 936.49 kJ/kgK
q2 =
1865.2 kJ/kgK
2773.36 kJ/kgK − 936.49 kJ/kgK
q2 =
1865.2 kJ/kgK
1836.87 kJ/kgK
q2 =
1865.2 kJ/kgK
q2 = 0.9848
q2 = 98.48% ( Ans.)

c)
Let q1 be the dryness fraction of the steam exiting the boiler and entering the
separating calorimeter:

Heat entering at 2250 kPa = Heat leaving at 2250 kPa

10.5 + 0.65( h f + ql h fg ) = 0.65h f + 10.5(h f + q2 h fg )
11.15( h f + ql h fg ) = 0.65h f + 10.5(h f + q2 h fg )
11.15h f + 11.15ql h fg = 0.65h f + 10.5h f + 10.5q2 h fg
11.15ql = 10.5q2
10.5 × 0.9848
q1 =
11.15
10.34
q1 =
11.15
q1 = 0.9274
ql = 92.74% (Ans.)

Page 258
d)
Enthalpy of steam exiting the boiler:
h = h f + q1h fg
h = 936.49 kJ/kgK + ( 0.9274 × 1865.2 kJ/kgK )
h = 936.49 kJ/kgK + 1729.79 kJ/kgK
h = 2666.28 kJ/kgK

Enthalpy of feedwater entering the boiler at 55ºC:

5
h f = Enthalpy at 50°C + ( Enthalpy at 60°C − Enthalpy at 50°C )
10
5
h f = 209.33 kJ/kgK + ( 251.13 kJ/kgK − 209.33 kJ/kgK )
10
5
h f = 209.33 kJ/kgK + ( 41.80 kJ/kgK )
10
h f = 209.33 kJ/kgK + 20.9 kJ/kgK
h f = 230.23 kJ/kgK

Heat added to feedwater

Boiler thermal efficiency =
Heat in fuel
ms ( h1 - hw )
=
30 500 kJ/kg
7.5 ( 2666.28 kJ/kgK - 230.23 kJ/kgK )
=
30 500 kJ/kg
7.5 ( 2436.05 kJ/kgK )
=
30 500 kJ/kg
18 270.38 kJ/kg
=
30 500 kJ/kg
= 0.5990
= 59.90% ( Ans.)

Page 259
Page 260
 Chapter 4 Solutions
Metallurgy

1. a) Explain the differences between face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic

and close-packed hexagonal unit cell structures in metals and give examples
of each.

Face-centered cubic structure metals are made up of 15 atoms. This

configuration gives the metals that solidify in this pattern the properties of high
ductility, low shear, and low tensile strength but good heat and electrical
conductivity. Examples of metals that are FCC in the solid state are gold,
aluminum, silver, lead, nickel, and gamma iron (iron between the temperatures
of 910°C and 1390°C).

Nine atoms are contained in the body-centered cubic structure. Metals that have
this configuration in the solid state exhibit high strength, low ductility, and are
very resistant to shear deformities. Metals included in this group are chromium,
tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, alpha iron (iron in the solid state below a
temperature of 910°C), and delta iron (iron above 1390°C).

Seventeen atoms make up the close-packed hexagonal unit cell structure. This
configuration gives the metals that comprise this group intermediate strength and
ductility. Metals that fit in this group include zinc, magnesium, cadmium, and
titanium.

b) What is the allotropy of iron and why is this process important to

understand?

The change in atomic cell structure, dependent on temperature, is known as the

allotropy of iron. The metal can exist in different physical forms that affect its
melting point, hardness, metal solubility, and alloying chemistry. This is very
important in determining the way iron reacts with carbon to form steel and cast
iron.

c) A metal is prone to cracking under stress if its grain boundaries are

contaminated with impurities. Explain how this can occur and give an
example.

When molten metal cools and solidifies, unit cells become packed together to
form three-dimensional crystals that occupy a space lattice. Further growth of
these crystals forms dendrites, which look like the branches of an evergreen tree
that extend throughout the molten matrix until they contact neighbouring
dendrites. These contact surfaces become the crystal or grain boundaries.

Page 261
 Any impurities that are not soluble in this solid solution are pushed ahead of the
growing crystals and become trapped at the grain boundaries and between the
limbs of the dendrites.

Grain size determines important properties of metals. As a rule, smaller grain

size increases tensile strength and ductility while larger grain size tends to resist
creep and deformation under constant loading but may be more prone to
cracking.

d) At the atomic level, what generally determines the shear strength of a

metal?

At the atomic level, the shear strength of metals is determined primarily by the
type of unit cell structure exhibited.

2. a) Define austenite and cementite structure in steel.

Austenite is the structural name of iron in a unit cell of face-centered cubic

(FCC) form, called gamma iron that can contain dissolved carbon atoms. All
quenching heat treatment procedures must begin from this phase.

Cementite is the common name for iron–carbon in the form of molecular iron
carbide (Fe3C).

b) What occurs at the lower critical change line with a dropping temperature
in an alloy of 3% carbon in iron that is significant in forming cast iron?

Lower critical change line is the temperature at which an iron alloy of any
carbon composition returns to a body-centered cubic unit cell structure. The
diagram indicates this temperature at 723°C.

c) Why is cast iron brittle?

Carbon steels refer to alloys containing 2% or less carbon, while cast iron
contains from 2% to 6% carbon. Since cast iron contains a greater percentage of
carbon, its brittleness increases.

Page 262
3. a) Which heat treatment process produces the maximum toughness in mild
steels? Describe this process.

Tempering is the heat treatment process that produces the maximum toughness
in mild steels. Quenched steel is heated to a specific temperature below its lower
transformation ranges, which forces the saturated carbon in the martensite to
form back into a stable iron carbide (cementite) and ferrite mixture, and then
cooling the sample to room temperature at a rate that prevents martensite
reformation. The primary purpose of tempering is to improve the mechanical
properties of the steel. The goals are to increase ductility and toughness with
slightly reduced hardness.

b) How are steels hardened? Why are some steels only case hardened? Give
five uses for case hardened steel.

Hardening processes involve heating mild steel to a temperature above its

transformation range (austenizing), and then cooling it quickly to increase
hardness by the formation of martensite. Martensite is a structure of fine carbide
needle-like grains that are extremely hard and are formed during the
transformation from austenite. If the temperature is dropped quickly, the carbon
in the austenite does not have time to precipitate as pearlite but instead forms
distorted needle-like grains of carbide in the ferrite matrix. The cooling rate
varies with the material and is called the critical cooling rate. Cooling is typically
done in water, brine, oil, or air and is promoted by the agitation of the liquid or
the sample.

Case hardening is a type of heat treatment process that produces martensite in the
outer layer only, leaving the interior to retain a tough ferrite-pearlite
composition.

Metals parts surface hardened by these methods include: bearings, machine

tools, crankshafts, cams, valves, gears, rollers, and hand tools.

c) Tempering and quenching steel is a process used to control the diffusion and
precipitation of which element in the matrix?

Tempering and quenching forces the saturated carbon in the martensite to form
back into a stable iron carbide (cementite)

Page 263
 4. a) What information does a material test report give you?

Material test reports are a good resource for monitoring material specifications.
Also referred to as certificates of testing, these reports are made available by the
vendor to the purchaser upon request. MTRs originate in the smelter where the
metal was made and they give a comprehensive chemical and physical analysis
of the metal used to manufacture the pipe or fitting. Molten metal is sampled
from every ladle after the smelting stage. Each batch of metal (or alloy) is given
a heat number which identifies the batch and all the products made from that
batch and follows them throughout their lifetime. An MTR identifies the pipe or
fitting and specifies the heat number of the metal it was made from. It documents
the chemical composition, the ASME spec number, grade, schedule, tensile
strength, and yield point of that metal. The results of any specialized testing,
such as a Charpy test for brittleness, and any heat treatment processes that part
underwent are also recorded.

b) What regulatory body governs the metal specification of steam piping used
in a power plant?

In North America, specifications for metals used to construct pressure vessels

and process piping systems lie in the regulatory domain of the American Society
of Mechanical Engineers (ASME).

5. a) What term generally refers to the wall thickness in a steel pipe? The
pressure rating of a steel flange?

Piping schedule is usually referenced by "diameter–schedule" that indicates pipe

size and minimum pipe wall thickness.

Flanges are always referred to by the pressure rating class of ANSI schedule 150,
300, 400, 600, 900, 1500, or 2500.

b) Piping, fittings, and flanges have to be permanently stencilled with what

minimum information?

Piping, fittings, and flanges have to be permanently stencilled with the wall
thickness, size and schedule designation.

Page 264
6. a) List two main sources of copper supply.

Copper can be found free in the mineral ores chalcopyrite, cuprite, malachite,
and bornite.

b) Describe why copper is an important metal.

It is tough, malleable, and ductile and can be forged into sheets and bars and
drawn into wire. Other properties that make copper a desirable engineering
material are its excellent electrical and heat conductivity and its high resistance
to general corrosion. Industry uses this metal in its pure form as conductors in
electrical switchgear and related equipment and as electric wire.

c) List five uses of pure copper in industry.

Copper and its alloys are used in the manufacture of:

• Heat exchangers
• Tubing
• Piping
• Valves
• Feed stock for the production of brass and bronze alloys

d) How does the composition of brass differ from bronze? Describe the
different properties of these two alloys.

Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin but may also contain phosphorus, lead,
silicon, nickel, zinc, and aluminum. It is used to make many groups of cast and
wrought bronze alloys including phosphor bronzes, leaded-tin bronzes, nickel-tin
bronzes, aluminum, and silicon-bronzes each having distinctive properties.
Overall, these alloys have a high resistance to corrosion and show better
machinability and increased strength over the parent metals.

Brass is essentially an alloy of copper and zinc with small amounts of other
metals including tin, manganese, lead, nickel, iron, aluminum, and silicon.
Ductility maximizes with a 70/30 ratio of copper/zinc and this characteristic can
be used, for example, in cartridge brass where expansion sealing in the breech is
required. Naval brasses are alloys with small amounts of tin that result in a metal
that shows superior resistance to saltwater corrosion, and they are used
extensively in these applications. Iron-tin brasses have high strength and
hardness and are used in the manufacture of bearings, valves, fittings, and naval
propeller castings. Brasses have good machinability and can be welded.

Page 265
 e) What is white metal? Name the most important alloy of white metal and its
uses.

Lead-based alloys are commonly called white metal. White metal is the name
given to alloys made from lead and tin with small amounts of other elements,
specifically, antimony, bismuth, silver, and zinc. White metals are used chiefly
for bearing materials because of their low melting point, which allows easy
casting of bearing shells. This metal shows sufficient strength and ductility not to
crack and squeeze out under heavy loads. In addition, white metals are soft
enough to contour to a shaft, preventing high points on bearing surfaces, and
because of their good thermal conductivity, heat is readily dissipated away from
operating bearing surfaces.

Babbitt metal is the common name for a tin-based alloy (89% tin, 7.5% lead,
3.5% copper) that is widely used for high speed and light bearing load
applications. An example of a lead-based white metal used for bearing
applications at slower speeds and heavier shaft loads, is an alloy having a
composition of 75% lead, 15% antimony, and 10% tin. This alloy is tougher but
less ductile than the high-tin content Babbitt alloy.

7. a) Describe the process that produces our major supply of aluminum.

Through a caustic leaching operation called the Bayer process, alumina (Al2O3)
is produced from bauxite. Alumina is then fed to an electrolytic cell in the
presence of the mineral cryolite (Na3AlF6). An electric current fuses these
minerals together forming molten aluminum which settles and is tapped off the
bottom of the bed. This final refining step is known as the Hall-Heroult process.

b) Name three main uses of aluminum and why its alloys are so important.

Aluminum is combined with other metals such as copper, silicon, manganese,

zinc, nickel, magnesium, chromium, and lithium to produce hundreds of
important alloys that show a remarkable range of strength, fatigue resistance,
toughness, and light weight. These properties make them ideal for use in aircraft
and spacecraft construction, automobile design, industrial plant equipment,
military hardware, and domestic implements.

Page 266
 Chapter 5 Solutions
Testing of Metals

1. Define the following:

(a) Hooke’s Law.
(b) Proof stress.
(c) Plastic strain.

(a) When a material is worked within its elastic limit, the strain is proportional to
the stress.
(b) This is the point at which the specimen has undergone a certain
(arbitrary) value of permanent strain, usually 0.2%. The stress at this
point is then known as the 0.2% proof stress.
(c) Plastic strain, or plastic flow, is the irreversible deformation of a material.

2. Explain why a tensile test specimen piece must have a constant diameter or cross
sectional area over the gauge length.
This has the effect of increasing the stress in the gauge length since stress is
inversely proportional to the cross sectional area under load, to ensure that the
specimen will break in the “gauge length” by reducing the cross sectional area or
diameter of the specimen throughout the gauge length.

3. How is the indentation of a material by a harder object translated into a

hardness measurement?
A material that is hard will resist indentation by a harder object more than a
softer material. By measuring the size of an indication formed by a constant load
the material is given a value on a hardness scale, against which other materials
may be measured.

4. Is hardness testing considered to be a qualitative or a quantitative test?

Quantitative.

5. (a) Explain the difference between micro- and macrohardness testing.

(b) Why is a macrohardness technique not the best method for testing
weld hardness?
(a) Micro-hardness testing uses loads up to 200 g.
(b) Macro-hardness testing uses loads greater than 200 g.

Page 267
 6. What is “Creep”?
Creep is deformation of a material dependent on stress, temperature and time.

7. Explain how a high pressure boiler superheater header operating at a steam

temperature of 500ºC is affected by creep.
There are three factors influencing creep fatigue in superheater high
temperature headers: combustion, steam flow and boiler load. Heat distribution
within the boiler is not uniform: burner inputs can vary, air distribution is not
uniform; and slagging and fouling can occur. The net effect of these combustion
parameters is variations in heat input to individual superheater and reheater tubes.
When combined with steam flow differences between tubes within a bank,
significant variations in steam temperature entering the header can occur. Changes in
boiler load further aggravate the temperature difference between the individual
tubes and the header. As boiler load increases, the firing rate must increase to
maintain pressure. During this transient, the boiler is temporarily over fired to
compensate for the increasing steam flow and decreasing pressure. During load
decreases, the firing rate decreases slightly faster than steam flow in the
superheater with a resulting decrease in tube outlet temperature relative to that of
the header. As a consequence of these temperature gradients, the header experiences
localized stresses much greater than those associated with steam pressure and can
result in cracks forming in the ligament.

In addition to the effects of temperature variations, the external stresses associated

with header expansion and piping loads must be evaluated. Header expansion can
cause damage on cycling units resulting in fatigue cracks at support attachments,
torque plates, and tube stub to header welds. Steam piping flexibility can cause
excessive loads to be transmitted to the header outlet nozzle. These stresses result
in externally initiated cracks at the outlet nozzle to header saddle weld.

8. Fatigue is the commonest cause of metal failure, explain the fatigue process.
Alternating stresses resulting from cyclic pressure vessel operation may lead to
fatigue cracks at high stress concentrations.

9. Discontinuities are always flaws or defects.

(a.) True False
False

Page 268
10. The term denoting rejectability is:
(a) Flaw
(b) Discontinuity
(c) Fault
(d) Defect

(d) Defect

11. What are three broad classes of weld discontinuities?

a) Dimensional,
b) Structural
c) Base metal properties

12. The type of structural discontinuity which is more likely to lead to a serious
defect is:
(a) Planar
(b) Spherical

(a) Planar

13. Fatigue failure is associated with:

(a) Lack of fill
(b) Notching
(c) Base metal properties
(d) Chemical properties of the weldment

(b) Notching

14. Defective properties in joints usually involve:

(a.) Misalignment
(b) Edge joints
(c) High restraint
(d) Lap joints
(e) Butt joints

(c) High restraint

Page 269
 15. What codes determine acceptance criteria for NDE techniques?
The Code of Construction

16. (a) What NDE techniques are used for surface examination?
(b) Which technique is the most commonly used?
(a) Dye Penetrant (PT) and Magnetic Particle (MT).
(b) Dye Penetrant as it can be applied to magnetic and also non-magnetic
materials.

17. In magnetic particle testing, explain how a small surface crack may be
detected?
(a) Observe guidelines as per Code of Construction.
(b) Preparation of the test part (for example: cleaning, degreasing,
descaling, rust removal).
(c) Visual examination of readily apparent cracks or other surface
conditions.
(d) Check inspection conditions (ambient light, UV light intensity).
(e) Measure the applied magnetic field, in turn adjusting for the
appropriate magnetic field intensity.
(f) Clamp the material to be inspected or applying hand yoke magnet.
(g) Switch on the magnetizing field.
(h) Spray the part with the test medium containing the magnetic particles.
(i) Switch off the magnetizing field.
(j) Visually evaluate the surface for defect indications.
(k) Repeat (f) to (j) at 90 degrees to original test orientation
(l) De-magnetize the part. (if required)
(m) Document the indications (position, size, number, orientation)
(n) Classify the inspected part (acceptable, reject, possible rework)
(o) Final cleaning.

18. In magnetic particle testing, what type of current is most effective in

detecting
(a) Surface defects?
(b) Subsurface defects?
(a) Alternating current.
(b) Direct current.

Page 270
19. During the inspection phase of a liquid penetrant test,
(a) What are the typical indications that are looked for?
(b) How are these indications documented?
(c) What categories are assigned following an inspection?
(a) Typical indications are:
ƒ Continuous line
ƒ Intermittent line
ƒ Rounded areas
ƒ Small dot
ƒ Diffuse
ƒ Brilliance
(b) With reference to position, size, number and location
(c) Acceptable, reject, or re-work required

20. Discuss the advantages and limitations of ultrasonic testing.

Advantages of ultrasonic inspection include:
• It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.
• The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to
other NDE methods.
• Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is
used.
• It is high accuracy in determining reflector position and estimating size
and shape.
• Minimal part preparation required.
• Electronic equipment provides instantaneous results.
• Detailed images can be produced with automated systems.
• It has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw
detection.

Limitations of ultrasonic testing are:

• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
• It normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound
energy into test specimen.
• Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very small, exceptionally thin
or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect.
• Cast iron and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to
low sound transmission and high signal noise.
• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and
characterization of flaws.

Page 271
 21. How are ultrasonic waves used to detect defects within a solid piece of steel?
A pulse of ultrasonic energy is transmitted into the steel. This pulse of ultrasonic
waves travels through the metal with some spreading and some attenuation and
will be reflected or scattered at any surface or internal discontinuity such as an
internal flaw in the specimen. This reflected or scattered energy can be detected
by a suitably-placed detector on the metal surface and will generate a pulse of
electrical energy in that detector. The time- interval between the transmitted and
reflected pulse is a measure of the distance of the discontinuity from the surface,
and the size of the return pulse can be a measure of the size of the flaw. This is
the simple principle of the ultrasonic flaw detector and the ultrasonic thickness
gauge.

22. How are longitudinal and shear waves produced for ultrasonic testing?
When a transducer is placed on the surface of a specimen and the pulse wave
travels directly into the specimen, a longitudinal or compression wave is
produced. It travels into the specimen at 90º to the surface and, if the far surface
is parallel, returns directly to the transducer, as shown in Fig. 1(a) below. This
system is used for measuring the thickness of materials and is capable of
locating discontinuities directly under the transducer.

If the transducer is placed on a wedge-shaped plastic shoe, the pulse wave strikes
the surface of the specimen at an angle. Just as light is refracted into the
colours of the rainbow when it passes through a prism, refraction occurs when
the ultrasonic pulse enters the specimen from the plastic shoe. The longitudinal
(compression) and shear (transverse) waves are refracted at different angles and
begin to separate, as shown in Fig. 1(b).

As the angle of the wedge is increased, the separation of the two waves increase
until, at some point, the longitudinal wave travels parallel to the surface, as in
Fig. 1(c). This is known as the critical angle. As long as the angle of the wedge is
larger than the critical angle, only shear waves are being used to locate
discontinuities.

If the angle of the wedge is increased to the point where the shear wave is refracted
to the surface of the specimen, a surface wave is produced. This wave travels along
the surface of the specimen until it strikes a discontinuity and an echo is generated.
The surface wave will only locate defects within a few millimeters of the surface.

Fig 1(a) Fig 1(b) Fig 1(c)

Page 272
23. What information would be included in a typical ultrasonic test report?
Typical information required on reports is as follows:
ƒ Procedure.
ƒ Ultrasonic equipment used.
ƒ Level of certification and identity of personnel completing the
examination.
ƒ Location of weld or area scanned.
ƒ Surface from which the examination was conducted.
ƒ Record of indications detected.
ƒ Date and time.
ƒ Surface condition.
ƒ Calibration block identification.
ƒ Couplant used.
ƒ Frequency used.
ƒ Special equipment.
ƒ Calibration sheet identity.

24. What is the main requirement to be able to use radiography?

Provide access to both sides of the specimen to be examined.

25. List 5 typical weld discontinuities that can be detected by radiography?

Any FIVE of the following:
• Voids
• Porosity
• Incomplete penetration
• Cupping
• Incomplete fusion
• Internal Bursts
• Thickness variations
• Corrosion, thinning and pitting
• Shrinkage cracks
• Slag inclusions

Page 273
 26. What is the principle of acoustic examination?

Most materials and structures emit energy in the form of mechanical vibrations
(acoustic emission) as a result of sudden change or movement. This is usually
due to a defect-related phenomenon, such as cracking or plastic deformation.
These acoustic emissions propagate from the source, throughout the structure.
Acoustic examination uses a technique of electronically “listening” to these
acoustic emissions for detecting and locating defects as they occur. This provides
an early warning of pending failure, in a timely and cost effective manner.

27. State 2 applications for the use of acoustic examination.

The following is intended to provide examples of some successful applications

of AE, and is by no means a complete list.

Crack Detection: One of the oldest and most successful applications of acoustic
emission has been in manufacturing, with the detection of cracking in various
materials during bonding, forming or pressing operations. AE systems are
interfaced to programmable controllers and are set to monitor for cracking, only
during the high-stress point of the process. When a crack occurs, the AE system
provides a failure output for part rejection. Many AE crack detection systems are
operating today providing continual monitoring and real time inspection.

Vessel Inspection: One of the most successful applications of AE is in vessel

inspection for the petrochemical industry. Sensors are placed on the vessels in
arrays to monitor the entire pressure boundary. The vessel is then subjected to
pressures typically 10 percent above previous operating levels (well below the
vessel pressure rating) with the test pressures being subjected in a “pressure rise-
hold-rise-hold” fashion, while monitoring the AE activity during each of these
pressurization segments. AE examination of vessels is the most sensitive and
cost-effective method for vessel inspection in the world today and adheres to
standards set by ASTM and the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Leak Detection: In leak detection, the instrumentation detects the AE signal that
is generated from the turbulent or cavitational flow through a crack, valve, seal
or orifice. Acoustic energy is transmitted through the fluid, through air or the
structure to a piezo electric sensor. The signal is then processed, filtered and
compared to a leak profile then located using triangulation techniques. Existing
installations include monitoring of pipelines in utility and petrochemical plants,
as well as leak detection in boilers, vessels, and through valves.

Page 274
28. An oil and gas treater has undergone repairs and requires a hydrostatic test
prior to being returned to service. Describe the procedure that should be
followed in preparing the vessel and conducting the test.
The answer supplied should be similar to the following:
ƒ Check that all piping connections at the vessel are opened and blind flanges
installed.
ƒ Control line connections to the vessel should be removed and closed off.
ƒ The test pressure is usually monitored on a calibrated pressure gauge.
ƒ The treater is filled with water, the water temperature should be at least 17°C
above the minimum design metal temperature.
ƒ Once the vessel has been filled with water and all the air vented, a pump may be
used to increase the pressure within the vessel to the required value.
ƒ The pressure is increased in increments, with a visual inspection conducted at
the end of each step.
(For pressures below 3000 kPa, the vessel may be inspected at the test
pressure.)
ƒ The visual inspection involves examining the entire surface of the vessel,
looking not only for wet areas which would indicate a problem, but also looking
for small drops of moisture.
ƒ If no leaks are located the vessel may be returned to service.

29. A natural gas fuel line has been installed at your facility. Describe the
procedure for conducting a soap bubble leak test at 50 kPa prior to placing
the line in service.
The answer supplied should be similar to the following:
ƒ Check that the new gas line is blanked at each end and any branch lines are
also blanked.
ƒ Install a calibrated pressure gauge on the gas line.
ƒ Connect a nitrogen supply to the gas line to charge the line to 50 kPa.
ƒ Charge the gas line with nitrogen.
ƒ Using the “soap solution” contained in small containers, pour/spray the
solution on welds, joints and other areas where leaks may be located.
ƒ Observe the gas pipe for any signs of bubble formation.

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 30. Explain briefly, in your own words, what each of the following abbreviations
mean.
(a) RT, (b) UT, (c) MT, (d) PT, (e) AE, (f) VT, (g) LT.

(a) RT. Radiographic Testing is an NDE technique that uses the principle
of differential absorption of penetrating radiation. Radiation (x-ray or
gamma ray) passing through a specimen exposes a photographic film.
Any defect in the specimen will alter the amount of radiation reaching
the photographic film and can be seen when the film is developed.
(b) UT. Ultrasonic Testing is an NDE technique that introduces high
frequency sound waves into a specimen and detects the sound wave
reflection from flaws, boundaries or interfaces.
(c) MT. Magnetic Particle Testing is an NDE technique for detecting
surface flaws. The faces of a crack will tend to form north and south
poles if a magnetic flux is established in a component. By sprinkling
magnetic particles onto the surface, the particles are attracted to the
poles formed at the crack and a line can be seen.
(d) PT. Liquid Penetrant Testing is an NDE technique for detecting flaws
that are open to the surface. A penetrant liquid is applied to the surface
and allowed to be absorbed into any crack by capillary action. The
excess is removed and a developer is applied to the surface. Any
penetrant liquid is drawn to the surface and is visible.
(e) AE. Acoustic Emission testing is an NDE technique that uses the high
frequency sounds generated by a flaw within a specimen as the
specimen is subjected to stress. By locating AE monitors in different
locations on a specimen the precise location of the flaw can be
triangulated.
(f) VT. Visual Testing is a technique used to detect surface defects by
detailed visual inspection. Successful visual inspection is a function of
the surface condition and the lighting level.
(g) LT. Leak Testing is a form of NDE that is used for detecting,
monitoring and measuring leakage. There are various techniques used
such as liquid dyes and gas tracers, bubble testing, pressure/vacuum
testing and mass spectrometry.

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