Chem&phys

GRACIOUS LONGWE: 0999298808/0888725045
MALAWI SCHOOL CERTIFICATE OF

EDUCATION (MSCE) AND A-LEVELS
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
2 IN 1(CHEMISTRY
AND PHYSICS)
GRACIOUS PRECIOUS LONGWE
ST CHARLES LWANGA SECONDARY SCHOOL
PRIVATE BAG 482
BALAKA
graciouslongwe@gmail.com
0999298808/0888725045
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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES
Preface
1 CHEMISTRY
1. PROPERTIES OF MATTER
1.1 KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER……………………………………………………6
1.2 GAS LAW…………………………………………………………………………….10
1.3 PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS……………………………………………………………..13
1.4 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS………………………………………………25
2. ELEMENTS AND CHEMICAL BONDING
2.1 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM AND THE PERIODIC TABLE………………30
2.2 TYPES OF BONDS AND PHYSICAL ELEMENTS………………………………...39
2.3 SELECTED ELEMENTS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS……………………………..50
3. CHEMICAL REACTION I
3.1 CHEMICAL REACTION AND CHEMICAL EQUATION………………………….56
3.2 STOICHIOMETRY……………………………………………………………………70
3.3 HEATS OF REACTION……………………………………………………………….77
4. CHEMICAL REACTION II
4.1 ELECTRON TRANSFER……………………………………………………………...83
4.2 PROTON TRANSFER………………………………………………………………...97
5. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I
5.1 ALKANOLS……………………………………………………………………………105
5.2 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS………………………………………………………………..107
6. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY II
6.1 ISOMERISM…………………………………………………………………………….113
6.2 POLYMERISATION…………………………………………………………………….118
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II PHYSICS
7. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
7.1 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM……………………………………………128
7.2 RADIOACTIVITY…………………………………………………………………….129
7.3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY……………………………………………………………..133
8. FORCES AND MOTION
8.1 SCALARS AND VECTORS………………………………………………………….142
8.2 LINEAR MOTION…………………………………………………………………….148
8.3 NEWTON‟S LAW OF MOTION……………………………………………………...154
9. OSCILLATION AND WAVES
9.1 OSCILLATION AND WAVES……………………………………………………….165
9.2 THIN LENSES…………………………………………………………………………178
9.2 OPTICS…………………………………………………………………………………185
10. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM I
10.1 ELECTROSTATICS……………………………………………………………………190
10.2 ELECTRIC RESISTANCE…………………………………………………………….
10.2 ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY………………………………………………
10.3 MAGNETISM…………………………………………………………………………..
10.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION…………………………………………………
11. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM II
11.1 ELECTRONICS…………………………………………………………………………
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Preface
Physical science is a branch of science that deals with the study of matter and energy. The word „physical‟
comes from the Greek word „physica‟ which means “natural things”. The word science comes from a Latin
word “scientia” which means „to know‟. Science is nothing but the knowledge gained through the systematic
observations and experiments. Scientific methods include the systematic observations, reasoning, modelling and
theoretical prediction. Thus, physical science can really involve scientific knowledge of anything found
anywhere in the universe from tiny atoms to vast galaxies. It deals with non-living things but also can be
applied to the make-up of living things and to the processes that go on within them. Physical science is divided
into two main branches and each involves the scientific knowledge of a particular area. The study of the
properties and changes of matter and energy is called physics. It includes topics as motion, electricity,
magnetism, sound, heat and light. The study of what matter is made of and changes in matter is called
chemistry. It studies natural and artificial substances to determine their composition and structure and the
changes that occur when they combine and form other substances. It includes such topics as chemical bonding,
solutions, acids and bases, and chemical reactions.
Physical science has greatly contributed to the present standard of living in our society and it will continue
contributing in the future because, far from being static, it is continually developing. Through application of
basic discoveries in physical science, humans have been developing space rockets, plastics, computers,
televisions and many other inventions. With discoveries in physical science, scientists have developed methods
of recycling wastes, preventing diseases and reducing pollution. Thus, the teaching of physical science is of
great importance not only for academic purposes but also for everyday life of human beings. Physical science
affects every aspect of our life, our health, our work, our home and our interests
This book is designed for use at Malawi School Certificate of Education (MSCE) and also at A-Levels. First
and foremost, it is intended for students, and I have tried my best to write the book so that students not only will
find it readable but also will want to read it. In this book, I want students to see Physical Science as an exciting
subject and to appreciate its tremendous usefulness. At the same time, I want to help them understand and
master the basic concepts of Physics and Chemistry in understanding their universe. Understanding the concepts
is more important than memorising. Hence it is intended to make the students understand the subject thoroughly
so that they can put forth their ideas clearly.
The most important and crucial stage of school education in Malawi is the secondary level. This is the transition
level from a generalised curriculum to a discipline-based curriculum. In order to pursue their career in basic
sciences and professional courses, students take up Physical Science as one of the subjects. To provide them
sufficient background to meet the challenges of academic and professional streams, the Physical Science
textbook for MSCE has been reformed, updated and designed to include basic information on all topics.
Each chapter starts with an introduction, followed by subject matter. All the topics are presented with clear and
concise treatments. The chapters end with topic review questions and end of topic examination.
I am indebted to a great many people who have, over the years, influenced my views about Physics and
Chemistry and the teaching of physical Science in general.
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PART I
CHEMISTRY
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CHAPTER 1
PROPERTIES OF MATTER AND KINETIC THEORY
Introduction
All objects and substances in the natural world are composed of matter. All matter has two fundamental
properties: matter takes up space, and matter has inertia – it changes motion only when under the influence of a
non-zero net force. Matter can be characterized in terms of its physical and chemical properties. These
properties can be explained through the particulate model of matter, which describes the particles as atoms or
molecules that are continuously in motion. The extent of the motion can be used to explain the physical
properties associated with the common states of matter, solid, liquid and gas, as well as the changes of state.
Whether or not a particular substance will exist as a solid, liquid or a gas will depend on the force due to particle
motion in comparison to the force of attraction between particles. The attractive forces between particles are
explained by the detailed structure of molecules and the atoms that compose them. In this chapter, we will be
looking at properties of matter and the kinetic theory
Composition of Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is made up of particles called atoms. Thus, atoms
are the smallest building blocks of matter. It is the type of atoms, and the way in which they are arranged in a
material, that affects the properties of that substance. Normally, atoms are bonded to other atoms to form
compounds or molecules. Almost everything around us is made up of molecules. A molecule is a group of two
or more atoms that are attracted to each other by relatively strong forces or bonds.
Intramolecular and intermolecular forces
Intramolecular forces
When atoms join to form molecules, they are held together by chemical bonds. The type of bond, and the
strength of the bond, depends on the atoms that are involved. These bonds are called intramolecular forces
because they are bonding forces inside a molecule (‟intra‟ means ‟within‟ or ‟inside‟). Sometimes we simply
call these intramolecular forces chemical bonds.
Intermolecular forces
Intermolecular force is the force between molecules, which holds them together. Intermolecular forces are those
bonds that hold molecules together. A glass of water for example, contains many molecules of water. These
molecules are held together by intermolecular forces. The strength of the intermolecular forces is important
because they affect properties such as melting point and boiling point. For example, the stronger the
intermolecular forces, the higher the melting point and boiling point for that substance. The strength of the
intermolecular forces increases as the size of the molecule increases. Before we go on to look at some of these
examples, it is important that we first take a look at the Kinetic Theory of Matter.
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1.1 KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
The kinetic theory of matter is used to explain why matter exists in different phases (i.e. solid, liquid and gas),
and how matter can change from one phase to the next. The kinetic theory of matter also helps us to understand
other properties of matter.
The theory is based on the following;
i. All substances are made up of tiny invisible particles that are in constant motion
ii. All particles have energy, but the energy varies depending on whether the substance is a solid, liquid or
gas. Solid particles have the least energy and gas particles have the most amount of energy.
iii. A change in phase may occur when the energy of the particles is changed.
iv. There are spaces between the particles of matter.
v. Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter ones at a given temperature
vi. The higher the temperature the faster the particles move on average.
vii. There are attractive forces between particles and these become stronger as the particles move closer
together. These attractive forces will either be intramolecular forces (if the particles are atoms) or
intermolecular forces (if the particles are molecules). When the particles are extremely close, repulsive
forces start to act.
Kinetic Theory in Solids
Particles in solids have very little spaces between particles. Particles are tightly packed together by the strong
intermolecular forces. Thus, solid particles cannot be compressed because they are already very close to each
other. The particles in solids vibrate and rotate in fixed position because they have low energy.
Kinetic Theory of Liquids
Particles of liquids slides over one another for them to move from one point to another. They cannot be
compressed also because the particles are very close to each other
Kinetic Theory of Gases
Gas particles have high energy and are constantly moving. The particles can be compressed because they are so
far apart with big space between them.
Diffusion
Diffusion is the spreading or movement of molecules of a substance from an area of high concentration to an
area of low concentration. All gases diffuse to fill the space available to them. Different gases diffuse at
different rate
Activity 1
Experiment
Aim: To show that different gases diffuse at different rate

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Materials: Ammonia Solution, Hydrochloric Acid, Cotton wool, Glass tube
Procedure
a. Soak one piece of cotton wool in concentrated ammonia solution

b. Soak another piece of cotton wool in concentrated hydrochloric acid
c. Put the two soaked pieces of cotton wool at opposite ends of the dry glass tube as shown below.
Results
White Cloud of ammonium Chloride appears in a position that closer to hydrochloric acid
Discussion
The cloud is formed at the position where two gases meet and react. White cloud is formed closer to
hydrochloric acid because ammonia particles are lighter, so moves faster than the heavier particles of
Hydrochloric acid.
Examinable question
Describe an experiment you can conduct to show how potassium permanganate diffuses in liquid (8 marks)
Temperature
Temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles. It can also be thought as
the measure of hotness or coldness in a substance. Thermometers are used to measure temperature.
Thermometers have a scale with readings called temperature scales.
The scale could be Kelvin scale or Celsius scale
Celsius scale
This scale uses degree Celsius (0C) as its unit. Its two fixed values are;
i. 00C which is the melting point of ice

ii. 1000C which is the boiling point of water under standard temperature and pressure
iii. Temperatures below 00C have negative values
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Kelvin scale
This scale has a fixed point of 0 K which is the absolute zero temperature. Uses Kelvin (K) as units
Absolute Temperature
It‟s a temperature measured on the Kelvin scale. Units for the temperature is Kelvin (K)
Absolute Zero Temperature
Is the lowest temperature at which molecules are assumed to have no internal energy, consequently molecular
motion ceases (stops). The absolute zero temperature is 0 K
Conversion of Temperature Scale
If T represents temperature in Kelvin and Ө represents temperature in Celsius scale then
T = Ө + 273 for Kelvin
Ө = T – 273 for Celsius
Example
Convert the following temperature Scale
i. 370C to a Kelvin scale

ii. 200K to Celsius Scale
Solution
i. Using T = Ө +273
= 37 + 273
= 310K
ii. Using Ө =T – 273
= 200 – 273
= - 730C
Exercise
Convert
i. 250C to absolute temperature

ii. 426 K to Celsius Scale
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Pressure
Pressure is the force exerted per unit area. It is measured in Newton per square metre (N/m2)
N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa)
Pressure =
1.2 GAS PRESSURE AND GAS LAWS
Gas pressure is force exerted by gas particles per unit area. It‟s also defined as Collision of gas particle with
object or walls of the container that holds it. Gas pressure is caused by gas particles striking the surface of a
container
Factors that affect Gas Pressure
The factors that affect gas pressure include; temperature, volume, number of molecules and nature of particles
GAS LAWS
There are three gas laws namely; Boyle‟s law, Charles‟s law and Pressure law
Boyle’s Law
Boyle‟s law states that volume of a fixed mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure at constant
temperature i.e.
Vα  V= where K is constant
Therefore, VP = K
The law can also be expressed as V1P1 = V2P2
Where V1 is the initial volume of the gas, P1 is the initial pressure, V2 is the final volume of the gas and P2 is
final pressure
Example
A bicycle pump contains 50 cm3 of air at a pressure of 1 x 105 Pa. What would be the volume of air if the
pressure was increased to 2.1 x 105Pa.
Solution
V1P1 = V2P2
50 cm3 x 1 x105 Pa = V2 x 2.1 x105Pa
V2 =
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= 23. 81 cm
Charles’s Law
States that volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature at constant pressure
i.e. V α T  V = KT (where K is constant and temperature in Kelvin)
=K
The law can also be expressed as =
Where V1 is initial volume, T1 is initial temperature,V2 is final Volume and T2 is final temperature
Example
A syringe contains 50 cm3 of oxygen gas at 200C. If the temperature increased to 450C, what would be the
volume occupied by the gas assuming that pressure is constant throughout?
Solution
V2 =
= 54.266211604095563139931740614334 cm3
= 54.27 cm3
Exercise
1. Oxygen is compressed at constant temperature until its pressure raises from82cmHg to 140cmHg. If the
final volume of oxygen is 50 cm3, find the initial volume of oxygen.
2. A gas at 00C was found to occupy a volume of 100 cm3. What will be the volume of the gas at 500C,
assuming pressure of the gas is constant.
Pressure Law (Gay-Lussac‟s Law)
Pressure law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to its temperature at constant
volume. It‟s also referred to as Gay-Lussac‟s law
PαT
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P = KT
So, P/T = K
The law can also be expressed as P1/T1= P2/T2
Combining Gas Laws
Three gas laws can be combined into a general gas law where volume, pressure and temperature may vary
It shows the relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature of a fixed mass of gas.
= constant
Then (P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2
Rules for Using Gas Equation
1. Mass of the gas must be constant, fixed.

2. Temperature must be in Kelvin
3. Units of pressure and volume must be the same on both sides of the equation
Standard Temperature and Pressure
Constant temperature and pressure usually used to compare volume of gases in different containers.
00C (273K) is the standard temperature and 760mmHg (1atm) is the standard pressure hence (S.T.P).
Example
A quantity of gas occupies a volume of 4 cm3. The pressure of the gas is 3 atm when its temperature is 270C.
What will be its pressure if it is compressed into half the volume and heated to a temperature of 127 0C
Solution
Using (P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2
P1 = 3 atmosphere, V1 = 4 m3, T1 = (27+ 273) = 300K, V2 = 2 m3 half the original volume, and T2 = (127 + 273)
= 400 K
Therefore, P2 =
= 8 atmosphere
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1.3 FLUID PRESSURE
A fluid is a substance that can flow when external force is applied on it. The term fluids include both liquids and
gases. Though liquids and gases are termed as fluids, there are marked differences between them. For example,
gases are compressible whereas liquids are nearly incompressible. We only use those properties of liquids and
gases, which are linked with their ability to flow.
Fluids/Liquids exerts pressure known as fluid/liquid pressure
Properties of Liquid Pressure
1. Pressure and Depth
Pressure in liquids increases with the depth below its surface.
2. Pressure and Direction
Pressure in a liquid is equal in all directions at the same depth.
Pascal’s law
One of the most important facts about fluid pressure is that a change in pressure at one part of the liquid will be
transmitted without any change to other parts. This was put forward by Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662), a French
mathematician and physicist. This rule is known as Pascal‟s law. Pascal’s law states that if the effect of gravity
can be neglected then the pressure in a fluid in equilibrium is the same everywhere.
3. Pressure and Density
The pressure is proportional to the density of the liquid if the pressure is measured at the same depth below the
surface of different liquids
Pαd
P = kd
4. Liquid Level
A liquid finds its own level. When a liquid is poured into a set of connected tube of various shapes, the liquid
flows round the tube until the liquid surfaces are at same level.
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Activity 2
Experiment
Aim: To demonstrate that depth affects pressure of liquid.
Apparatus: A long container, enough water, nail or sharp pin
Procedure:
a. Make three similar holes on the same side of the container, one almost at the bottom, another at the
middle and the third almost at the top.
b. Pour water into the container and keep it at the same level by pouring more water in the container.
c. Compare the horizontal distance travelled by water from the holes
Observation:
Water from the bottom a hole travels furthest while water from top hole covers the least distance as shown in
the diagram below.
Conclusion:
Pressure in liquids depends on the depth. The greater the depths of a given point in water the more the pressure.
Experiment
Aim: To demonstrate that pressure at equal depth act equally in all directions.
Apparatus: A can of water
Procedure:
Take the can and make similar holes all round at the same height
Fill the can with water and observe what happens.
Observation
Water comes out from each hole with same speed and travel equal horizontal distance from the can
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Formula for Pressure in Liquids
Consider liquid column acting on area A as shown below.
Figure 1.1
The force F acting on the base area A is due to weight (mg) of above liquid
Given that the volume of liquid is V and its density ρ or d then
V=Axh
Pressure exerted on Area is given by; P = ⁄
But F = mg, then P = ⁄
From density; Mass = density x volume (m = d x V)
P=
Since Volume = Area x Height (V = A x h), then P =
P = gdh
Using the Equation for Liquid Pressure in Problem Solving
Example
Calculate the pressure at the bottom of a beaker when it is filled with water to a depth of 12 cm. Take density of
water as 1 g/cm3 and g = 10 N/kg
Solution
Density of water = 1g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3
Column of water = 12cmn = 0.12m
Pressure = density x gravity x height
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= 1000kg/m x 10N/kg x 0.12m
= 1200N/m2
Remember that pressure needs to be in Pascals, density needs to be in kg/m3, gravity is 10N/Kg or 10m/s2, and
height/depth needs to be in metres.
Memorize the density of water; density of water= 1g/ml = 1g/cm3= 1000kg/m3
Examples
1. A container with a cross sectional area of 3cm2 is filled with 9cm3 of water. Calculate the pressure at the
bottom of the container (Density of water is 1g/cm3) [MSCE 2003]
Solution
P= dgh
The density is given, but it is not in the correct units so convert g/cm3 to kg/m3.
(1g/cm3)(kg/1000g)((100cm)3/m3) = 1000kg/m3
The height of the water column can be calculated from the volume and the cross sectional area of the container.
V= Ah , solve for h by dividing both sides of the equation by A
V/A= h, substitute 3cm2 for A and 9cm3 for V
h= V/A = 9cm3/3cm2= 3cm
Convert centimeters to metres; (3cm)(m/100cm)= 0.03m
Substitute 1000kg/m3 for d, 10m/s2 for g, and 0.03m for h into the liquid pressure equation and solve.
P= dgh= (1000kg/m3)(10m/s2)(0.03m)= 300 Pa
2. A pressure of 50 000 Pa is exerted by a column of water at the base of a container. Calculate the height
of the water column. (Density of water = 1000kg/m3), g = 10ms-1) [MSCE 2004]
Solution
P= dgh
Solve the liquid pressure equation for h by dividing both sides of the equation by dg.
P/(dg)= h; substitute 1000kg/m3 for d, 10ms-1 for g, and 50 000 Pa for P, and solve.
h= P/(dg)= 50 000 Pa/((10ms-1)(1000kg/m3))= 5 m
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3. Two Identical gas jars are filled with liquid mercury (density 13.6g/cm3) and water respectively.
Explain the difference in pressure exerted at the base of the two jars by the two substances. [MSCE
2004]
Solution
P= dgh
If the height and the cross sectional area of the containers is the same, the only difference in the pressure at the
bottom of the containers is caused by the difference in the density of the liquids that fill them. The density of
water is 1g/cm3. The given density of mercury is 13.6g/cm3 so the density of mercury is 13.6 times the density
of water and therefore the pressure at the bottom of the jar container mercury will be 13.6 times as great as the
pressure at the bottom of the jar containing water.
4. At atmospheric pressure a mercury barometer reads 0.76m. If one atmosphere is equal to 101 000 Pa,
calculate the density of mercury. [MSCE 2006]
Solution
P= dgh; Solve the liquid pressure equation for d by dividing both sides of the equation for gh.
P/(gh)= d; Substitute 101 000 Pa for P, 10m/s2 for g, and 0.76m for h, and solve.
P/(gh)= 101 000 Pa/((10m/s2)(0.76m)= 13 289kg/m3
5. Figure 5 is a diagram of a bottle containing water.
Calculate the pressure of the water at the bottom of the bottle (Density of water = 1g/cm3) [MSCE 2007]
Solution
P= dgh; The density is given, but it is not in the correct units so convert g/cm3 to kg/m3.
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(1g/cm )(kg/1000g)((100cm) /m ) = 1000kg/m
The height of the water column is given in centimeters so it needs to be converted to metres.
(20cm)(m/100cm)= 0.2m
Substitute 1000kg/m3 for d, 10m/s2 for g, and 0.2m for h into the liquid pressure equation and solve.
P= dgh= (1000kg/m3)(10m/s2)(0.2m)= 2000 Pa
Measurement of Pressure
Manometer
A manometer is an instrument for measuring fluid pressure. It consist of a transparent U- tube containing a
liquid. A manometer can be used to calculate the pressure of a gas. The pressure of the gas is calculated by
adding the liquid pressure differential to atmospheric pressure. Atmospheric pressure can be taken as 101 000
Pa or 755mmHg. One end is left open while the other is connected to the fluid source whose pressure is to be
measured. When not in use, the liquid level in both tubes is the same.
Figure 1.2
When in use, the gas pressure pushes the liquid in the manometer causing a difference in the two levels
Figure 1.3
The difference h is the measure of the gas pressure. Atmospheric pressure is also taken into account. The height
h is therefore a measure of excess pressure above atmospheric pressure.
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Gas Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Pressure due to liquid Column.
Note: When measuring small pressure difference, liquid of low density such as oil is used. Mercury is used to
measure large pressure differences.
Figure 1.4
In the diagram above where the gas supply has been connected, the liquid pressure can be calculated in two
ways:
If the liquid inside the manometer is mercury, then the pressure of the gas can be read in mmHg. In this case
the liquid pressure differential is just the height differential between the columns of mercury on either side of
the manometre and the atmospheric pressure is 755mmHg.
Liquid Pressure Differential= 45mmHg - 10mmHg= 35mmHg
Gas Pressure = Liquid Pressure Differential + Atmospheric Pressure
= 35mmHg + 755mmHg
= 790mmHg
The liquid pressure differential can be calculated in Pascals and added to the atmospheric pressure in Pascals
(101 000 Pa) to find the gas pressure. The height differential between the two columns must therefore be
converted to metres, and density for the liquid should be given in kg/m3. If the liquid is water, we use
1000kg/m3 for the density.
Example 1
Find the liquid column height differential
Height Differential= 45mm-10mm= 35mm
Solution
Convert the height differential from milimetres to metres
(35mm)(m/1000mm)= 0.035m
Substitute known values into the liquid pressure equation and solve
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Liquid Pressure Differential = dgh
= (1000kg/m3)(10m/s2)(0.35m)
= 3500Pa
Add atmospheric pressure to the liquid pressure differential to find the gas pressure
Gas pressure = atmospheric pressure + liquid pressure differential
= 101 000Pa + 3 500Pa
= 104 500Pa
Example 2
Figure 1 is a diagram of an instrument used to measure gas pressure.
i. Name the instrument.

ii. Read the pressure difference in mmHg
iii. What is the pressure of the gas supply if the atmospheric pressure is 755mmHg and the pressure
difference is 30mmHg? [MANEB 2004]
Solution
i. manometre
ii. 55mm – 30mm
= 25mm
iii. gas pressure = atmospheric pressure + liquid pressure difference
= 755mmHg + 30mmHg
= 785mmHg
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Measuring Lung Pressure
A manometer can be used to measure lung pressure. When a person blows into one arm of the U-tube, the lung
pressure pushes the liquid into the manometer down, causing a difference in the two levels. The height
difference shows the excess pressure that the air from lungs has exerted above atmospheric pressure. This
excess pressure is lung pressure. Lung pressure supports the pressure due to the liquid column in the
manometer and atmospheric pressure.
Lung Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Pressure due to Column
Example
If the atmospheric pressure is 283 mmHg and the gas pressure that makes the level of the liquid used in a
manometer to raise by 15 mmHg.
Solution
Gas Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Pressure due to Liquid column
= 283 mmHg + 15 mmHg
= 298 mmHg
Exercise
What is the pressure of a gas supply if the atmospheric pressure is 755 mmHg and the pressure difference is 30
mm Hg?
Uses of Liquid Pressure
1. Construction of dams.
Reservoirs for water supply or HEP1 are made by building a dam with thicker wall at the bottom. Water
pressure increases as depth increase, hence at the bottom of the dam exists high water pressure. Thicker wall at
the bottom are to withstand high pressure.
2. Deep Sea Diving Vessel
Vessels are built with strong materials on the walls to withstand the crushing effect of sea water pressure
3. Hydraulic Machine
These are Machines which transmit force by liquid under pressure for example
a. Hydraulic Jack
b. Hydraulic brake
c. Fork lift
1
Hydro Electric Power
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Hyraulic Machines
Hydraulic machines can act as force multipliers or force reducers. In a hydraulic machine, the pressure exerted
on a liquid by one piston is the same pressure exerted on the other piston when the pistons are at equal height.
Since P= F/A, a small force exerted over a piston of small area can exert a large force on a piston of large area.
Force is multiplied. When a large force exerted over a piston of large area exerts a small force over a piston of
small area, a hydraulic machine acts as a force reducer. Calculations of output and input force and area can be
made using the equation F1/A1= F2/A2. This equation is derived from the fact that P1= F1/A1, P2= F2/A2, and
P1=P2.
Figure 1.5
Examples 1
A hydraulic press has two pistons, piston A and piston B. Piston A is 0.003m 2 and Piston B is 6m2 what force
must be exerted on piston A to lift a 50kg load on piston B?
Solution
The pressure exerted by piston A is the same pressure that will be exerted on piston B. P A= FA/AA, PB= FB/AB
and PA= PB so FA/AA= FB/AB.
To solve the equation for FA multiply both sides of the equation by AA; FA= (AA) FB/AB
The force of the load on piston B can be found by multiplying the mass by the acceleration due to gravity.
F= ma= 50kg(10m/s2)= 500N; Now substitute and solve
FA= (AA) FB/AB= (0.003m2)(500N)/(6m2)= 0.25N
Example 2
Figure 2 is a diagram showing a hydraulic system being used to raise a load. A force of 50N is applied on
piston A.
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Figure 2
Calculate the pressure piston A exerts on the liquid.
How much pressure does the liquid exert on piston B?[MANEB 2006]
Solution
P= F/A where Force is in Newton and Area is in m2, so the area in square centimeters given needs to be
converted to square meters
(20cm2)(m2/ (100cm) 2)= 0.002m2
Substitute 50N for F and 0.002m2 for F and A in the general pressure equation and solve
P= F/A= 50N/0.002m2= 25 000Pa
The pressure exerted down on piston A is the same as the pressure exerted up on piston B, so the pressure
exerted up on piston B is 25 000Pa.
Hydraulic Brake
In a car brake, when brake pedal is pressed, a piston forces brake fluid from one cylinder along a connecting
pipe to another cylinder. The fluid then pushes on another piston. This presses a brake pad against a metal disc
attached to the rotating wheel of the car. When brakes are applied suddenly in a moving vehicle, there is every
chance of the vehicle to skid because the wheels are not retarded uniformly. In order to avoid this danger of
skidding when the brakes are applied, the brake mechanism must be such that each wheel is equally and
simultaneously retarded. A hydraulic brake serves this purpose. It works on the principle of Pascal‟s law.
Hydraulic Jack
The diagram below is an example of a hydraulic Jack.
Figure 1.6
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In piston A, a downward force puts pressure on the oil
Pressure is transmitted by the oil to produce a larger upward force on piston B
In piston A
Pressure on oil =
On piston B
Pressure from oil on piston =
Therefore Pressure on Piston A = Pressure on Piston B
Example
The diagram below is a simple hydraulic jack. Assuming the jack is frictionless
i. What is the pressure at A?

ii. What is the pressure at B?
iii. What is the output force?
iv. Explain why the jack is called a force multiplier?
Solution
i. Pressure =
= 200 N/m2
ii. Pressure at B = Pressure at A
= 200N/m2
iii. Force, F =PxA
= 200N/m2 x 0.5m2
= 100N
iv. Jack can be called force multiplier because it increases the input force to get a larger output force.
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NOTE: For a frictionless jack;
Exercise
Figure below shows a simple hydraulic jack. The force of 120N is applied on piston A. Assuming that the jack
is frictionless.
i. What is the pressure at A?

ii. How much load can the jack lift?
1.4 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
Thermal expansion is the increase in size of a substance on heating. On cooling, the object reduces in size and is
called contraction.
Why Solids Expand on Heating
When solid is heated, the molecules vibrate with larger amplitude about the fixed position. This makes
molecules to push each other far apart. The distance between molecules increases so the solid expands.
Solids expand when heated and contract when cooled.
Observation: The hole in a steel gauge becomes larger when it is heated and shrinks when it is cooled.
Explanation: Atoms and molecules vibrate faster (increase in their kinetic energy) as heat is added which
causes them to exert a greater pressure on each other. This increased pressure causes the molecules to move fart
her apart which results in expansion of the substance.
Different solids expand and contract by different amounts for a given amount of heat.
Observation: A bimetallic strip bends when heated.
Explanation: The intermolecular forces of copper are less than steel so when copper is heated it expands more
than steel. Because the copper and steel are riveted together (held together by metal bolts) the bimetallic strip
bends with the copper plate on the outside of the curve.
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Application of Expansion and Contraction
1. Riveting Metal Plates
When joining two metals with rivets, hot rivets are placed in the rivet holes and the ends hammered flat. On
cooling, the force of contraction pulls the plates firmly together
2. Shrink Fitting
It‟s used to produce a tight fit between two pieces of metal. An axle just too large for a hole in a wheel is cooled
in liquid nitrogen at around -1960C. The cold axle fits into the wheel. On warming, the axle expands to give a
very tight fit. This method is also used in fitting steel wheels of a train
3. Separating Materials
If for example, glass tumblers get stuck together, they may be separated by placing a hot towel round the outer
one. The outer tumbler expands before the heat reaches the inner one, which makes it to lose.
4. Rollers on Bridges
The ends of steel and concrete bridge are supported on rollers. During hot or cold weather, the change in length
may take place freely without damaging the steel structure.
Topic Review
1. State the following gas laws

a. Boyle‟s law
b. Charles‟ law
c. Pressure law
2. A small bubble rises from the bottom of the lake where the temperature and pressure are 80 0C and
6.4atm respectively to the water surface where the temperature and pressure are 250C and 1.0 atm
respectively. Calculate the final volume (in ml) of the bubble if its initial volume was 2.1 ml
3. The volume of air in a container is 6 cm3 and has a pressure of 4atm when the temperature is 270C.
Calculate its pressure when the volume is reduced to 3 cm3.
4. A gas of 125 cm3 is collected at 150 mmHg pressure. Calculate the volume of the gas at standard
temperature and pressure
5. A gas at pressure of 772 mmHg and a temperature of 330C occupies a volume of 6.85l . Calculate its
volume at standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p)
6. In terms of kinetic theory of matter, explaining what happens to candle wax when it melts
7. Convert
a. 1200C to Kelvin
b. 266K to degree Celsius.
8. The temperature of 2.5 l of a gas initially at s.t.p. is increased to 250C at constant volume. Calculate the
final pressure of the gas in atm.
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9. A volume of air in a container is 16 cm and its pressure is 4 atm when the temperature is 270C.
3
Calculate its pressure when the volume is reduced to 2 cm3 and the temperature raised to 1770C.
10. State two factors that affect gas pressure
11. Explain why walls of the dam are built thicker at the bottom
12. A rectangular container whose base area is 9 cm3 is filled with 27g of water. Calculate the pressure
exerted by the water at the bottom of the container in N/cm2. (Acceleration due to gravity = 10m/s/s)
13. Figure 1is a diagram of an apparatus used to measure the pressure exerted by gas.
Calculate the pressure exerted by the gas if the atmospheric pressure is 765mm Hg
14. A container of cross sectional area of 5cm2 is filled with 30 cm3 of water, find the
a. height of the water in the container
b. pressure exerted by water at the base of the container.( take density of water = 1g/cm3 and g = 10m/m2
15. Find the pressure of a liquid whose density is 5kg/m3, if the height of the liquid in a container is 9m
(take g = 10m/s2)
16. A pressure of 5x 105 Pa is exerted by a column of water at the base of a container . Calculate the height
of water column (Take density of water = 1000kg/m3 and g = 10m/s2)
End of Topic Examination
Instructions
Answer all the questions in the spaces provided.
The maximum number of marks for each answer is indicated against each question.
1. a. i. Define the term “diffusion” (2 marks)
ii. In which state of matter does diffusion occur more quickly? (1 mark)
iii. Give a reason for the answer to a (ii) (2 marks)
b. Figure 1 is a diagram of a sealed glass tube containing two balls of cotton wool, one soaked in
concentrated hydrochloric acid solution and the other in concentrated ammonia solutions diffuse along the tube
and a white cloud forms where they meet.
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Which of the gases is lighter? (1 mark)
Give a reason for the answer to b (i) (2 marks)
When the experiment is done on a sunny day it takes a shorter time for the white cloud to form. Give a reason.
(2 marks)
c. The volume of air in a container is 6m3 and has a pressure of 4 atmospheres (atm) when the temperature is
27°C. Calculate its pressure when the volume is reduced to 3m3 and its temperature raised to 177°C.
(4 marks)
2. a. i. Why are liquids used in hydraulic machines? (3 marks)
ii. Give two examples of hydraulic machines (2 marks)
b. i. Define “absolute zero” (1 mark)
ii. A gas occupies a volume of 200cm3 at 273k. Calculate the temperature of the gas in kelvins, if its volume
increases to 30cm3 at constant pressure. (3 marks)
3. a. Explain, using the kinetic theory of matter, why clothes dry faster on a sunny day than on a cloudy
day. (3 marks)
b. Describe how expansion and contraction of materials is used in shrink fitting. (5 marks)
4. a. At atmospheric pressure a mercury barometer reads 0.76m. If one atmosphere equals to 101 000 Pa,
calculate the density of mercury. (3 marks)
b. Figure 2 is a diagram showing a hydraulic system being used to raise a load. A force of 50N is
applied on Piston A.
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Calculate the pressure piston A exerts on the liquid. (2 marks)
How much pressure does the liquid exert on piston B? (1 mark)
c. Derive a formula to show that the pressure of a liquid depends on its density and depth. (7 marks)
d. If the volume of gas collected at 60°C and 1 x 105 Pa pressure was 70cm3, what would be the volume at a
temperature of 0°C and a pressure of 4 x 105 Pa? (5 marks)
END OF QUESTION PAPER
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CHAPTER 2
ELEMENTS AND CHEMICAL BONDING

Introduction
Atoms are the building blocks of matter. They are the basis of all the structures and organisms in the universe.
The planets, the sun, grass and trees, the air we breathe, and people are all made up of different combinations of
atoms. The structure of an atom in terms of its component protons, neutrons and electrons provides the basis for
a systematic description of the building blocks of matter and their organization in the Periodic Table of the
Elements. The Periodic Table demonstrates the relationship between the number of protons in an element,
which is the defining characteristic of each element, and the chemical and physical properties of the elements.
The Periodic Table also provides a structure for inquiry into the characteristics of the elements, since the
electronic structure of atoms is reflected in the arrangement of elements in the Periodic Table. It is the
electronic structure of atoms, especially the outermost electrons, that explains the chemical properties of
elements and the breaking and making of bonds between atoms in a chemical reaction. An understanding of the
bonding between elements leads to the concept of molecules as particles with specific combinations of atoms.
Thus, in this topic, we are going to study elements and chemical bonding.
2.1 STRUCTURE OF ATOM AND THE PERIODIC TABLE
Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. Atoms
are very small particles of an element. They contain protons, electrons and neutrons
Figure 2.1
Protons are positively charged, found in the nucleus of an atom and have a mass of 1 amu each
Electrons move around the nucleus, are negatively charged and have no mass
Neutrons have no charge, are found in the nucleus of an atom and have a mass of 1 amu each
Figure 2.2
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Table 2.1: Charge and mass of atomic particles
Particle Charge Mass(in atomic

mass units)
Proton +1 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron -1 0 (almost)
Atoms are neutral so the number of protons (positive charges) always equals the number of electrons (negative
charges). Since the atomic number states the number of protons, it also gives the number of electrons.
Atomic # = protons = electrons
In fig. 2.1 you can see that the atomic number of Helium is 2 so Helium must have 2 protons and 2 electrons.
Electrons have almost zero mass compared to protons and neutrons which have masses of 1 amu. Therefore,
the mass of the atom in amu gives the number of protons plus the number of neutrons. (Note: mass # is a unit
less value equal to the atomic mass rounded to the nearest whole number)
Mass # = protons + neutrons. By solving the equation for neutrons we get
Mass # - protons = neutrons. If we substitute atomic # for protons, we get
Mass # – atomic # = neutrons
In fig. 1 you can see that the mass # of helium is 4 amu and the atomic number is 2; 4 – 2 = 2 neutrons.
Energy Level/ Shells
It‟s a path where electrons move and exist. They are numbered as 1, 2,3, 4, etc. Each energy level contains a
specific number of electrons for example
1st energy level 2 electrons
2nd energy level 8 electrons
3rd energy level 8 or 18 electrons
4th energy level 18 electrons
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Figure 2.3: Electron shells
Electron shells are filled in order starting with the first shell. Once the first shell is filled, the second shell is
filled, and so on. The last shell with electrons in it is the outermost shell and the electrons in that shell are
called valence electrons. The valence of an atom is equal to its number of valence electrons.
Electron configuration is written as the number of electrons in first shell, number of electrons in second shell,
number of electrons in third shell, number of electrons in fourth shell eg.
1. Sodium has an atomic number of 11. Write the electron configuration for sodium. Atomic # = # of
electrons = 11. The electron configuration for sodium is 2, 8, 1
The first 2 electrons go into the first shell leaving 9 more. 8 of the remaining 9 can go into the second shell,
and the last remaining electron goes into the third shell.
2. Potassium has an atomic number of 19. Write the electron configuration for potassium. Atomic # of = #
of electrons = 19. The electron configuration of potassium is 2, 8, 8, 1. The first two electrons go into the first
shell leaving 17. 8 of those 17 electrons go into the second shell leaving 9. 8 of those remaining 9 electrons go
into the third shell, and the remaining electron goes into the fourth shell.
Table 2.2: Some elements and their electron configurations
Element Atomic number Electron Configuration
H 1 1
C 6 2, 4
S 16 2, 8, 6
Cl 17 2, 8, 7
Ca 20 2, 8, 8, 2
Atomic Number and Atomic Mass
Atomic number (Z) is the number of protons in an atom. Atomic Mass (A): is the sum of protons and neutrons
in an atom. Atomic mass is also known as nucleon number or mass number. A neutral atom has number of
protons equal to number of electrons. For general element, the nucleus of an atom can be presented as
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Figure 2.4
A= Atomic mass
Z = Atomic number
X = Chemical symbol for an element
Electron Configuration is the number and arrangement of electrons in the energy levels
How Electrons are filled in the Energy Levels
Lowest energy level or shell is filled first. The shells are filled by placing the greatest number of electrons as
shown below
Table 2.3
ENERGY LEVEL NUMBER OF ELECTRONS TO FILL A SHELL

1 2
2 8
3 8 or 18
4 18
Electrons fill the shell gradually and when a shell is filled, the extra electrons are placed in a higher energy
level. As number of electrons increase in shells, protons also increase to maintain the neutrality of the atom.
Periodic Table and Electron Configuration
Electron configuration shows how electrons are filled in the energy levels of different elements. Elements in the
periodic table are arranged according to increasing atomic number, number of valence electrons and the number
of electron shells
Periodicity is the arrangement of elements in the periodic table according to atomic number.
Groups are the vertical columns of the periodic table labeled I – VIII. The number of the group is equal to the
# of valence electrons. Periods are the rows of the periodic table numbered 1- 4. The period of an element is
equal to the number of electrons shells. Elements in the same group have the same behaviour, but elements in
the same period can be very different.
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Table 2.4: Comparison of the structure of Magnesium Sodium and Potassium
in
Outermost Shell
# of Electron
Atomic Number
Configuration
Electrons)
Chemical
Electrons
Electrons
Atomic #
Neutrons
(Valence
Electron
Element
Symbol
Protons
Period
Group
Shells
Magnesium Mg 12 12 12 2, 8, 2 3 3 2 2 24 12
Sodium Na 11 11 11 2, 8, 1 3 3 1 1 23 12
Potassium K 19 19 19 2, 8, 8, 1 4 4 1 1 39 20
Observation: Sodium and potassium are soft shiny metals that are easy to cut and quickly react with oxygen to
form oxide compounds. When sodium and potassium are added to water they react very vigorously to produce
hydrogen gas and an alkali solution. Magnesium is difficult to cut, and it reacts more slowly with oxygen to
form its oxide than sodium or potassium. When magnesium is added to water it reacts much slower than
sodium or potassium to produce hydrogen gas and an alkali solution.
Interpretation: Consider the information in Table. Sodium and magnesium atoms have the same number of
neutrons, the same number electron shells, and magnesium only has one more proton and one more electron
than sodium. Sodium and potassium atoms are structurally different in every way except they both have 2
valence electrons. Since sodium and potassium have very similar behaviour while sodium and magnesium have
very different behaviour, the behaviour of elements must be related to the number of valence electrons in their
atoms.
Predicting the Group and Period of an Element Given its Atomic Number
First, determine the atomic number = the number of electrons and write the electron configuration. The number
of electron shells is the period number and the number of electrons is the last shell (valence electrons) is the
group number
eg. Predict the period and group of an element with an atomic number of 18.
Atomic number = number of electrons = 18, electron Configuration = 2, 8, 8, the number of electron shells = 3
so the period is 3 and the number of electrons in the last shell = 8 so the group is 8
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The Periodic Table
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
1 4
1 1 H 2 He
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
2 3 Li 4 Be 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 F 10 Ne
23 24 27 28 31 32 35 40
3 11 Na 12 Mg 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar
39 40
4 19 K 20 Ca
Metals
Figure 2.5: The First 20 Elements of the Periodic Table
Group I Elements Group II Elements
Element Symbol Atomic Electron Element Symbol Atomic Electron

No. Configuration No. Configuration
Lithium Li 3 2,1 Beryllium Be 4 2,2
Sodium Na 11 2,8,1 Magnesium Mg 12 2,8,2
Potassium K 19 2,8,8,1 Calcium Ca 20 2,8,8,2
Group VII Elements Group VIII Elements
Element Symbol Atomic Electron Element Symbol Atomic Electron

No. Configuration No. Configuration
Fluorine F 9 2,7 Helium He 2 2
Chlorine Cl 17 2,8,7 Argon Ar 10 2,8
Bromine Br 35 2,8,18,7 Neon Ne 18 2,8,8
Trends in the Periodic Table
Atomic radius is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the outermost electron shell. As the number of
electrons shells of an atom increases, so does the atomic radius. As you move down a group, the number of
electron shells increases, so the atomic radius also increases. Since larger atoms/molecules have stronger
intermolecular forces, the boiling and melting points of elements also increases as you move down a group.
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Figure 2.6: Atomic radius
Looks at radius of an atom (distance from nucleus of atom to the outer shell) though it is very difficult to
determine where the atom ends. Atomic radius increases down the group due to increase in number of energy
levels. Across and within a period, atomic radius decreases due to atomic number which increases (this
increases nuclear charge).
Figure 2.7: A graph of Atomic Radius verses Atomic Number
Effective nuclear charge is the attractive positive charge of nuclear protons acting on valence electrons. The
effective nuclear charge is always less than the total number of protons present in the nucleus due to shielding
effect.
Shielding effect: Lessening of attractive electrostatic charge difference between nuclear protons and valence
electrons by partially or fully filled inner shells. Shielding effect increases with number of inner shells of
electrons. Electrons sharing the same shell do not shield one another from the attractive pull of the nucleus.
Calculating Effective Nuclear Charge
An estimate of effective nuclear charge can be obtained from Zeff = Z – S where Zeff is effective nuclear charge,
Z is atomic number and S is the screening constant
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Consider aluminium Z =13 and S = 10 then
Zeff =Z–S
= 13 -10
=3+
Note: Zeff is only an estimate. Actual shielding effect is always greater than screening constant because core
electrons are much closer to the nucleus than valence electrons.
Effective Nuclear Charge and Periodic Table
Effective nuclear charge increases across a period due to increasing nuclear charge without accompanying
increase in shielding effect. Effective nuclear charge decreases down a group (although nuclear charge increases
down the group shielding effect increases too)
1. Group I Elements (Alkali Metals)
Group I Elements are called alkali metals because when they react with water they produce an alkali (soluble
base) solution, and hydrogen gas. Group I elements are the most reactive elements in the periodic table.
Physical Properties of Alkali Metals:
i. They are soft and therefore easily cut with a knife

ii. They have a low density compared to other metals
iii. They are good conductors of heat and electricity
iv. They are malleable (they can be hammered into different shapes without breaking)
v. They are shiny when freshly cut
Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals:
i. They react with oxygen to produce white solid oxides

ii. They react with water to produce alkali solutions and hydrogen gas
2. Group VII Elements (Halogens)
Group VII Elements are non-metals and they are poisonous in high concentration. The atoms are found as
diatomic (2 atom) molecules. Group VII elements includes; Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine and Iodine
Physical Properties and Trend Down The Group
i. Are coloured and darkens going down the group i.e. fluorine is pale yellow, chlorine is pale green-
yellow, bromine is red- brown and iodine is purple- black
ii. They exist as diatomic elements i.e. chlorine – Cl2, bromine – Br2 and iodine – I2
iii. Melting and boiling points increase down the group
iv. Fluorine has lowest and Iodine the highest. It‟s because IMF increases going down the group since the
molecule increases in size
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v. Do not conduct Electricity or heat because they have no free mobile electrons in their outermost energy
level.
vi. Changes state of matter at room temperature from gas to solid going down the group i.e. Fluorine is a
gas, chlorine is a gas, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a solid
Displacement Reaction of Halogens
Displacement Reaction is a reaction where a, then a halogen above displaces the one below it e. g. halogen takes
the place of another halogen from solutions of their salt. Since reactivity of halogens decreases down the group
chlorine displaces bromine and iodine from their salt solution. E.g
Potassium Iodide + Chlorine → Potassium Chloride + Iodine
2KI + Cl2 → 2KCl + I2
Exercise
Which reactions will take place between?
i. Chlorine and potassium fluoride

ii. Bromine and potassium iodide
iii. Iodine and Potassium chloride
For the reactions which will take place, write the chemical equations
Uses of Halogens
Fluorine
 Used in manufacture of plastics.

 Hydrofluoric acid is extensively used in air conditioning and refrigerators.
 In small amount, fluoride in water supply and toothpaste prevents toothdecay.
Chlorine
 Used to kill bacteria and so sterilize water for domestic supply or swimming pools
 Used in some domestic cleaning agents (bleaches and sodium Chlorate)
 Used for making antiseptics and disinfectants like Dettol
 Used for making pesticides
 Used in making Plastics e.g. PVC
 Used in manufacture of weed killer e.g. Potassium Chlorate (KClO3)
 Makes Hydrochloric acid
 It is used as a solvent for dry Cleaning and typex correction fluid.
 Used in the production of photographic films e.g. Silver Chloride (AgCl)
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Iodine
 Its used in the production of photographic films e.g. silver iodide (AgI)
 It is used to make drugs or medicine e.g. Potassium iodide.
 Makes salts to prevent goiter in human
 Used in test for starch. A deep blue colour is observed when starch reacts with iodine
Bromine
 Used in making fuel (petrol) additives to reduce buildup of lead in car engine
 It is used in manufacture of water purification compounds and fumigants.
 It is used in medicine and dye.
 inorganic bromide, like silver bromide is used in photography
 It is used in the manufacture of pesticides
 It is used in water purification.
Table 2.5: Effects of Halogens
Good Bad
Chlorine has saved millions of lives around Chlorine can be poisonous to people too. It
the world by killing bacteria in drinking was used to kill people in war.
water
Pesticides help crops to grow These chemicals can poison other wildlife
in the foodchain.
In the past they were used in Aerosols and CFC‟s damage the ozone layer and act as
fridges as CFC‟s (Chlorofluoro Carbons) greenhouse gasses.
How do Atoms Attain Stability?
Atoms attain stability by having stable electron configurations. A stable electron configuration is one in which
the outermost electron shell is full. Noble gasses are stable because they all have full outermost electron shells.
All other atoms want to be stable too. All other atoms also want to have full outermost electron shells. In order
to have a complete outer shell, atoms will gain, lose, or share electrons to make bonds with other atoms.
2.2 CHEMICAL BONDING AND TYPES OF BONDS
Chemical bonding is the joining of two or more atoms together. Atoms bond because they want to
 attain a stable noble gas electron arrangement

 attain low potential energy
 Experience more attractive force
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Types of Bonding
There are 3 main types of bonds
1. Ionic Bonds- form between metals and non-metals. One atom gains electrons and the other atom loses
electrons. eg. NaCl, MgCl2, NaO2
2. Covalent Bonds- form between 2 non-metal atoms. Electrons are shared between the two atoms. eg.
Cl2, CH4, O2
3. Metallic bonds- form between metal atoms. Electrons flow freely between fixed nuclei.
Ionic Bonding
Usually found in compounds that contain metallic atoms combined with non-metallic atom. Electrons are
transferred from the metallic atoms to non-metallic atoms i.e. metallic atom loses electrons and a non-metallic
atom gains electrons. As a metallic atom loses electrons, it becomes a positive ion (cation) and non- metallic
atom becomes negative ion (anion) on gaining the electron. The ions attracts each other and form a bond called
an ionic bond
For example, Sodium has 1 electron in its outer shell. It‟s easier for sodium to lose 1 electron than to gain seven
to have a full outer shell so sodium will lose 1 electron. Chlorine has 7 electrons in its outer shell. It‟s easier for
chlorine to gain 1 electron than to lose seven to get a full outer shell so chlorine will gain 1 electron.
If sodium gives its outer shell electron to chlorine they will both have full outer shells.
Remember that all atoms are neutral. They have an equal number of positive protons and negative electrons so
the charges cancel. After sodium has given an electron to chlorine, the electrons and protons in both atoms no
longer balance. The atoms, which we now call ions, become charged. Na+ and Cl -.
We can show bonding between atoms with dot and cross diagrams.
Opposite charges attract so Na+ and Cl- ions are strongly attracted to each other and this attraction is called an
ionic bond.
Millions of ions bond together to form crystals
Reacting magnesium instead of sodium with chlorine
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The magnesium atoms want to give up 2 electrons so that it will have a full outer shell. When the magnesium
atom gives up 2 electrons, it becomes an ion with a 2+ charge. This 2+ charge will attract 2 chlorine ions with 1-
charges so the formula for magnesium chloride is MgCl2.
If we bond sodium with oxygen we get:
The oxygen atom wants to gain 2 electrons to fill its outer shell. When oxygen gains 2 electrons, it becomes an
ion with a 2- charge. Sodium ions have a 1+ charge so 2 sodium ions will be attracted to the oxygen ion to form
ionic bonds. Thus, the formula of sodium oxide is Na2O.
Ionic bonding in Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) dot and cross diagram
Two electrons of Ca transferred to two Cl atoms. Each Cl atom gains 1 electron.
Ionic bonding of Magnesium oxide MgO, dot and cross diagram
Two electrons are transferred from magnesium to oxygen atom
Ionic Structures
These are solids at room temperature with high boiling and melting points. Ions are packed in regular
arrangement called lattice. Oppositely charged ions attract one another strongly within the lattice. Each negative
ion is surrounded by positive ions and a positive ion is surrounded by negative ions
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Working Out Formula of Compounds Given Their Valencies
The valency of an element is the magnitude of the charge on its ions. The magnitude of charge on the ions of an
element is equal to the number of electrons that element will gain or loose to become stable. For example,
Mg needs 2 electrons to be stable, valency = 2 and O needs to give away 2 electrons to be stable, valency = 2
Ionic Compounds are neutral so if we know the valency of their ions then we can work out the formula. Metals
form positive ions while non-metals form negative ions.eg.
1. Magnesium Oxide
Magnesium has a valency of 2 and it is a metal so it will form an ion with a 2+ charge. Oxygen has a valency of
2 and it is a non-metal so it will form an ion with a 2- charge. These charges balance 1 to 1 so the formula for
magnesium oxide is MgO
2. Aluminium Oxide
Aluminium has a valency of 3 and it is a metal so it will form an ion with a 3+ charge. Oxygen has a valency of
2 and it is a non-metal so it will form an ion with a 2- charge. To balance these charges, we need 2 aluminium
ions and 3 oxide ions.
2 x (3+) = 6+ and 3 x (2-) = 6-
(6+) + (6-) = 0
So the formula for aluminum oxide is Al2O3
*Notice- the metal always comes in front of the non-metal in the chemical formula.
Table 2.6: Valencies for compound cations
Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3
ammonium (NH4+)
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Table 2.7: Valencies for compound anions
Valency 1 Valency 2 Valency 3
hydroxide (OH-) sulphide (SO32-) Phosphate (PO43-)
hydrogen bicarbonate (HCO3-) sulphate (SO42-)
iodate (IO31--) carbonate (CO32-)
chromate (CrO42-)
dichromate (Cr2O72-)
Property of Ionic Compounds
1. They are solids at room temperature

2. they have high melting and boiling point
3. They are usually hard
4. They do not conduct electricity when solid but in aqueous or molten state.
5. They mainly dissolve in water.
Covalent Chemical Bonding
Covalent bonding occurs when non-metallic atoms join with each other to form a compound. Atoms share
pair(s) of electron to attain inert gas electron configuration
Bonding of hydrogen molecule with it dot and cross diagram is as shown below
Hydrogen atom has one electron which shares with another hydrogen atom to form a covalent bond. Both atoms
share electrons equally.
Dot and Cross diagram for ammonia (NH3)
Nitrogen has 5 electrons in its outer shell. Three electrons are required from 3 hydrogen atoms. Three electrons
from a nitrogen atom are shared with electrons from Hydrogen atoms.
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Exercise
Draw diagrams to represent the bonding in each of the following covalent compounds
Water (H2O)
Methane (CH4)
Chlorine molecule (Cl2)
Hydrogen Chloride (HCl)
Double Covalent Bond
Formed when two pairs of electrons are shared in each case e.g
Electron dot and cross diagram:
2 Hydrogen atoms will share their electrons so that both atoms can have a full outermost shell. This sharing of
electrons is called a covalent bond.
The halogens also covalently bond to themselves to form diatomic molecules. eg. F2, Cl2, Br2, I2
Covalent bonds also form between different types of non-metal atoms.
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Dot and cross diagram for water:
Formation of carbon dioxide, dot and cross diagram
Exercise
Draw a diagram to represent the bonding of oxygen gas molecules. (O2).
Double Covalent Bonds
Oxygen is another example of a diatomic molecule. However, for two oxygen atoms to have full outermost
shells, they must share 4 electrons instead of just 2 which forms a double covalent bond.
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In carbon dioxide, 1 carbon atom is double bonded to 2 different oxygen atoms
TRIPLE COVALENT BOND
Formed when three pairs of electrons are shared in each case e.g. For example, Nitrogen shares 6 electrons in its
diatomic state to form a triple bond.
In carbon monoxide, carbon and oxygen share 6 electrons to form a triple bond.
Covalent Structure
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Covalent Structures are also called molecular structures. Compounds containing covalent bonds have molecules
whose structures can be classified as;
Simple molecular structures which have the following properties
i. Formed from only few atoms

ii. Have strong covalent bond between the atoms within a molecule
iii. Have weak bonds between the molecules
Examples include: Iodine, methane, water, ethanol, etc
Giant molecular structures contains many hundreds of thousands of atoms joined by strong covalent bonds
Examples include; diamond, graphite, silicon (IV) oxide, and plastics
Properties of Covalent Compounds
i. They do not conduct electricity when in molten or solution form

ii. They have low melting and boiling points.
iii. They are usually insoluble in water but in organic solvent
iv. Most of them are gaseous or volatile liquids at room temperature and pressure.
Valency of Elements
It‟s the combining power of an atom to form a bond. Combining power of an atom is the number of electrons an
atom requires to attain the stable gas electron configuration.
Table 2.8: Valences of some common substances
Valency
1 2 3 4
Metals Lithium (Li+) Magnesium(Mg2+) Aluminium (Al3+) Tin (Sn4+)
Sodium (Na+) Calcium (Ca2+) Iron (Fe3+) Lead (Pb4+)
Potassium(K+) Copper (Cu2+)
Silver (Ag+) Zinc (Zn2+)
Copper (Cu+) Iron (Fe2+)
Lead (Pb2+)
Barium (Ba2+)
Tin (Sn2+)
NonMetals Fluoride (F-) Oxide (O2-)
Chloride (Cl-) Sulphide (S2+)
Bromide (Br-)
Hydrogen (H+)
Groups of Hydroxide Carbonate (CO32-) Phosphates
atom (OH-) (PO43-)
Nitrate (NO3-) Sulphate (SO42-)
Ammonium Sulphite (SO3-)
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+
(NH4 )
Hydrogen
Carbonate (HCO3-
)
Hydrogen
Sulphate (HSO4-)
Finding Formula of compounds
Using the Valences, it is easy to determine the formula of a compound.
Examples
Write the formula of the following compounds
i. Sodium Chloride
ii. Magnesium Chloride
iii. Iron (III) Chloride
Solution
i. Sodium Chloride contains Na+ and Cl+

One Na+ to bond to One Cl-. Thus, the ratio of charges is 1:1
Therefore, the formula is NaCl
ii. Magnesium Chloride contains Mg2+ and Cl-
Two Cl- are required to bond to one Mg2+. Thus, the ratio of ion‟s charges is 2:1
Therefore, the formula is MgCl2
iii. Iron(III) Chloride contains Fe3+ and Cl-.
Three Cl- are required to bond to one Fe3+. Thus, the ratio of ion‟s charge is 3:1
Therefore, the formula is FeCl3
Exercise
Write the formula for the following compounds.
Copper(I) Oxide, Zinc Phosphate, Lead (II) Sulphate, Sodium Phosphate, Calcium Carbonate, Iron (II)
Hydroxide, Lead nitrate and Manganese (IV) oxide
Polar and Non-Polar Covalent Bond
Polar Covalent Bond:
Polar means one side is different from the other. Polar Covalent Bonds are formed when two atoms with
different electro negativity bond. Electrons in the bond are not shared equally shared. This results into the
formation of partial charges. Electro negativity is the ability of an atom to attract electrons to it. Examples of
polar covalent compounds include; H2O, HCl, alkanols, Carboxylic.
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A polar covalent bond forms between non-metal atoms of different elements. eg. methane (CH4), carbon
dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), and water (H2O). In polar covalent bonds, electrons are not shared
equally because different elements have different strengths of electron attraction called electronegativity.
Non- Polar Bond
A non-polar covalent bond forms between 2 non-metal atoms of the same element. eg. all diatomic molecules.
In non-polar bonds, electrons are shared equally. Formed between two atoms which have the same electro
negativity. Electrons in the bond are shared equally. Examples of non-polar compounds include; alkanes,
hydrogen, chlorine, sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide
Metallic Bonding
This is bonding in metals. The electrons in the outer energy level of metal atoms are removed and move freely
throughout the structure. They are delocalized forming a mobile sea of electrons. When the metal atoms lose
these electrons, they become positive ions. The negatively charged electrons attract all positive metal ions
and bond them together with strong electrostatic forces of attraction.
Metallic bonding is described as positive ions (cations) surrounded by a sea of electrons.
model of metallic bonding
Properties Of Metals
1. They usually have high melting and boiling points due to strong attraction between positive ions and
electrons.
2. They conduct electricity due to the mobile electrons in the structure.
3. They are malleable (can be hammered into different shapes) and ductile (can be pulled out into thin
wire).
4. They have high densities because the atoms are very closely packed in a manner.
5. Metals are good conductors of heat.
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2.3 SELECTED ELEMENTS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS
Sources of Sulphur.
1. Volcanic regions or regions where volcanoes were formally active e.g. in countries such as Italy,
Mexico, Japan and USA
2. Crude oil (petroleum), coal gas and natural gas.
3. Metal ores containing sulphur e. g. Zinc blend.
Physical Properties of Sulphur
i. It is brittle
ii. Does not conduct electricity
iii. Insoluble in water
iv. Exists as allotropes
Allotropes are different structural forms of the same element. eg. carbon can exist as diamond or graphite.
Allotropes of Sulphur
Sulphur exists in different forms namely; Rhombic sulphur, Monoclinic Sulphur, Amorphous Sulphur and
Plastic Sulphur.
Rhombic Sulphur
Also known as alpha (α) sulphur. Made up of tightly packed S8 molecules. Is a yellow crystalline solid with an
octahedral shape
It crystallizes from solution of carbon disulphide and Rhombic sulphur is stable below 960C.
Monoclinic Sulphur
Also known as beta sulphur (β). Is yellow solid with long prism needle shape. Made up of loosely packed S 8
molecules. It is obtained by allowing molten sulphur to solidify between 960C to 1190C. Monoclinic sulphur
gradually changes to rhombic sulphur if kept at room temperature.
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Structural comparison of the molecules in a monoclinic sulphur crystal to the molecules in rhombic sulphur
crystal.
Amorphous Sulphur
Is non-crystalline and colloidal in appearance. It is insoluble in carbon disulphide solution
Plastic Sulphur
Is an amorphous form of sulphur formed when molten sulphur (m.p. 1130C) is poured into cold water. It forms
into a long fibre which can be stretched and pulled like plastic. It is not stable and eventually crystallizes to
rhombic sulphur.
Physical Properties
i. Is a yellow, non-metallic solid

ii. It has low melting point
iii. It is insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
Chemical Properties
i. Burns in air with blue flame to form sulphur dioxide
S (s) + O2 → SO2(g)
* Sulphur dioxide is a poisonous gas. It attacks the breathing systems in humans and animals, and it dissolves
in rain to form acid rain. Acid rain damages metals, and plants.
ii. Reacts with most metals to form metal sulphides
Fe (s) + S (s) → FeS (s) + heat
Cu (s) + S(s) → CuS(s) +heat
iii. Oxidizes in concentrated acid
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S(s) + 2H2SO4 (l) → 3SO2(g) + 2H2O
S (s) + 6HNO3 (l) →H2SO4 + 6NO2 + 2H2O(g)
iv. When heated, it combines directly with other non-metals like hydrogen
S (s) + H2(g) → H2S (g)
Uses of Sulphur
i. Used to manufacture sulphuric acid.

ii. For making gun powder and matches
iii. For manufacture of fireworks.
iv. Used in vulcanization (hardening) of rubber
v. For manufacturing germicides and fungicides
vi. Manufacture of medicine
vii. Used in photographic development
viii. For making bleaching agents
ix. In making artificial hair colours or dyes
Uses of Sulphuric Acid
Sulphuric acid is a dehydrating agent which means it removes water from other substances.
Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with bases to form salts called sulphates and water
sodium hydroxide + Sulphuric acid → sodium sulphate + water
NaOH(as) + H2SO4(aq) → Na2SO4(s) + H2O(l)
i. To manufacture fertilizer like ammonium sulphate.

ii. Used in production of synthetic fibres and plastics.
iii. Used in petroleum refining
iv. Used in car batteries
v. Used in cleaning metals
vi. Used to make soap and detergents
vii. Used to make dye, drugs, paint and explosives
viii. Concentrated sulphuric acid is a dehydrating agent. It dehydrates sucrose (sugar).
Uses Of Sulphates
i. Used as fertilizers e.g. ammonium sulphate.

ii. Used in manufacture of plaster of paris (which helps in management of broken bones)e.g. Calcium
Sulphate.
iii. Used as medicines e.g. magnesium sulphate heals bruises, sores, or strained muscles. Zinc sulphate
treats certain skin diseases.
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1. The table below shows the atomic numbers of some element represented by letter F, G, H, I, J and K.
Study the table and answer the questions hat follow.
Element Atomic number
F 11
G 10
H 17
I 14
J 9
K 19
i. In the space provided below, draw a diagram to show the arrangement of protons and electrons in an
atom of element F (2 marks)
ii. Which of the elements are metals? (2 marks)
iii. Which of the non-metals is the most reactive? (1 mark)
iv. Give a reason for your answer to Q1 a (iii) (2 marks)
v. How would an atom of element I acquire an inert gas configuration? (2 marks)
vi. Explain why K would form compounds which are usually electrolytes in aqueous or molten state
while I would form compounds which are usually non-electrolytes (4 marks)
2. Write an equation for the reaction of sodium with water and describe the test you can carry out to verify
the products. (5 marks)
3. a. Table 2 shows particles found in the atoms of four elements.
ELEMENT PROTONS NEUTRONS ELECTRONS MASS NO
Hydrogen (H) 1 1
Carbon (C) 6 12
Nitrogen (N) 7 7
Sodium (Na) 12 11
(3 marks)
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i. Complete the table by filling in the missing numbers.
ii. Which element in the table will easily form an ionic compound? (1 mark)
iii. Give a reason for the answer to 3a (ii) (2 marks)
iv. Work out the molecular mass of methane (CH4) (2 marks)
v. What kind of chemical bonds are involved in methane? (1 mark)
vi. Explain the answer to 3 a. (v) (3 marks)
b. The dot and cross diagram of calcium chloride is shown below.
i. Write the chemical formula of calcium chloride. (1 mark)

ii. Explain the meaning of the sign 2+ on the Ca atom. (1 mark)
c. Table 3 shows elements represented by letters Q, R, L, M, X, W, Y and Z in the same period of the
periodic table.
GROUP i ii Iii iv v vi vii Viii
ELEMENTS Q R L M X W Y Z
i. Write the formula of a charged atom of R (1 mark)
ii. Give the letter of the element in the table which belongs to the halogen family. (1 mark)
iii. Give the letter of an element in the table that would not react with another element. (1 mark)
iv. Give a reason for the answer to 3c (iii) (1 mark)
4. Figure 1 shows the first 20 elements on the periodic table
1 4
1 1 H 2 He
7 9 11 12 14 16 19 20
2 3 Li 4 Be 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 F 10 Ne
23 24 27 28 31 32 35 40
3 11 Na 12 Mg 13 Al 14 Si 15 P 16 S 17 Cl 18 Ar
39 40
4 19 K 20 Ca
Fig.1- Periodic table of the first 20 elements
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i. Write down the atomic number of Si (1 mark)
ii. Work out the electron configuration of K (2 mark)
iii. Draw an electron dot and cross diagram of CO2 (2 mark)
iv. Give one element that will have a +2 charge (1 mark)
v. Draw an electron dot and cross diagram of the compound formed between 3517Cl and 3919K (2 mark)
vi. Is the compound drawn in 5e ionic or covalent? Why? (2 marks)
5. Table 3 shows the atomic numbers, melting points, boiling points and atomic radii of some halogens
Name of Atomic Number Melting Point Boiling Point Atomic radius

element (°C) (°C) (nm)
Fluorine 9 -220 -188 0.071
Chlorine 17 -101 -34 0.099
Bromine 35 -7 59 0.114
Iodine 53 114 184 0.133
i. Which element is a liquid at room temperature (25°C) (1 mark)
ii. Why does iodine have the biggest radius (1 mark)
iii. Give two good uses of halogens in everyday life (2 marks)
iv. Give two negatives of halogens affecting the environment (2 marks)
v. Give two properties of halogens (2 marks)
vi. Put the halogens in order of Least Reactive to Most Reactive (2 marks)
State any two uses of sulphur in everyday life (2 marks)
Explain, with aid of a diagram, why rhombic sulphur is more stable than monoclinic sulphur (6 marks)
Compare Metals and Nonmetals on 2 Properties and Location on Periodic Table (4 marks)
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CHAPTER 3
CHEMICAL REACTION 1
Introduction
Chemical reactions are also known as chemical changes. Chemical changes can occur when two substances,
elements, or compounds interact and produce one or more different substances whose physical and chemical
properties are different from the interacting substances. When substances undergo chemical change, the number
of atoms in the reactants is the same as the number of atoms in the products. This can be shown through simple
balancing of chemical equations. Mass is conserved when substances undergo chemical change. The total mass
of the interacting substances (reactants) is the same as the total mass of the substances produced (products). A
balanced chemical equation will allow one to predict the amount of product formed. The atomic mass listed on
the periodic table is an average mass for all the different isotopes that exist, taking into account the per cent and
mass of each different isotope. Compounds have a fixed percent elemental composition. For a compound, the
empirical formula can be calculated from the per cent composition or the mass of each element. To determine
the molecular formula from the empirical formula, the molar mass of the substance must also be known. The
mole is the standard unit for counting atomic and molecular particles in terms of common mass units. The
physical properties of a solution are determined by the concentration of solute. Chemical interactions either
release energy to the environment (exothermic) or absorb energy from the environment (endothermic). All
chemical reactions involve rearrangement of the atoms. In an exothermic reaction, the products have less
energy than the reactants. Chemical reactions involve breaking bonds in reactants (endothermic) and forming
new bonds in the products (exothermic). The enthalpy change for a chemical reaction will depend on the
relative strengths of the bonds in the reactants and products.
3.1 CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND CHEMICAL EQUATION
A chemical reaction is the process by which substances bond together (or break bonds) and, in doing so, either
release or consumes energy. A Chemical Reaction (Rxn) can also be defined as process by which atoms of
one or more substances are rearranged to form different substances OR A Chemical reaction is the
arrangement of atoms to form new substances. For example carbon reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide.
C (s) + O2  CO2 (g)
A chemical reaction is the process in which one or more substances are converted into a new substance with
different physical and chemical properties. Thus, Chemical Reaction is the rearrangement of atoms in a
compound or an element to produce a new substance.
Examples of Chemical Reactions include:
Burning gasoline, rusting iron, ripening of bananas, tarnished silver, baking bread etc
Why Do Chemical Reactions Occur?
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HINT: remember atoms and bonding!!
Reactions occur to produce more stable arrangements of electrons (in an atom, ion, or molecule). A chemical
reaction only takes place when there is a collision between the reacting molecules. These molecules must have
enough speed (kinetic energy) to break the old bonds in order to form new bonds. The substances involved in a
chemical reaction are called the reactants and the new substances formed are called products.
Chemical Equation
When a chemical reaction occurs, it can be described by an equation. This shows the chemicals that react
(called the reactants) on the left-hand side, and the chemicals that they produce (called the products) on the
right-hand side. The chemicals can be represented by their names or by their chemical symbols.
A chemical equation is therefore shorthand that scientists use to describe a chemical reaction. A Chemical
Equation is a summary of what happens in a chemical reaction
A Balanced Chemical Equation is a chemical equation which shows same number of atoms of each element
on both sides of the equation (reactants and products). Balancing a Chemical equation therefore refers to
establishing the mathematical relationship between the quantity of reactants and products.
Representing Chemical Reactions
The Players
reactants – starting substances
products – substances formed during rxn
yield arrows – show how rxn progresses/moves (use )
physical states of reactants and products; (s) – solid, (l) – liquid, (g) – gas, (aq) – water solution
* show how reactions occur
HOW DO WE PUT ALL THESE TOGETHER?
1. Word Equations: Iron (s) + chlorine (g)  iron(III) chloride (s)
2. Skeleton Equation: uses chemical symbols and formulas
Example: Fe (s) + Cl2 (g)  FeCl3 (s)
Example: C (s) + S (s)  CS2 (l)
3. Chemical Equation: statement that uses chemical formulas to show:
a. Identities of reactants and products involved in reaction
b. Relative amounts of the substances

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*adds the Law of Conservation of Mass (MUST BE FOLLOWED!!)
Balancing Chemical Equation
These are essentially three steps to the process
1. write the unbalanced equation

2. Chemical formula of reactants are listed on the left hand side of the equation
3. Products are listed on the right-hand side of the equation; an arrow separates reactants and product
Reactants → products
Balance the equation
1. Try to get the same number of atoms of every element on each side of the equation
2. Start by balancing an element that appears in only one reactant and product.
3. Once one element is balanced, proceed to balance another until all elements are balanced.
4. Balance formula by placing coefficient in front of them. Do not add subscripts
5. Indicate the states of matter of the reactant and products using; (g) for gaseous substance, (s) for solid
substance, (l) for liquid substance and (aq) for aqueous substance
Balancing can be done in two ways
a. Try and Error method

b. Systematic method
For example, the reaction below is a balanced chemical equation
2 Fe (s) + 3 Cl2 (g)  2 FeCl3 (s)
Coefficients – the number in front of reactant/product
a. Only whole numbers (2, 3, 4, 5…)
b. No coefficient assumes 1)
***need lowest whole number ratio (if divide by smallest whole number, no decimals form)
Steps in Balancing Equations
1. Write Skeleton Equation
2. Count number of atoms of each element in reactants and products
3. Change coefficients to make number of atoms of each element equal on both sides
(**never change subscripts)
4. Confirm coefficients are lowest whole # ratio

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5. CHECK YOUR WORK!!!
Example 1: Liquid carbon disulfide reacts with oxygen gas, producing carbon dioxide gas and sulfur dioxide
gas.
CS2 (l) + 3 O2 (g)  CO2 (g) + 2 SO2 (g)
Example 2
Magnesium reacts with Hydrochloric acid to form Magnesium Chloride and Hydrogen gas. Write a balanced
Chemical equation for reaction.
Mg (s) + HCl → MgCl2 + H2
Let the coefficient to be a,b, x and y as shown below
a Mg (s) + b HCl (aq) →x MgCl2 + y H2
a = x for Mg atoms……………i
b = 2y for H atoms ……………ii
b = 2x for Cl atoms…………….iii
Taking the smallest number i.e. let a = 1, then x = 1 in iii
b = 2 x 1 =2 and in ii
2 = 2y y=2
Substituting the coefficients in the chemical equation will be
Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Exercise
Balance the following chemical equations
i. H2 (g) + O2 → H2O (l)

ii. Na(s) + H2O (l)→ NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
iii. CaCO3(s) + HCl (aq) → CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)+ CO2 (g)
iv. C2H4 + O2(g) → H2O (l)+ CO2 (g)
v. Ca (s) + O2(g) →CaO (s)
vi. CO(g) + O2 (g) → CO2 (g)
vii. Fe (s) + O2 (g) → Fe2O3 ( s)
viii. N2 (g) + H2(g) → NH3(g)
ix. N2(g) + O2 (g) → NO (g)
x. Fe2O3 (s) + CO (g) → FeO (s) + CO2 (g)
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Exercise
Write and Balance the following reactions in Chemical Equations
Directions: Write the word equation, skeleton equation, and balanced chemical equation for the following
reactions. Use textbooks to help.
1. In water, iron(III) chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide, producing solid iron(III) hydroxide and sodium
chloride
2. Liquid carbon disulfide reacts with oxygen gas, producing carbon dioxide gas and sulfur dioxide gas
3. Solid zinc and aqueous hydrogen sulfate react to produce hydrogen gas and aqueous zinc sulfate
4. When solid naphthalene (C10H8) burns in air, the products are gaseous carbon dioxide and liquid water
5. Bubbling hydrogen sulfide gas through manganese(II) chloride dissolved in water results in the formation of
the precipitate manganese(II) sulfide and hydrochloric acid
6. Solid magnesium reacts with nitrogen gas to produce solid magnesium nitride
7. Heating oxygen difluoride gas yields oxygen gas and fluorine gas
8. Hydrogen iodide gas decomposes when heated to form hydrogen gas and iodine gas
9. In water, rubidium iodide reacts with silver nitrate to form solid silver iodide while rubidium nitrate stays
dissolved in water
10. Is the following equation balanced? If not, correct the coefficients.
2 K2CrO4(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq)  2 KNO3(aq) + PbCrO4(s)
3.2 STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the study of quantitative relationships between amounts of reactants used and products
formed by a chemical reaction based on the Law of Conservation of Mass which state that matter is neither
created nor destroyed
Example
4 Fe + 3 O2  2 Fe2O3
Mass of reactants = 319.4 g AND Mass of products = 319.4 g
Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) and Isotopes
Not all the atoms of the same proton number are exactly the same. Eg chlorine examined on the mass
spectrometer is found to be of two types:
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Chlorine – 35 (RAM of 35)
Chlorine – 37 (RAM of 37)
Such kinds of atoms are called isotopes. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different
mass numbers due to different numbers of neutrons.
Chemical properties of Isotopes
These atoms react equally because they have the same number of electrons in their outermost shell which are
involved in a chemical reaction.
Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)
The unit mass of an atom is called the atomic mass unit (amu). However the atomic mass of any atom is
compared to the mass of carbon-12. This is called the Relative Atomic Mass (RAM).
Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) of an element = atomic mass of an atom in amu
1/12 of C-12 atom in amu
Relative Atomic Mass (RAM) of an element = 35.5 amu
1/12 of C-12 atom in amu
Example 1
Find the relative atomic mass of Cl whose atomic mass is 35.5amu
Finding RAM from the mass of isotopes
Example 2
Chlorine is an element with isotopes of mass number 35 and 37. The abundance of Cl-35 is 75% and Cl-37 is
25%. Calculate the RAM of chlorine.
Working
RAM of Cl = (35*75%) + (37*25%)
100%
= 35.5
Therefore RAM of Cl is 35.5
AVOGRADRO’S NUMBER
the value is 6.02 x 1023 particles
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23
1mole = 6.02x 10 particles
Example
How many particles are there in 0.5 moles of Oxygen?
Solution
Number of particles = moles x Avogadro constant
= 0.5 x 6.02 x1023
= 3.01 x 1023 particles
MOLES
Refers to the amount of a substance which contains 6.02 x 1023 particles (molecules, atoms etc). It helps to
count the number of atoms and the molecules by weighing them.
E.g. H2 (g) + O2(g)  H2O(l); 1 mole of hydrogen atom has a mass of 1g and 1 mole of O2 has a
mass of 16g.
Mole and RAM
The RAM in grams of any element contains 1 mole of atoms. Thus, a mole is a ratio of mass of a substance to
its atomic mass unit
Mole and Compounds
The Relative Molecular Mass (RMM) in grams of any compound or molecule contains 1 mole of a compound.
Mass of a compound = number of moles of a compound * Relative Molecular Mass (RMM)
E.g. The RMM of H2O is 18; therefore 18g of water molecule contains 1 mole
NOTE: from the equation; 2H2 (g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l), we conclude that two molecules of
hydrogen reacts with one molecule of oxygen to produce two molecules of water.
Mole Calculation
There are some useful formulas used in mole Calculation
1. Number of moles =
2. Number of moles of molecules =

3. Number of moles of molecules or ion unit =
4. Number of moles of particles =
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Molar Mass is the mass of any substance (1 mole) in moles expressed in grams.
Steps to follow when calculating Molar Mass of the substance
i. Write the correct symbol or formula of a substance. E.g CO3, H2O, C2H5OH, or N
ii. Find its RAM, RMM or RFM
iii. Express that mass in gram per mole
Calculating the number of moles, molar mass and mass of the substance
Example 1
Calculate the number of moles in
a. 2 g of Neon atoms RAM: Ne= 20
n=
= 0.1 moles
b. 9.8 g of Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) RAM: H = 1 S = 32 O = 16
n=
= 0.1
Example 2
Calculate mass of 5 moles of Sulphur atoms RAM: S = 32
mass = n x RFM
= 5 x 32
= 160 g
Example 3
Calculate mass of 0.25 moles of hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
mass = n x RMM
=0.25 x 34
= 8.5 g
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Molar Volume
Definition: Volume occupied by 1 mole of a gas at room temperature and pressure or standard temperature
and pressure. Molar volume at room temperature and pressure (rtp) is 24dm3 and at standard temperature and
pressure is 22.4dm3. If a substance exist as a gas, then one mole of any gas occupies a volume of approximately
24dm3 (24l) at room temperature and pressure.
Number of moles of a gas =
Examples
1. Calculate number of moles at rtp in

a. 2 dm3 carbon dioxide (CO2)
No. of moles CO2 (g) =
= 0.08 moles
b. 240 dm3 of sulphur dioxide (SO2)

c. 20 cm3 carbon monoxide (CO)
d. 72 dm3 of ammonia gas (NH3)
2. Calculate the volume of
a. 0.3molesof hydrogen chloride (HCl)
b. Volume of gas = number of moles x 24 dm3
= 0.3 x 24 dm3
= 7.2 dm3
c. 4.4 g of carbon dioxide
d. 34 g of ammonia
e. 0.5 moles of carbon dioxide
Exercise
1. How many moles of calcium carbonate (CACO3) are used in a reaction if 10g of the solids are used?
2. Calculate the mass of
a. 2 moles of iron (RAM of Fe = 56)
b. 0.25 moles of Iron
3. Calculate number of moles of aluminium (RAM of Al = 27) present in
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a. 108g
b. 13.5g
4. Calculate the relative formula mass (RFM) of ethanol (C2H5OH)
5. Calculate number of moles at rtp in
a. 240 dm3 of sulphur dioxide (SO2)
b. 20 cm3 carbon monoxide (CO)
c. 72 dm3 of ammonia gas (NH3)
6. Calculate the volume of
a. g of carbon dioxide
b. 34 g of ammonia
c. 0.5 moles of carbon dioxide
7. Calculate number of moles in
a. 4 g of Magnesium atoms
b. 24 g of carbon atoms
c. 40 g of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
d. 720 g of Iron (II) oxide (FeO)
e. 108g of Aluminium
f. 13,5 g of Aluminium
8. Calculate mass of
a. moles of oxygen molecules
b. 0.25 moles of sodium atom
c. moles of Zinc oxide (ZnO)
d. 0.35 moles of copper(II) sulphate (CuSO4)
e. moles of Iron
moles of Carbon dioxide
Ar: Mg = 24, C= 12, Na = 23, O = 16, H = 1, Fe = 56, Al = 27, Zn =65, Cu = 63.5, N =14
Interpreting Chemical Equations in terms of representative particles, moles, and mass:
Example 1
The combustion of propane (C3H8) provides energy for heating homes. Interpret the equation for the
combustion of propane in terms of representative particles, moles, and mass. Show that the law of conservation
of mass is observed.
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
Solution
1 molecule C3H8 + 5 molecules O2  3 molecules CO2 + 4 molecules H2O
1 mole C3H8 + 5 moles O2  3 moles CO2 + 4 moles H2O
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1 mole C3H8 x 44.0 g C3H8 = 44.0 g C3H8
1 mol C3H8
5 mol O2 x 32.0 g O2 = 160.0 g O2
1 mol O2
3 mol CO2 x 44.0 g CO2 = 132.0 g CO2
1 mol CO2
4 mol H2O x 18.0 g H2O = 72.0 g H2O
1 mol H2O
44.0 g + 160 g = 132.0 g + 72.0 g. The Law of Conservation of Mass is observed
Exercise
Interpret the following balanced chemical equation in terms of particles, moles, and mass. Show that the law of
conservation of mass is observed.
N2 + 3H2  2NH3
Mole Ratios is the ratio between the numbers of moles of any two substances in a balanced chemical equation
2 Al + 3 Br2  2 AlBr3
Write all 6 mole ratios
To determine the number of mole ratios that can be written, multiply the number of species in the equation by
the next lowest whole number (ex. – reaction w/ 4 species would have 12 mole ratios)
Example 3
1. Determine all possible mole ratios for the following balanced equation
4Al + 3O2  2Al2O3
Solution
4 mol Al 4 mol Al 3 mol O2 3 mol O2 2 mol Al2O3 2 mol Al2O3
3 mol O2 2 mol Al2O3 4 Al 2 mol Al2O3 4 mol Al 3 mol O2
Stoichiometric Calculations
Mole – to – Mole Conversions
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Example
One disadvantage of burning propane (C3H8) is that carbon dioxide is one of the products. The released carbon
dioxide increases the growing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere. How many moles of carbon dioxide are
produced when 10 moles of propane are burned in excess oxygen in a gas grill?
C3H8 + 5O2  3CO2 + 4H2O
Solution
10 mol C3H8 x 3 mol CO2 = 30 mol CO2
1 mol C3H8
Mole – to - Mass Conversions
Example
Determine the mass of sodium chloride produced when 1.25 moles of chlorine gas reacts vigorously with
sodium.
2Na + Cl2  2NaCl
1.25 moles Cl2 x 2 moles NaCl x 58.44 g NaCl = 146 g NaCl
1 mol Cl2 1 mol NaCl
Mass – to – Mass Conversions
Example
Ammonium nitrate, an important fertilizer, produces N2O gas and H2O when it decomposes. Determine the
mass of water produced from the decomposition of 25.0 g of solid ammonium nitrate.
Solution
NH4NO3  N2O + 2 H2O
25 g NH4NO3 x 1 mol NH4NO3 x 2 mol H2O x 18 g H2O = 11.2 g H2O
80.04 g NH4NO3 1 mol NH4NO3 1 mol H2O
Limiting Reactant is the limits the extent of the reaction and, thereby, determines the amount of product
The left over reactants that remain are called excess reactants
3 N2 + 3 H2  2NH3
** Draw this out to show that hydrogen in the limiting reactant and nitrogen is the excess reactant
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Example
The reaction between solid white phosphorus and oxygen produces solid tetraphosphorus decoxide. This
compound is often called phosphorus pentoxide because its empirical formula is P2O5.
a. Determine the mass of tetraphosphorus decoxide formed if 25.0 g of phosphorus (P 4) and 50.0 g of oxygen
are combined.
b. How much of the excess reactant remains after the reaction stops?
Solution
Steps 1 – Write the balanced equation
P4 + 5O2  P4O10
Step 2 – Convert g to moles
25 g P4 x 1 mol P4 = 202 mol P4
123.9 P4
50 g O2 x 1 mol O2 = 1.56 mol O2
32.0 g O2
Step 3 – Divide the larger number by the smaller number
1.56 mol O2 = 7.72 mol O2
.202 mol P4 1 mol P4
Step 4 – Determine the limiting reagent
Since you need 5 moles O2 , you have 7.72 mol of O2 and you only need 5 mol of O2, so P4 is the limiting
1 mol P4
Step 5 – Use the limiting reactant to complete the problem
.202 mol P4 x 1 mol P4O10 x 283.9 g P4O10 = 57.3 g P4O10
1 mol P4 1 mol P4O10
Step 6 – Complete part B of the problem (always start with the limiting reactant)
.202 mol P4 x 5 mol O2 x 32 g O2 = 32.3 g O2 needed
1 mol P4 1 mol O2
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50 g O2 available – 32.3 g O2 needed = 17.7 g O2 in excess
Reacting Masses
If we want to find the amount of substance used or produced in a reaction.
Example
In an experiment, 24 g of Magnesium was burnt in an excess of oxygen to form magnesium oxide. Calculate
the mass of Magnesium Oxide produced. Ar; Mg = 24 O =16
Solution
Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction
2Mg + O2 → 2 MgO
This shows that 2 moles of Mg reacts with 1 mole of O2 to give 2 moles of MgO
Using proportion
Two moles of Mg = 2 x24g = 48g
2 moles of MgO = (16 + 24) x 2 = 80g
48g of Mg = 80g 0f MgO
24g of Mg = X
48 X = 80 x 24
X=
= 40 g
40 g of MgO will be produced
Empirical and Molecular Formula
Empirical Formula is the simplest ratio of atoms present in a molecule. Examples; C2H4, C3H6, C4H8 have
the simplest formula of CH2.
Example 1
In an experiment an unknown organic compound was found to contain 0.12 g of carborn and 0.02g of
hydrogen. Calculate the empirical formula of the compound.
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Solution
C H
Masses (g) 0.12 0.02
Number of moles
= 0.01 = 0.02
Ratio of moles 1 2
The empirical formula is CH2.
Example 2
Calculate the empirical formula of an organic compound containing 92.3 % carbon and 7.7 % Hydrogen by
mass. The molecular mass of the organic compound is 78. What is its molecular formula? Ar ; H= 1, C = 12
Solution
C H
% by mass 92.3 7.7
in 100g 92.3g 7.7g
moles
= 7.7 =7.7
Ratio of moles 1 1
Empirical formula is CH
Molecular Formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element present in one molecule of the
substance. To find molecular formula from empirical formula, we need to find out the number of empirical
formula unit present
Number of empirical formula unit =
Example
Calculate the molecular formula of a compound whose empirical formula is CH and the relative molecular
mass is 78 Ar: C = 12 H = 1
Solution
Mr of the empirical formula unit (CH)

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= 12 + 1
= 13
Number of empirical formula units present
=6
The molecular formula of the organic compound is 6 x (1:1)= C6H6. This compound is called benzene.
Percentage Composition
Percentage composition: Show the percentage of a particular atom in a compound either by mass or relative
mass i.e. % composition of an element =
Example
What is the percentage composition of oxygen in Magnesium oxide MgO? Ar: Mg = 24 O = 16
Solution
% composition of O = = 40%
Percentage Yield, Theoretical Yield and Actual Yield
Percent Yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a percent. Theoretical Yield
is the maximum amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of reactant. Actual Yield is the
amount of product actually produced when the chemical reaction is carried out in an experiment
Example
When potassium chromate is added to a solution containing .500 g silver nitrate, solid silver chromate is
formed.
a. Determine the theoretical yield of the silver chromate precipitate
b. If .455 g of silver chromate is obtained, calculate the percent yield
Solution
2AgNO3 + K2CrO4  Ag2CrO4 + 2KNO3
.5 g AgNO3 x 1 mol AgNO3 x 1 mol Ag2CrO4 x 331.7 g Ag2CrO4 = .488 g Ag2CrO4
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169.9 g AgNO3 2 mol AgNO3 1 mol Ag2CrO4
% yield = .455 g/.488 g = 93.2 % Ag2CrO4
Examinable Practical Question
Describe an experiment that can be carried out to determine the percentage composition of carbon in sucrose
[common sugar, C12 H22 O11] using heating method. Show all the materials you may need. (13 marks)
Exercise
1. What mass of CaO is formed when 40g of Ca metal is burned in excess air. Ar: Ca = 40, O = 16
2. Copper (II) oxide is reduced by heating with excess hydrogen to form copper metal. What mass of
Copper (II) oxide will react with hydrogen to produce 8 g of copper? (Cu =64: O = 16)
3. Determine the empirical formula of an organic hydrocarbon compound which contains 80% by mass of
carbon and 20% by mass of hydrogen. If the molecular mass of a compound 30 what is its molecular
formula.
4. Find the empirical formula of a substance that has the following percentage composition as follows
C=40%, H= 6.67 % and O = 53.33% by mass.
5. 14.82g of a hydrocarbon contains 12.26 g of carbon. Find the simplest formula of this hydrocarbon.
6. Calculate the empirical formula of a compound containing 46.4% of sodium, 15.3% carbon and the rest
is oxygen. (Na = 23, C = 12, O = 16)
You are provided with the following materials sugar, a tin, tripod stand, wire gauze, spirit lamp, matches and
triple beam balance.
a. Weigh the empty tin and record the mass in the table below.
b. With the tin still on the balance, add sugar until the mass increases by approximately 8 g.
c. Record the mass of sugar in the table below.
d. Heat the sugar in the tin until all the water has evaporated leaving a dry black solid (carbon)
e. Weigh the tin plus carbon and record in the table below
f. Calculate mass of carbon and record in the table below.
ITEM MASS (g)
Empty tin
Tin plus sugar before heating
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Sugar
Tin plus carbon after heating
Carbon
(5 marks)
g. Calculate the percentage composition by mass of carbon in sugar. (3marks)
h. Identify any two sources of error in this experiment (2 marks)
i. Is the above reaction physical change or chemical change. Give a reason. (2 marks)
Concentration and molarity
Concentration of a solution is
1. Mass per unit volume. Thus, Concentration =
2. Mass of solute per unit mass of a solvent. Thus, Concentration =
3. Moles per unit volume. Thus, Molarity =
Molarity is a kind of concentration measured in mole/dm3.
Standard Solution is a solution whose concentration is known. Examples: 4M solution of sodium carbonate is
a standard solution
Making up Standard Solution
There are two methods of making a standard solution.
A. dissolution
B. dilution
Dissolution
Standard solution made by dissolving a solute of known mass in a solvent of known volume
Using concentration and volume of the solution required, calculate the number of moles need,
Moles of solute = concentration x volume of solution………………i
Work out the mass required using RFM of the substance and number of moles.
Mass = mole x RFM…………………ii
Combining equation…i and ii
Mass = concentration x volume x RFM
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Making up the solution
i. Weigh out the required mass (as calculated above) using an accurate balance
ii. Clean and dry up a volumetric flask of required capacity, ie 250ml and beaker
iii. Transfer the substance (weighed mass) into the beaker
iv. Add some distilled water and stir with a clean (rinsed) glass rod
v. Transfer the solution into a volumetric flask using a funnel
vi. rinse the beaker, rod and funnel with distilled water into the volumetric flask
vii. Add more water using the funnel until the solution level is just below the mark
viii. Using a dropper, top up the solution level to the mark (meniscus is on the line).
The solution made is exactly the volume of the volumetric flask with concentration as require.
Example
Describe how you can prepare a solution of 500 ml of 0.2 M of NaOH, showing all your calculations.
Solution
Mass = concentration x RFM x volume (in dm3 or litres)
= 0.2M x 40 x 0.5dm3
=4g
Mass required is 4 g
Procedure
i. Weigh out 4 g of NaOH pellets using an accurate balance

ii. Clean and dry up a volumetric flask of required capacity, i.e. 500ml and 100ml beaker
iii. Transfer NaOH pellets into 100ml beaker
iv. Add some distilled water and stir with a clean (rinsed) glass rod
v. Transfer the solution into 500ml volumetric flask using a funnel
vi. Rinse the beaker, rod and funnel with distilled water into the volumetric flask
vii. Add more water using the funnel until the solution level is just below the mark
viii. Using a dropper, top up the solution level to the mark (meniscus is on the line).
The solution made is exactly the 500ml NaOH with concentration of 0.2M
Dilution
Addition of extra solvent into a more concentrated solution (stock solution) to produce a less concentrated
solution. Stock solution is always a standard solution
Note that number of moles before and after dilution is the same i.e.
Moles before dilution = moles after dilution

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Moles before dilution = concentration before dilution x volume of the solution before dilution
n = C1 x V1
Moles after dilution = concentration after dilution x volume of the solution after dilution
n = C2 x V2
Combining the two formulas,
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2
Example
Describe how you can prepare 500cm3of 0.1M HCl from 5.0 M HCl
Working
Need to calculate the volume of 6.0MHCl to be diluted
C1V1 = C2V2
V1 = C2V2 ÷ C1
= (0.1M x 500 cm3) ÷ 5.0 M
= 10 cm3
This means 10 cm3 of the stock solution (5.0M) should be diluted.
Procedure
i. Using a clean pipette or measuring cylinder, transfer 10 cm3 of 5.0M HCl to a 500cm3 volumetric flask.
ii. Rinse the remaining solution in the pipette or measuring cylinder with distilled water and transfer the
washings to the volumetric flask.
iii. Add distilled water just below the line on the volumetric flask.
iv. Add the final drops with a dropper to ensure that the bottom of the meniscus is on the line
v. Put the lid on the flask and turn the flask over a couple of times to mix the solution
vi. Label the solution0.5M HCl
Examinable Question
Explain, showing all your calculations, how you can prepare a solution of 0.1M NaOH (Sodium Hydroxide).
RAM: Na = 23, O = 16, H = 1 12 marks
Titration
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Titration is the gradual addition of one liquid to another. Usually involves the slow addition of reacting volumes
of liquids.When the reaction is complete, we say it has reached end point. End point is known by an indicator, a
dye that has a different colour in acidic or basic solution. The end point is shown by change of colour.
At end point
Where M1 is morality of one liquid (A), M2 is morality the other liquid (B), V1 volume used for liquid A,
V2 is volume used for liquid B, n1 is number of mole for liquid A in equation and n2 is number of moles for
liquid B in the equation.
Uses of titration
a. To prepare soluble salt

b. Find the concentration of other liquid (standardizing solutions).
Example 1
25 cm3 of 0.1M NaOH were neutralized by 20.0 cm3 of HCl. Calculate the morality of HCl?
Solution
Balanced equation for the reaction is
NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
So (base) = (acid)
n1 = n2
Therefore (base) M1 x V1 = M2 x V2 (acid)
M2 =
= 0.125M
Example 2
25 cm3of 0.25M Na2CO3 reacted with 20.8 cm3 of HCl. Work out the concentration of the acid.
Solution
The balanced equation of the reaction is Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
Therefore
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(Base) = (acid)
M2 =
= 0.6 M
Experiment 3.1
Aim: To find the molarity of acetic acid (CH3COOH) by titration.
Materials:
0.1M NaOH solution, acetic acid, phenolphthalein indicator, distilled water, conical flask, burette or
syringe, pipette or measuring cylinder.
Procedure
a. Measure 10 ml of 0.1M sodium hydroxide and pour it into a beaker.

b. Add 2 drops of phenolphthalein indicator into the beaker.
c. Pour 20 ml ethanoic acid in the burette or syringe.
d. Slowly add the ethanoic acid from the syringe or burette into the beaker and shake until colour change is
observed.
e. Record the results in the appropriate spaces in the table of results
Table of Results
Initial volume of Final volume of Volume of acid

acid (ml) acid (ml) used(ml)
f. Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

g. Calculate the concentration of ethanoic acid used in the experiment.
h. Give two ways of reducing errors in the experiment.
3.3 HEATS OF REACTION
All reactions involve some change in energy. During a physical change in matter, such as the evaporation of
liquid water to water vapour, the energy of the water molecules increases. However, the change in energy is
much smaller than in chemical reactions. When a chemical reaction occurs, some bonds will break, while new
bonds may form. Energy changes in chemical reactions result from the breaking and forming of bonds. For
bonds to break, energy must be absorbed. When new bonds form, energy will be released because the new
product has a lower energy than the „in between‟ stage of the reaction when the bonds in the reactants have just
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been broken. In some reactions, the energy that must be absorbed to break the bonds in the reactants is less than
the total energy that is released when new bonds are formed. This means that in the overall reaction, energy is
released. This type of reaction is known as an exothermic reaction. In other reactions, the energy that must be
absorbed to break the bonds in the reactants, is more than the total energy that is released when new bonds are
formed. This means that in the overall reaction, energy must be absorbed from the surroundings. This type of
reaction is known as an endothermic reaction
Exothermic Reaction
It is a reaction that gives out heat to the surrounding. Temperature of the surrounding rises.
Examples of exothermic reactions
1. Ionisation reaction: the mixing of concentrated sulphuric acid and water
H2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l)→ H3O+ (aq) + HSO4-(aq)
2. Neutralization reaction.
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
3. Combustion of fuel
CH4 (aq) + 2O2(g) → CO2 + 2H2O (l)
4. Respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 (g) → 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)
Endothermic Reaction
Is a reaction that absorbs (takes in) heat from the surrounding. Temperature of the surrounding decreases.
Examples
1. Dissolving of ammonium nitrate in water.
NH4NO3 (s) + H2O (l) → NH4+(aq) +NO3- (aq)
2. Evaporation of water to water vapour
H2O (l) + Heat → H2O (g)
3. Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O (l) → C6H12O6 + 6O2 (g)
Heat Energy Diagrams
Heat energy diagram is a graph showing the level of energy in reactants and products
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Heat Energy Diagrams in Exothermic Reaction
Reactants have high energy level than products. Change in heat energy (ΔH= H1-H2) is negative
ΔH is called heat of reaction
Example
Draw the energy level diagram for the reaction below
2Mg (s) + O2(g) → 2MgO, ΔH = - 18kJ
Endothermic Heat Energy Diagram
Reactants have low energy level than products. Change in heat energy (heat of reaction) is positive
Example
Draw heat energy diagram for evaporation of water to water vapour
H2O (l) → H2O (g), ΔH = +5kJ
Heats of Reaction in Equations
Exothermic reactions: There are two ways
Chemical equation is written out in full and heat of reaction, ΔH is written separately using a comma at the end
of the equation. The sign negative shows that heat is being given out.
For example
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2Mg (s) + O2 (g) →2 MgO (s), ΔH = - 18kJ
Heat of reaction is written as part of the reaction . Always ΔH is written as part of the products
2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → 2MgO (s) + 18kJ
Endothermic reaction
Again ΔH can be written separately with its + ve sign
H2O (l) → H2O (g), ΔH = +5kJ
Heat of reaction written as part of the reactants
H2O (l) + 5kJ → H2O (g)
Bond Breaking and Bond Formation
Bond Breaking
Energy is needed in bond breaking. The process uses up energy from the surrounding. Hence bond breaking is
endothermic
Bond Formation
Energy is released during bond formation. The process is exothermic.
Note: When more heat energy is used in bond breaking than released in bond formation, the reaction becomes
endothermic. If more heat is released in bond formation than used in bond breaking, the reaction becomes
exothermic.
Examinable Exothermic and Endothermic Practical Questions
1. You are provided with 2 test tubes in a rack, a measuring cylinder, thermometer, spatula, ammonium
chloride, tap water and sodium hydroxide pellets.
a. Measure 2ml of tap water and add the water into each of the two test tubes.
b. Measure the initial temperature of water and record in the table below.
c. Add half a spatula of ammonium chloride crystals into one test tube and shake to dissolve.
d. Measure the final temperature of the solution prepared in „c‟ and record in the table below.
e. Add half a spatula of sodium Hydroxide into the other remaining test tube and shake to dissolve.
f. Measure the final temperature of the solution prepared in „e‟ and record in the table below.
g. Calculate temperature change.
Liquid Initial Temp (oC) Substance added Final Temp (oC) Temp change
Water Ammonium chloride
Water Sodium Hydroxide
(4 marks)
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h. State whether the change is Exothermic or Endothermic.
(i) Ammonium chloride: ________________________________________________
(ii) Sodium Hydroxide: ________________________________________________(2 mark)
i. Draw the heat energy diagram of the reaction of Ammonium chloride and water. (6 marks)
2. You are provided with a thermometer, two test-tubes, a piece of ribbon, potassium hydrogen carbonate
or sodium hydrogen carbonate, dilute hydrochloric acid solution, spatula or tea spoon and a measuring
cylinder.
a. Pour 2 cm3 (or 2 cm column) of hydrochloric acid into a test-tube.

b. Measure temperature of the acid and record it as initial temperature in Table below.
c. Drop the magnesium ribbon in the acid and record the changes taking place as the reaction occur.
d. Record the final temperature reached in Table below.
e. In the second test-tube, pour 2cm3 (2cm column) of hydrochloric acid and record its temperature
as its initial temperature in the table below.
f. Add spatula full of potassium hydrogen carbonate or sodium hydrogen carbonate to the acid,
record the final temperature reached and other changes taking place as the reaction proceeds
Table of results
Liquid in the Initial Substance Final Temperature Other changes

test tube temperature added temperature change(oC) observed
(oC) reached during during reaction
reaction (oC)
Hydrochloric Magnesium
acid ribbon
Hydrochloric Potassium
acid hydrogen
carbonate or
Sodium
hydrogen
carbonate
(7 marks)
g. Which one of the reaction s above is an endothermic reaction? (1 mark)

h. Give a reason for the answer to (g) (2 marks)
i. Draw an energy level diagram for the reaction of hydrochloric acid and magnesium ribbon.
(3marks)
3. You are provided with 2 test tubes in a rack, a measuring cylinder, stirring rod thermometer, spatula, tap
water and substances A and B.
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a. Pour 5 cm3 of tap water into each test tube.

b. Measure the temperature of the water in each test tube and record in the table below.
c. Add half a spatula of substance A into one test tube and stir gently using a stirring rod.
d. Measure the temperature of the solution and record in the table.
e. Remove the thermometer from the test tube and rinse it with water.
f. Add half a spatula of substance B into the second test tube and stir gently.
g. Measure and record the temperature of the solution.
h. Dry the thermometer and return it into its case.
SOLUTION INITIAL FINAL CHANGE IN

TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE TEMPERATURE
(˚C) (˚C) (˚C)
(5 marks)
i. Complete the fourth column of the table

j. State whether the change in each case is exothermic or endothermic. (2 marks)
k. Complete the energy level diagrams to illustrate the reactions in solutions of A and B
(i) Solution A
(3 marks)
(ii) Solution B
(3 marks)
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CHAPTER 4
CHEMICAL REACTIONS 2
There are various types of chemical reactions that can occur. The main groups of reactions are: acid-base, redox
(Reduction and Oxidation), substitution, addition and elimination. Chemical reactions involve the exchange of
electrons and protons between two or more atoms or molecules. The species involved in a chemical reaction,
exchange electrons or protons which, leads to a change in the charge of both of the atoms of that species. This
change in the charges of atoms (change in the atom's oxidation number) by means of electron exchange is
defined as a Reduction-Oxidation (Redox) reaction and that by means of protons exchange is called Proton
transfer. Generally, chemical reactions are classified according to the fundamental molecular or sub-molecular
changes that occur. Reactions that involve electron transfer are known as oxidation/reduction (or “redox”).
Reactions that involve proton transfer are known as acid/base reactions. Acids and bases are important classes
of chemicals that are recognized by easily observed properties in the laboratory. Acids and bases neutralize each
other during the chemical reaction process. Acid formulas usually begin with hydrogen, and base formulas are a
metal with a hydroxide ion. As the pH decreases, a solution becomes more acidic. A difference of one pH unit
is a factor of 10 in hydrogen ion concentration. This topic will introduce us to Redox reaction and Proton
transfer (Acids and Bases).
4.1 ELECTRON TRANSFER REACTIONS
Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation can be defined as
i. Loss of electrons in a substance

ii. Increase of charge in a substance
iii. Increase in oxygen content in a substance
Example
When a magnesium metal Mg (s) is burnt in air, magnesium oxide (MgO) is formed. This can be written in a
chemical reaction as; Mg (s) + O2(g) → MgO (s)
In the reaction Magnesium has gained oxygen atom, lost two electrons, and increased its charge from 0 to +2.
We can conclude that Mg has been oxidized
Reduction can be defined as
i. Gaining of electrons of a substance

ii. Loss of oxygen atom from a substance
iii. Decrease of charge in a substance
Example
When copper is heated with carbon the following reaction takes place
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2Cu+2 O-2 (s) + C (s) → 2 Cu0 (s) + CO2 (g)
In the reaction; oxygen has been taken away from copper, the charge has been decreased, and two electrons
have been gained. Therefore Cu has been reduced (reduction has taken place.
Oxidation Number
The oxidation number of an atom is the indicator as to what the atom's charge is. The oxidation number of Mg2+
is +2 whereas the oxidation number of Cl-1 is -1. Thus oxidation number is given by the charge number and the
sign of the charge on an atom, ion, or molecule.
Rules for Assigning Oxidation Numbers
i. All elements have the oxidation number of zero (since they are neutral).
ii. Oxygen has oxidation number of -2, except when it is a gaseous element, then its oxidation number is
zero.
iii. Hydrogen has oxidation number of +1 except when it is an element.
iv. For all neutral molecules the sum of separate charges inside the molecule must add up to zero.
v. For a charged ion, the sum of the separate charge inside the ion must be equal to the final charge on the
ion itself.
Assigning Oxidation Numbers (charges)
Rule 1- All elements have an oxidation number of zero. This is because all elements are made up of neutral
atoms (i.e. have the same number of protons and electrons). e.g. O2, H2, Mg
Rule 2- For all neutral molecules, the sum of the separate charges inside the molecule must add up to zero.
Example 1
Compound NaCl KMnO4
Type of Na Cl K Mn O
Atom
Oxidation # +1 -1 +1 +7 -2
Rule 3- For a charged ion, the sum of the separate charges inside the molecule must be equal to the final charge
on the ion itself.
Example 2
Compound OH- SO42-
Type of Atom O H S O
Oxidation # -2 +1 +6 -2
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Remember the charges of these common compound ions:
Carbonate (CO32-)
Hydroxide (OH-)
Sulphate (SO42-)
Sulphide (SO32-)
Nitrate (NO3-)
Phosphate (PO43-)
Other Examples
1. Work out the oxidation numbers in each element of the following
a. S in SO2
b. C in CO2
2. Mg in MgCl2 where Cl is – 1
a. Na in NaOH
b. S in SO
c. Mn in MnO -4
Solution
Using rule number 4, the sum of charge is zero.
Let S be the symbol of sulphur and also stands for the charge, then S + 2 (-2) = 0
Since we have two oxygen atoms and oxidation number is -2 (rule 2)
Algebraically S = +4
Therefore oxidation number of S in SO2 is +4
Exercise
Work out the oxidation number of elements in question 1. (b) And question 2. (a, b, c)
A redox reaction
A redox reaction is a reaction that involves reduction and oxidation. Oxidation and Reduction always occur
together.
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Redox without Oxygen
When zinc (Zn) is placed in copper sulphate (CuSO4)), the following chemical reaction takes place:
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu
This equation is re-written as
Zn0(s) + Cu+2(aq) → Zn+2 (aq) + Cu 0 (s)
The charge of Zinc changes from 0 to +2 and that of copper from +2 to 0. Thus, zinc has been oxidized while
copper has been reduced.
Redox Reactions and Redox Equations
We have already defined a Redox reaction as a reaction where reduction and oxidation take place at the same
time. When one substance is reduced, for example Copper (Cu), at the same time Zinc (Zn) is oxidized. A redox
reaction equation will only show ionic substances.
Eg. Zn0(s) + Cu+2(aq) → Zn+2 (aq) + Cu0(s)
The reaction of species involves the transfer of electrons and involves numerous steps and perhaps more than
two atoms may be involved in a single chemical reaction.
1. half equations: Cu+2 + 2e- → Cu0, Zn0 - 2e- → Zn+2
2. Displacement equation
Zn0(s) + Cu+2(aq) → Zn+2 (aq) + Cu0(s)
3. Ionization equation
4. Electrolysis equation
Half Reaction Equation
These are equations which shows part of reduction and oxidation reaction, and if combined they form an overall
equation which describes the redox reaction
Example
When magnesium is placed in silver nitrate, magnesium dissolves and silver is formed. Write the half equations
and the overall equation of the reaction?
Solution
When magnesium dissolves it losses electrons, thus
Mg0 (s) – 2e- → Mg+2(aq), hence this is oxidation.
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When silver metal is formed, it gains electrons,
Ag+ + e- → Ag0 (s) thus resulting into a reduction reaction
Overall equation:
Mg0 (s) – 2e- + Ag+ (aq) + e- → Mg+2 (aq) + 2Ag0 (s)
Since Mg losses 2 electrons the 2 atoms of Ag gains them
Mg0 (s) – 2e- + 2Ag (aq) + 2e- → Mg+2(aq) + 2Ag0 (s)
The 2 electrons in the equation mathematically subtracts to give zero. Therefore the final overall equation is
Mg0 (s) + 2Ag+2 (aq) → Mg+2 (aq) + 2Ag0 (s)
Writing Half Equations
The decomposition of NaCl can be written as 2 half reactions that add-up to give the full (overall) reaction.
Oxidation Half Equation: 2Cl- - 2e- → Cl2
Reduction Half Equation: + 2Na+ + 2e- → 2Na
Net Equation: 2Na+ + 2Cl- → 2Na + Cl2
Identifying Oxidation and Reduction
In the decomposition of sodium chloride to sodium metal and chlorine, sodium is reduced since it charge
decreases from +1 to 0 ( because sodium has gained an electron) and sodium causes chlorine to be oxidized,
hence sodium is the oxidizing agent. Chlorine has been oxidised because it has lost electrons, since chlorine
causes sodium to become reduced, then it is the reducing agent.
Oxidising agent and Reducing Agent
An oxidizing agent causes the other species with which it is reacting to be oxidized. In this process, the
oxidizing agent accepts electrons and thus becomes reduced. A Reducing agent on the other hand causes the
other species with which it is reacting to be reduced. In this process, the reducing agent donates electrons and
thus becomes oxidized.
Example
Consider the redox equation below,
2Fe+3 (aq) + 2 I- (aq) → 2Fe+2 (aq) + I02 (s)
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Fe gains an electron and its charge reduces from +3 to +2. It is reduced. Therefore Fe+3 is oxidizing agent.
I losses an electron and its charge increases from -1 to 0. It is oxidized. Therefore I- is a reducing agent.
Spectator Ions and Net Ionic Equations
When a zinc rod is placed in a solution of copper sulphate, there is a displacement reaction.
0 2+ 2+ 0
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → Zn SO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Splitting the aqueous substances into their ions obtains an ionic equation.
Ionic Equation: Zn(s) + Cu2+ + SO42- → Zn2+(aq) + SO42- + Cu(s)
Ions that appear on both sides of the equation do not participate in the reaction. These are called spectator ions.
For instance, in the above chemical equation, Sulphate ion (SO42-) is a spectator ion. Eliminating the spectator
ions from the Ionic Equation yields a net ionic equation.
Net Ionic Equation: Zn(s) + Cu2+ → Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)
From the net ionic equation, it is easy to identify the oxidation and reduction half equations.
Oxidation Half Equation: Zn(s) - 2e- → Zn2+
Reduction Half Equation: Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu(s)
Zinc is oxidized, therefore it is the reducing agent, and copper is reduced, thus it is an oxidizing agent. Copper
has been displaced. Zinc has displaced the copper ions in the solution and copper has precipitated out of
solution.
Exercise
Identify the oxidizing and reducing agents from the equations below.
a. Zn (s) + Pb+2 (aq) → Zn+2 (aq) + Pb (s)

b. Zn(s) +2H+ (aq) → Zn+2(aq) + H2 (g)
c. Ag+(aq) + Cl- (aq) → AgCl (s)
d. BaCl2 (s) + H2O → Ba+2 (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
e. ZnO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2O
f. Cu (s) + 2Ag+ (aq) → 2Ag (s)+ Cu+2(aq)
Write the half equation for each reaction a) to f) above.
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Displacement Reaction
This reaction occurs when metals compete for ions, i.e. as ions in the solution are being removed and other
positive ions take their place. A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from a solution of its
salt. For example, if iron is dipped in copper sulphate (CuSO4), iron sulphate (FeSO4) is formed. The equation
for the reaction is;
Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu (s)
Note: Cu+2 ions are displaced by Fe+2 ions during the reaction.
Displacement Series (Activity Series)
Displacement reactions can be predicted according to the activity series. Metals higher up in the series are
better at giving away electrons than those lower in the series. Elements highest in the series have the highest
reducing power and those lowest in the series have the lowest reducing power. Metals in the series will displace
all metals below them from their salt solutions.
Potassium (K) most reactive
Sodium (Na)
Lithium (Li)
Calcium (Ca)
Magnesium (Mg)
Aluminium (Al)
Zinc ( Zn)
Iron ( Fe)
Tin (Sn)
Lead (Pb)
Hydrogen (H)
Copper (Cu)
Silver (Ag) less reactive
Electrochemical Series
Any metal which is more reactive donates electron(s) and a less reactive metal gains the electron(s).
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The table below shows how metals donate electrons and is called electro chemical series or activity series
K(s) – e- → K+ (aq)
Na(s) – e- → Na+ (aq)
Li (s) - e- → Li+ (aq)
Ca(s) –2 e- → Ca+2 (aq)
Mg(s) – 2e- → Mg+2 (aq)
Al (s) – 3e- → Al+3 (aq)
Zn(s) – 2e- → Zn+2 (aq)
Fe (s) – 2e- → Fe+2 (aq)
Sn (s) – 2e - → Sn +2 (aq)
Pb (s) – 2e - → Pb+2(aq)
H (g) – e - → H+ (aq)
Cu (s) – 2e- → Cu+2 (aq)
Ag (s) – e- → Ag+ (aq)
Conductivity Circuit
The diagram below is a conductivity circuit
Uses of a conductivity circuit
i. To show that a current flows in all parts of the circuit

ii. To find out the kind of the electrolyte present in the beaker, as the ammeter reading shows the
conductivity of the liquid in the beaker
iii. To act as an apparatus for electrolysis
iv. To find out the strength of acid or base
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Connection of the Circuit
The external circuit start from the positive electrode called anode connected to a copper wire then to the
ammeter. The ammeter measures current of the complete circuit accurately. The reading also shows the
conductivity of the electrolyte in the beaker. The connection proceeds to the switch and then battery (battery
pushes electrons around the circuit). Then the connection proceeds to the bulb and then to negative electrode
called cathode
Liquids like hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, etc conduct electricity. Liquids, water like paraffin do not conduct.
This behavior can be explained by ionic theory.
Ionic Theory
A hydrogen atom is a neutral atom, usually written as H10. In a chemical reaction, it usually loses an electron
and forms a positive ion i.e.
H0 + e - → H+ (1)
When hydrogen ion gains an electron, it turns back into a hydrogen atom H0
H + + e - → H0 (2)
A chlorine atom is a neutral atom too, with final charge of zero Cl0. Chlorine atom usually form negative ion
Cl– when losses an electron during electrolysis.
Cl - - e - → Cl0 (3)
Cl0 + e- → Cl- (4)
In a conductivity circuit, negative ions move towards anode and losses its electron. The element there is formed
thus equation (3) usually occurs at the anode. The electron moves through the external circuit to the cathode
where positive ion gains an electron and form an element as in equation (2). This is why negative ions are called
anions because they move towards the anode and positive ions are called cations because they move towards the
cathode.
Rusting/Corrosion
Corrosion is the dissolving and wearing-out of metals as a result of oxidation by oxygen and water. Most
metals form oxides when they corrode. Hence rusting is the corrosion of iron. Iron oxide formed when iron
reacts with oxygen and water is called rust.
How Rust is formed
Iron must dissolve first and ionize according to:
Fe (s) - 2e- → Fe +2 (1)
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These electrons are used up by water and air according to the equation
2H2O + O2 + 4e- → 4OH-
The hydroxyl ions react with the Fe+2 (aq) ions and more water and air to give
4Fe(OH)2 (s) + 2H2O (l) +O2 → 4Fe(OH)3 (s)
0 1+ 2- 0 3+ 2- 1+
4Fe(s) + 6H2O + 3O2 → 4Fe(OH)3
Iron is oxidized, hence it is a reducing agent, while Oxygen is reduced, and hence it is an oxidizing agent
Investigations to find the conditions necessary for rusting
Experiment 1
Aim: To find out whether rusting requires air and water
Materials: 3 test tubes, 3 rubber stoppers, iron nails, boiled water, unboiled water, and anhydrous calcium
chloride.
Procedure:
1. Place 1 iron nail in a test tube with unboiled water and seal it with a stopper
2. Place 1 iron nail in a test tube filled with boiled water and seal it with a stopper
3. Place 1 iron nail in a dry test tube with air and anhydrous calcium chloride and seal it with a stopper.
(Anhydrous calcium chloride absorbs water).
4. Observe which nail has rust after several days.
Expected Result: The nail in the unboiled water will rust while the nail with air only and the nail with water
only will not. This is so because unboiled water contains both air (oxygen) and water while in other test tubes
only either water or oxygen was present but not both.
Conclusion: Both air and water are required for rusting to occur.
*The element in air that is needed for rusting is oxygen. Another experiment using oxygen rather than air ( a
mixture of gases including oxygen) needs to be done to prove this.
Experiment 2
Aim: To find out whether acid facilitates (helps) rusting.
Materials: 2 test tubes, 2 rubber stoppers, 2 iron nails.
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Procedure:
Fill 2 test tubes containing 1 iron nail in each half full with unboiled water. Add 3 drops of concentrated HCl to
test tube 1. Compare the amount of rust on the nails in test tubes 1 and 2 after 2 days.
Expected Result: The nail in test tube one (where drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid were put) will rust
more than the nail in test tube two.
Conclusion: Acid facilitates rusting.
Experiment 3
Aim: To find out whether Vaseline prevents rusting.
Materials: 2 test tubes, 2 rubber stoppers, 2 iron nails.
Procedure: Fill 2 test tubes half full with unboiled water. Put a nail coated with Vaseline in test tube 1 and a
nail not coated in Vaseline in test tube 2. Compare the amount of rust on the nails after 2 days.
Expected Result: The nail in test tube 2 will rust more than the nail in test tube 1.
Conclusion: Vaseline helps to prevent rusting.
Prevention of Corrosion
1. Keep away air and water e.g. by coating the metal with paint, oil, grease, or plastic
2. Use of alloys- some alloys don‟t rust e.g. stainless steal
3. Shocking- electric currents can prevent metals from corroding
4. Galvanization- coating a metal with a metal that is higher in the electrochemical series. eg. If iron is coated
with or attached to zinc, zinc will donate electrons to iron as it is oxidised by oxygen and water. This electron
donation reverses the oxidation of iron and prevents rusting.
Fe(s) – 2e- → Fe2+ Iron is oxidized by oxygen and water
Zn(s) + Fe2+ → Zn2+ + Fe(s) Iron is reduced by Zinc
Electroplating
Electroplating is the covering of one metal by another by means of electrolysis. The metal from the anode coats
onto the cathode. In most cases the electrodes consist of a different metal. Electroplating can also be defined as
is the coating of a metal with another metal in order to improve its appearance and resistance to corrosion.
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Oxidation occurs at the anode. Reduction occurs at the cathode
e.g. Electroplating of Iron Nail with Copper
At the cathode (-) reduction occurs:
Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu(s)
At the anode (+) oxidation occurs:
Cu(s) - 2e- → Cu2+
The nail will be covered with copper and the copper foil will dissolve and replace the copper ions in the
solution.
Conditions for Electroplating
1. The metal to be plated or covered is made into the cathode
2. The anode should be the metal to coat the other metal
3. Salt solution used should be that of the electroplating metal
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Galvanising
Galvanizing is electroplating a metal with zinc. If iron is to be galvanized, the zinc will be anode and iron will
be cathode.
The solution should be of zinc e.g. zinc sulphate ZnSO4. Zn electrode releases electrons to the external circuit
and Zn ions form at the anode as of the following equation,
Zn (s) – 2e- → Zn+ (s)
In the solution Zn+2 are attracted at the cathode and gain electrons. Zinc solid, which is attached to the cathode
(Fe), is formed. The equation at the cathode is,
Zn+2 + 2e- → Zn (s)
Note: Covering a metal with tin is called tinning
Sacrificial Protection
A more reactive metal, for example Mg is connected to a less reactive metal like iron to be protected. Iron has
to accept electrons from magnesium. So the iron cannot lose electrons and it does not dissolve. Then iron is
prevented from rust in this way and magnesium dissolves slowly.
Examinable Question
With the aid of a diagram and half equations at the anode and cathode, describe how a piece of iron nail can be
electroplated with copper, using copper chloride (CuCl2) as an electrolyte. (12 marks)
Examinable Displacement Reaction Practical Question
You are provided with the following: zinc (Zn) metal, magnesium (Mg) metal, copper (Cu) metal, aqueous
solutions of zinc sulphate (ZnSO4), magnesium sulphate (MgSO4) and copper sulphate (CuSO4), test tubes and
measuring cylinder
a. pour 3cm3 of CuSO4 solution into two test tubes i.e. 3cm3 in each test tube
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b. put zinc and magnesium metals in separate test tubes containing CuSO4 solution and observe whether
there is a reaction or not for 5 minutes. Record the results/observations in the table below
c. pour 3cm3 of MgSO4 solution into two test tubes i.e. 3cm3 in each test tube
d. put zinc and copper metals in separate test tubes containing MgSO4 solution and observe whether there
is a reaction or not for 5 minutes. Record the results/observations in the table below
e. Pour 3cm3 of ZnSO4 solution into two test tubes i.e. 3cm3 in each test tube
f. put zinc and copper metals in separate test tubes containing ZnSO4 solution and observe whether there
is a reaction or not for 5 minutes. Record the results/observations in the table below
Table of results
Solution and metal in the test tube Reaction No reaction Remarks
CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s)
CuSO4(aq) + Mg(s)
MgSO4 (aq) + Mg(s)
MgSO4 (aq) + Zn(s)
ZnSO4 (aq) + Mg(s)
ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
(10 marks)
(ii). Arrange the three metals in order of reactivity starting with the most reactive (2 marks)
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4.2 PROTON TRANSFER
Acids can be described by the following properties,
i. Have sour taste

ii. Can be tested using a pH paper, Universal Indicator(UI) and have a lower pH, less than 7
iii. Turn litmus red or phenolphthalein colorless
iv. React with carbonates to give off CO2 gas
v. React with bases to give salt and water
vi. All acids are electrolytes, ionizes in water to give a hydrogen ion, H+ (aq)
vii. React with metals that are higher than H2 itself.
Bases can be described as follows
i. Substance that gives a flat taste

ii. Have pH between 7 and 14, turns litmus blue and phenolphthalein pink.
iii. Reacts with acids
iv. Have a slippery feel, like soap
v. Are electrolytes and dissolve in water to produce hydroxyl ions, OH-(aq)
vi. Typical bases are the hydroxides and oxide metals
Lowry – Bronsted Theory of Acids and Bases
Lowry – Bronsted Theory tries to define acids and bases very differently considering the fact that other acids
and bases do not have the above mentioned properties.
Definition
According to Lowry and Bronsted, an acid is an ion or molecule that can donate (give away) protons. Thus,
acids are hydrogen ion (H+) donors and a base is an ion or molecule that can accept proton. Thus, bases are
hydrogen ion (H+) acceptors. In an acid/base reaction, acids donate protons and bases accept them. Using this
theory, an acid cannot act as an acid without a base present.
e.g. HCl (aq) + NH3(g) → NH4+Cl+(aq)
HCl (hydrogen chloride) acts as a proton donor and NH3 (ammonia) acts as a proton acceptor.
HA (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O (aq) + A – (aq)
Acid base acid base
Water accepts hydrogen protons and HA donates hydrogen proton, consequently water is a base and HA an acid
according to Lowry-Bronsted theory.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) → NH4+ (aq) + OH –(aq)
base acid acid base
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Water is acting as a lowry – bronsted acid and lowry – bronsted base
Hydronium Ion
A hydronium ion is a water molecule that has accepted a proton. When water accepts hydrogen proton, H+ it
acts as a base e.g.
HCl(aq) + H2O (l) → H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Hence H3O+ (aq) is a hydronium ion
If a substance reacts with water, the reaction is called hydrolysis
Conjugate Acids and Conjugate Bases
This is a pair of acid- bases e.g. a reaction between HCl and NH3 we have
HCl (g) + NH3(g) → NH4+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) (1)
HCl is donating a H+ ion hence it‟s a Lowry – Bronsted acid and NH3 is accepting H+ ion hence it‟s a Lowry-
Bronsted base. But this NH4Cl (s) if heated forms another chemical reaction as shown below,
NH4Cl (s) + heat → NH4+ + Cl- → HCl (g) + NH3 (g) (2)
where NH4+ donates H+ protons thus it‟s a lowry – bronsted acid while Cl- accepts a proton hence it‟s a lowry-
bronsted base This is a reversible reaction, such that the two equations can be re-written as
HCl (g) + NH3 (g) ↔ NH4+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) (3)
Reversible reactions can take place in both sides. In equation (3) HCl is a conjugate acid and its conjugate base
is Cl- while NH3 is a conjugate base with its corresponding conjugate acid as NH4+. In general, to find a
conjugate base, it is just about subtracting a hydrogen ion, H+, from its conjugate acid.
Example
H2SO4 – H+ → HSO-4
conjugate acid conjugate base
The opposite is true, add H+ to conjugate base to get conjugate acid.
Example
CH3COO- + H+ → CH3COOH
conjugate base conjugate acid
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Water as an Amphoteric Substance
An amphoteric substance is any substance that can donate or accept protons, or that can be either an acid or a
base using Lowry-Bronsted theory based on the nature of the reacting partner. E.g. water molecule.
Water as a Lowry Bronsted Acid
H2O(l) + NH3 → NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
water ammonia ammonium hydroxide
Water as a Lowry Bronsted Base (Formation of Hydronium Ion)
HCl + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
hydrochloric acid water hydronium ion chloride
Conjugate Acids and Bases
A table of conjugate acids and bases
Acids Bases
H2SO4 HSO4-
HCl Cl-
HNO3 NO3-
H3O+ H2O
H2SO3 HSO3-
HSO4- SO42-
H2PO4- HPO42-
NH4+ NH3
HCO3- CO32-
HPO42- PO43-
H2O OH-
NH3 NH2-
To find a conjugate base subtract H+ from its conjugate acid.
E.g. HCl - H+ = Cl- , where Chloride ion (Cl-) is the conjugate base of the hydrochloric acid (HCl)
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To find a conjugate acid add an H+
E.g. Cl- + H+ = HCl, Thus hydrochloric acid (HCl) is the conjugate acid of chloride (Cl-)
Exercise
Write the pair of conjugate base and conjugate acids below.
HF + H2O ↔ H3O + F-
HCl + H2 O ↔ H3O + Cl-
H2O + NH3 ↔ NH4+ + OH-
CH3COOH + H2 O ↔ H3O+ + CH3COO-
Strength of an Acid
Strength of acid is the ability of an acid to donate a hydrogen ion, H+. Strong acids have pH scale of 0 and 1,
and this strength decreases as the pH value increases.
Strong Acid
Strong acids donate protons well or faster. In presence of water (base) the acid ionizes almost completely. Most
of its ions are given to water i.e.
HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O (aq) + Cl- (aq)
Other strong acids are H2SO4, HNO3. They are strong electrolytes since they ionize completely in water.
Weak Acids
Weak acids donate protons a little and slowly. Ionization is slightly small, thus gives few hydrogen ions, H+, to
a receiving base i.e.
HF (aq) + H2O(l) ↔ H3O+(aq) + F- (aq)
The double arrow shows that there is incomplete ionization hence reversible. Other examples of weak acids are
H2CO3 (carbonic acid), water, acetic acid (CH3COOH) etc. They are weak electrolytes since ionization is
minimal and incomplete.
Strength of a Base
Strength of a base is the ability of a base to accept and hold onto protons from an acid.
Weak Base
Weak bases accept protons slightly. When a very strong acid donates protons, the resulting conjugate base is a
very weak base. For example,
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HCl (aq) + H2O (l) → H3O (aq) + Cl-
strong acid weak base
Strong Base
Strong bases keep hold of protons well. Weak Lowry-Bronsted acid gives a strong conjugate base because such
acids release few protons. Strong bases have pH 14 and their strength deceases as the pH value deceases. These
are also strong electrolytes.
H2CO3 + H2O (l) ↔ H3O (aq) + HCO-3
Weak acid strong base
pH Scale pH colour
pH Strength of acid/base pH pH colour

1 Strong acid 14 Purple
2 13 Purple
3 12 Purple
4 11 Dark blue
5 10 Blue
6 Weak acid 9 Green/blue
7 Neutral substance 8 Dark green
8 Weak base 7 Green
9 6 Light green
10 5 Yellow green
11 4 Light orange
12 3 Orange red
13 2 Red
14 Strong base 1 Dark red
0 Dark red
Comparing the Strength of Acids Using a Conductivity Apparatus:
A solution has high conductivity if it has many dissolved ions and low conductivity if it has few dissolved ions.
Strong acids are good conductors because they almost completely ionize in water. Weak acids are not good
conductors when dissolved in water because they do not completely ionize in water.
Strong bases are good conductors when dissolved in water because they almost completely ionize in water.
Weak bases are poor conductors when dissolved in water because they do not completely ionize in water.
Conductivity Apparatus Used to Distinguish Strong vs. Weak Acids and Bases
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If an acid is added to a strong basic solution, conductivity of the solution will decrease until the solution is
completely neutralized and then increase as more acid is added.
Conductivity Practical Question
You are provided with 250cm3 beaker, two 1.5v dry cells, ammeter, carbon rods, connecting wire, switch, 2M
hydrochloric acid, and 2M ethanoic acid.
a. Put 50 cm3 of 2M hydrochloric acid in the beaker

b. Make a complete circuit using carbon electrodes as shown in the diagram above
c. Close the switch
d. Take the ammeter reading and record in the table below
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e. Repeat the experiment for 2M ethanoic acid
Solution Ammeter reading (A)

2M Hydrochloric acid
2 M ethanoic acid
f. Which acid is
Strong _____________________________________________
Weak ____________________________________________
End of topic Examination
1. Figure 1 is a diagram showing electroplating of iron metal with zinc.
a. Name the solution C if it is a sulphate (1 mark)

b. Write the half equations of the reaction at electrode
A: __________________________________________________________________(2 marks)
B: __________________________________________________________________(2 marks)
2. a. Define Bronsted-Lowry acid (1 mark)
b. Below is a chemical equation showing acid/base reaction
CH3COOH (aq) + H2O(l) H3O+ (aq) + CH3COO- (aq)
i. What is the meaning of the symbol (1 mark)

+
ii. What name is given to the ion H3O (1 mark)
iii. Identify one conjugate acid/base pair from the reaction (2 marks)
2-
c. Calculate the oxidation number of sulphur (S) in sulphate (SO4 ) ion given that the oxidation
number of oxygen (O) is -2 (3 marks)
3. a. Study three equations for acid base reactions below and answer the questions that follow.
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i. What is the other name for an acid-base reaction (1 mark)
ii.Which compound is acting as an acid in one reaction and as a base in another reaction? (1 mark)
iii.
Write the acid-base conjugate pair for equation. (2 marks)
iv.Write the reduction and oxidation half equations of the following chemical equation,
Sn(s) + mg2+ (aq)   Sn 2 (aq)  mg (s) (4 marks)
b. The equations below represent two oxidation-reduction reactions:
2
A. Mg ( s)  Fe (aq)  Mg 2 (aq)  Fe( s)
B. 2CuO( s)  C ( s)  2Cu ( s)  Co2 ( s)
i. For each of the reaction write down the reducing agent. (2 marks)
ii. Write down the two half reactions for equation A. (2 marks)
iii. Suppose the reacting masses in equation B are as shown below:
2CuO(s)  C (s)  2Cu (s)  CO2 ( g )
49g 3g 32 11g
What mass of copper oxide (CuO (s)) would be required to produce 1 mole of carbon dioxide
(CO2 (g))? Mass unit: C= 12, O = 16, Cu = 64.0 (3 marks)
c. i. Name the ion responsible for the acidic properties of a substance? (1 mark)
ii. What is the distinction between the strength and concentration of an acid? (2 marks)
iii. Why is sodium hydroxide a strong base and ammonia a weak base? (3 marks)
d. In the reaction below, the equilibrium lies more to the left.

HCOOH + NH3 ↔ HCOO + NH4+
i. Explain what you understand by “the equilibrium lies more to the left”. (2 marks)
ii. Write down the formula of the acids in the equation above. (1 mark)

iii. Explain why HCOO can behave as an acid or a base. (3 marks)
.4. Electrolysis can be used to purify copper. With the aid of a well labeled diagram explain how
copper is purified during electrolysis. (11 marks)
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CHAPTER 5
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY I
Introduction
Organic substances all contain carbon atoms and organic chemistry can therefore be thought of as the chemistry
of carbon compounds. All organic compounds also contain hydrogen. Compounds that contain only C - C and C
- H bonds are also called hydrocarbons. In addition to carbon and hydrogen, organic compounds can also
contain oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus and halogen atoms. The main sources of carbon, and therefore
organic compounds, are fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas.
The chemistry of carbon is important. Carbon atoms can bond to one another in chains, rings, and branching
networks to form a variety of structures, including synthetic polymers, oils, and the large molecules essential to
life.
Classification of Organic Compounds
There are so many organic compounds, due to the ability of carbon to bond to itself, that it is necessary to
subdivide organic compounds into categories and give names to compounds with particular properties. Organic
compounds that contain only single bonds are called saturated (e.g. alkanes). Compounds that contain at least
one double (e.g. alkenes) or triple bond (e.g. alkynes) are called unsaturated. The unsaturated compounds may
also contain single bonds. A collection of organic compounds that have similar properties with related formula
and structure is called an homologous series. The following are some of homologous series; Alkanes, Alkenes,
Alkanols , Alkanoic/ carboxylic acid, Aldehydes, Ketones etc
Functional Group
All organic compounds have a particular bond or group of atoms which we call its functional group. This group
is important in determining the reactivity of the compound and also the way in which it is named. A series of
compounds with the same functional group is called a homologous series. A functional group is a single atom
or a group of atoms that determines the chemical properties of the organic compounds in the homologous series
They have a general formula
5.1 Alkanols
Alcohols (or alkanols) are hydroxyl derivatives of hydrocarbons. This means that they are hydrocarbons which
have an OH group in place of a H or alkyl group. The presence of the OH group makes alcohols polar and so
they are soluble in water. The general formula for alkanols is CnH2n+1OH
Naming Alkanols (IUPAC NOMENCLATURE)
Naming of alkanols depends on the number of carbon atoms present in a molecule of a compound. Suffix is
always –anol.
The following are the first ten alkanols with the molecular formula
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No. of Prefix Name Molecular
C-atoms formula
1 Meth- Methanol CH3OH
2 Eth- Ethanol C2H5OH
3 Prop- Propanol C3H7OH
4 But- Butanol C4H9OH
5 Pent- Pentanol C5H11OH
6 Hex- Hexanol C6H13OH
7 Hept- Heptanol C7H15OH
8 Oct- Octanol C8H17OH
9 Non- Nonanol C9H19OH
10 Dec- Decanol C10H21OH
Structures
C-atoms form 4 bonds with other elements e.g.
Physical Properties
i. They are soluble in water- solubility decreases with increase in molecular size
ii. Have high melting and boiling points as compared to alkanes and alkenes- increases with increase in
molecular size.
iii. Viscosity(resist to flow) increases with increase in number of OH group
iv. Smaller molecules are liquids at room temperature
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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
i. Burns in air to form water and carbon dioxide

C2H5OH (l) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
ii. React with sodium to form a basic solution and hydrogen gas
2C2H5OH (l) + 2Na (s) → 2C2H5ONa (aq) + H2.
iii. Reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid to form ethane and water
C2H5OH (l) → C2H4(g) + H2O (l)
iv. Reacts with carboxylic acid to form ester and water
C2H5OH + CH3COOH ↔ CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
NOTE: Formation of ester is called esterification, concentrated H2SO4 is used in the process
Oxidation of Alkanols
Alkanols can be oxidized to carboxylic acid with the help of other oxidizing agent eg acidified potassium
manganate (VII) and acidified potassium dichromate (VI)
Ethanol is first converted to ethanal, which is a slow process. Then rapid conversion of ethanal to ethanol
Preparation of Ethanol.
1. Fermentation of Sugar
Yeast is added to sugar solution and the mixture is kept at room temperature. Ethanol and carbon dioxide are
produced.
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Pure ethanol is obtained from the mixture by fractional distillation.
2. Reaction with Steam
Ethene is reacted with steam and water in the presence of a catalyst such as Phosphoric V acid at high
temperature and pressure.
C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH
This is a continuous reaction that produces ethanol for a long period of time
Yeast – microorganism uses anaerobic respiration to break down sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide – only
makes alcohol max 11%, need to use distillation to make stronger
5.2 CARBOXYLIC/ALKANOIC ACIDS.
Carboxylic acids all contain a COOH group, also called a carboxyl group. They are weak acids such that they
only ionise partially in water. Organic compounds with general formula of CnH2n+1COOH where n = 0, 1, 2,…
Carboxyl group (COOH) is the functional group.
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IUPAC Nomenclature
Naming of carboxylic acid depends on the number of carbon atoms present in a molecule. Suffix is anoic acid
No. Prefix Name Molecular

of C- formula
atoms
1 Meth- Methanoic HCOOH
acid
2 Eth- Ethanoic acid CH3COOH
3 Prop- Propanoic acid C2H5COOH
4 But- Butanoic acid C3H7COOH
5 Pent- Pentanoic acid C4H9COOH
6 Hex- Hexanoic acid C5H11COOH
7 Hept- Heptanoic C6H13COOH

acid
8 Oct- Octanoic acid C7H15COOH
9 Non- Nonanoic acid C8H17COOH
10 Dec Decanoic acid C9H19COOH
Structures
Physical Properties
i. First ten straight chain carboxylic acids are liquids at room temperature
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ii. Are soluble in water- solubility decreases with increase in molecular size
iii. Melting and boiling points are higher than alkanols
Chemical Properties
i. Change the colour of acid-base indicators e.g.

ii. Universal indicator- red
iii. Phenolphthalein –colourless
iv. litmus paper - red
v. Reacts with alkanols to form esters
vi. Reacts with base to form salt and water- neutralisation react.
NaOH (aq) + CH3COOH (aq) → CH3COONa + H2O
vii. Carboxylic acids are weak acids, will form metal salt and water when reacts with bases
Eg: CH3COOH + NaOH  CH3COONa + HOH
*always donates hydrogen from oxygen, not carbons
*oxygen pull electrons from hydrogen, therefore highly polar and easy to pull away
Sources of Carboxylic Acids
i. Citrus fruits gives citric acid eg orange, lemons

ii. Sour milk gives lactic acid
iii. Vinegar gives ethanoic acid
iv. Ant and bee sting gives methanoic acid
v. Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) – painkiller, blood thinner
vi. Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) – helps keep body shape and organ function, plus immunity
vii. In citrus fruits and brightly coloured vegetables
Physical Properties of Carboxylic Acids/Alkanols
M.P./B.P. Conducts Intermolec

Electricity ular
Forces
Alkanol Low No Weak

(lower
than H2O
until
butanol)
Carboxyl High Yes Very

ic Acid (higher strong
than H2O)
*increase the number of carbons, increase boiling and melting points of the compounds along the homologous
series.
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Boiling Points of some Organic Compounds
COMPOUND MOLECULAR BOILING

FORMULA POINT
(˚C)
A C2H4 -104
B C2H5OH 79
C CH3COOH 118
D H2O 100
E C2H6 -89
Esterification
Esters are the products of a reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid. They all contain the functional
group COOR where R can be any alkyl group
Carboxylic acid + alkanol  ester + water
CH3COOH + CH3CH2OH  CH3COOCH2CH3 + HOH
Ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate water
Esters – sweet smelling compounds  many food flavourings and perfumes (also fats and oils)
Determining –ane, -ene, -ol, and acid
Mix with water - -ane and –ene not soluble, -ol and acid soluble
–ane/-ene determination – mix with bromine  -ene decolorizes, -ane does not
–ol/acid determination – mix with NaOH and phenolphthalein, acid will decolourizes (changes solution from
base (pink) to acidic (clear)), -ol does not
Flow Diagram to identify Organic Compound
The analysis uses different tests of the organic compounds e.g. bromine test for identifying alkenes: bromine
(brown) mixed with alkene, changes the colour to (clear) colourless. Solubility test for identifying alkanols and
carboxylic acid: water mixed with alkanol or carboxylic acid forms one layer. Acid test for identifying
carboxylic acids: Sodium hydroxide containing phenolphthalein indicator (pink) mixed with carboxylic acid
change the colour to (clear) colourless
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Examinable Question on the flow diagram
A student was given samples of C5H10, C9H20, C5H9COOH and CH3CH2OH in unlabelled bottles. Using a flow
diagram, describe an investigation he would carry out to identify the samples. (12 marks)
You are provided with dropper bottles labelled A, B, C and D which contains chloroalkane, alkane, sodium
bicarbonate and sodium hydroxide (not necessarily in that order), spatula, burner, phenolphthalein indicator,
dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl).
On each unknown compound perform the tests shown in table below and record your observations in the
appropriate spaces. Remember to wash the table with distilled water after each test.
Test Add 5 drops of Add 5 drops of HCl Put 2 drops of unknown

substance phenolphthalein to 15 (acid) to 15 drops of on spatula and bring
drops of unknown unknown burner flames
(12 marks)
On the basis of your results identify the unknowns A, B, C and D (4 marks)
End of topic Examination

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1. a. Study the structural formula of hydrocarbons A,B, C and D given below and use them to answer the
questions that follow:
i. Name A and give its molecular formula (2 marks)
ii. Which two compounds are isomers? (1 mark)
iii. Describe a chemical test you could use to distinguish samples of the isomers in a (i). (3 marks)
iv. Calculate percentage by mass of hydrogen in D. (3 marks)
v. Insert the missing numbers in the spaces below to balance the equation
C5 H12 + _________ O2  ________ CO2 +6H2O (2 marks)
2. a. Mention two process of manufacturing of Ethanol. (2 marks)

Define
i. Alkyl group (1 mark)

ii. Homologous series (1 mark)
b. Name the family to which each of the compounds belongs
i) CH3CH2 CH2 CH2 CH3 (1 mark)
ii) CH3 (CH2)4OH (1 mark)
iii) CH3 CH2 CH2 CH = CH2 (1 mark)
End of Questions
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CHAPTER 6
ISOMERISM AND POLYMERISATION

Introduction
All compounds have unique names that are determined systematically. All molecular and ionic compounds have
unique names that are determined systematically. Organic compounds can have the same molecular formula but
different structural formula. These substances are called structural isomers and they have different names and
chemical properties. A polymer is a macromolecule (large molecule) that is formed by linking together many
monomers (smaller and identical molecules or units). The process of linking these molecules together is called
polymerization. Imagine joining together identical paperclips to form a long chain. The chain would represent
the polymer and each paperclip would represent the monomer. Polyethylene, a type of plastic that has many
uses, is an example of a simple polymer. Ethylene (CH2=CH2) is the monomer that makes up the many
repeating units of polyethylene [-CH2-CH2-]n (n is the number of times that the monomer is repeated in the
polymer). The applications of polymers are endless and you can probably see these applications by exploring
your house or shopping mall.
Drawing Organic Compound Structures
The structural formula of a compound shows all atoms and all bonds in a molecule. The condensed
molecular formula of a compound shows all the atoms in a compound, and contains information about the
attachment of atoms in the molecule but does not show the bonds.
eg. propanol
C3H7OH CH3(CH2)2OH
Structural formulae carbon structure molecular formulae condensed molecular formulae
ISOMERISM
Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formula. Isomers have the
same number and type of atoms, and even the same functional groups, but different connectivity. Thus, if the
names of 2 molecules are different, but their molecular formulae is the same, the molecules are isomers.
eg. Carbon skeletons of C5H12 isomers.
Naming Isomers
The following are some of the important points to consider

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i. Identify the longest carbon chain (parent chain)
ii. Number the chain starting from the end which is close to the branch
iii. In case of the functional group, numbering should start from the end close to the group.
iv. Consider the type of the branch
v. Consider the number of carbon containing the branch and, or functional group.
Isomers of Alkane
Rules for Naming Alkanes
1. Number the longest chain of carbons (called the “parent” chain).
2. Count up all the carbon atoms in the parent chain and use the number to give a basic name to the alkane.
3. State the number of the carbon atom where any junctions with alkyl groups occur.
Example 1:
Name the molecule.
Answer:
2-methylbutane
Note: -2 shows the # of the carbon atom where the junction is occurring
- methyl shows that the branched alkyl chain/group has 1C atom
- butane indicates that the parent chain has 4 carbon atoms
Example 2:
Name the molecule.
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Answer:
2,2-dimethylpropane
Note: -2,2 shows that there are 2 junctions on the second carbon atom.
- Di means two
-Dimethyl shows that there are two methyl groups.
For straight chain molecules, the name starts with n or normal.
eg.
N-pentane
Pentane
Rules for Naming Alkenes and Alkanols
1. Find the “parent chain” and number it. (The parent chain is the longest chain that includes the functional
group). C1 is the atom which is at the end of the parent chain nearest the functional group.
2. Count up the number of carbon atoms in the “parent chain” and give a basic name
3. Show the position of the functional group. Put it before “ne” or “ol”
4. State the position of any attached alkyl groups.
Isomers of Alkenes
Butene
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Pentene
Isomers of Alkanols
Propanol
Butanol
Example 2
Name the molecule
Answer:
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pentan-2-ol
Cyclic Compound
Organic compounds that form a ring of carbon atoms eg
Cycloalkanes
Cyclo means circular. Cycloalkanes are also isomers of alkenes.
eg. n-pentene and cyclopentane are isomers
n-pentene (C5H10) cyclopentane (C5H10)
Other Examples
cyclopropane (C3H6)
cyclobutane (C4H8)
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Polymerization
(Poly comes from the Greek word meaning many). A polymer is a long chain molecule made by joining
many small molecules called monomers. A polymer can also be defined as a macromolecule (large
molecule) that is formed by linking together many monomers (smaller and identical molecules or units).
For example, many ethene molecules joined together makes poly + ethene = polyethene. Monomers are
small molecules which join to make a polymer. Polymerization is therefore a chemical reaction in which
monomers join together to form polymer.
Types of Polymerisation
A. Addition polymerization
B. Condensation polymerization
Addition polymerization Condensation polymerization
monomers are usually of the same type monomers are of different types
monomers usually contain C=C the different monomers have functional groups that
can react with each other to release a small molecule
(usually water)
eg. polythene, polyvinyl chloride eg. polyamide (nylon), polyester (terylene)

(PVC), polytetrafluoroethene (Perspex)
Addition polymerization to form polythene:
Monomers of the same type join to form a polymer. Examples of such polymers include; polythene,
polyvinylchloride, polystyrene and polytetrafluroethene
Condensation polymerization
Different types of monomers join to form a polymer. A small molecule (usually water) is produced
together
General reaction for condensation polymerization:
X-OH + H-Y → X-Y + H2O
monomer 1 monomer 2 polymer water
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Condensation polymerization to form Nylon:
H2N(CH2)6NH2 HOOC(CH2)4COOH
1,6 – diaminohexane hexanedoic acid
nylon water
General formulae for an amino acid where R is an alkyl group
Condensation polymerization to form protein:
Amino acid 1 amino acid 2
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Protein water
Synthetic Polymers
Synthetic (laboratory-made or man-made) polymers have made the biggest inroad into our modern day
living and today polymer chemistry has given rise to a multibillion kwacha industry. Pens, plastic bottles,
food wrap, clothes, photographic films and toys are just some of the diverse items that are made from
synthetic polymers.
Polythene
Polythene is made from addition polymerization of ethene monomers. The double bond breaks releasing
free bonds which join together to form poly ethene
Properties
i. Can easily be moulded

ii. Are generally good electrical insulators
iii. Do not corrode
iv. Are durable
v. Not affected by weather
Uses for making
i. plastic bags
ii. wrapping films
iii. fizzy bottles
iv. milk bottle crates
v. electric insulation
Polyvinylchloride
Made from monochloroethene (CH2=CHCl) by addition polymerization
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Properties
i. Its strong
ii. Is hard
iii. Is less flexible
Uses for making
i. pipes
ii. electrical insulation
iii. guttering
iv. rain coat
v. garden hose
Polystyrene
Made from phenylethene by addition polymerization.
Properties
i. It is light
ii. It is brittle
Uses for making
i. insulation
ii. toy
iii. stem for ballpoint pen
iv. ceiling tile
v. clothes
Polytetrafluroethene (PTFE)
Made from tetrafluroethene by addition polymerization
Properties
i. Has low friction

ii. Is very stable
iii. Withstand high temperature
iv. Resistant from chemical attack
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Uses for making
i. stick coating on pans

ii. soles of electric iron
iii. insulators
Nylon
Made from 1,6-diaminohexane joined with hexanedioic acid
Properties
i. It is hard
ii. Its pliable (bends without breaking).
iii. Mouldable
Uses for making materials like; shirts, jumpers tights, ties, curtains, parachute, carpets
Terylene
Made by joining of ethane-1,2-diol and benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid
Properties
i. It is softer than nylon

ii. Its light
iii. It‟s tough
iv. Its durable
Uses for making
i. Fibre for clothes

ii. video tape
iii. plastic bottles
iv. seatbelt
Natural (biological) polymers
Biopolymers (Natural Polymers)

These substances are natural polymers much the same as synthetic plastics are. Both are composed of long
molecular chains, the links of which can either be one chemical or several different chemicals.
These are the simplest of the biological macromolecules, most are composed of only 1 kind of chemical link,
a sugar. There are a number of different sugars but the two most important are glucose and fructose. Sugars
are known as carbohydrates, the general chemical formula is (CH2O) and most of them form five or six
member rings. Single sugar molecules are known as monosaccharides; linking two together results in a
disaccharide.
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1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
This polymer is known chemically as deoxyribonucleic acid and it has 4 different chemicals which form
the links in its chain. Each link is known chemically as a nucleotide. Found in the cells
Properties
i. It‟s very long and parallel strands

ii. Twisted (double helix)
iii. Atoms colour coded
Uses
i. Store genetic information in living things.

ii. carries the genetic information from one generation to another
2. Polypeptides
These are the most complex of biological macromolecules, and in fact act like tiny machines. The
polypeptide chains are composed of substances known as amino acids. There are around 20 different
kinds of amino acids but they all are composed of a central carbon atom with an amine group, a
carboxylate group, hydrogen and one of 20 different chemical groups. Amino acids are linked together by
combining the amine group on one end with the carboxylate group on the other amino acid to form
proteins
Proteins can be used in a number of ways;
i. Structural proteins perform what cellulose did in plant cells, giving animal cells strength and
protection.
ii. Natural silk is another example of this class of proteins.
iii. When proteins are used as chemical catalysts, they are known as enzymes. A catalyst is a
chemical which speeds up a chemical reaction, but remains unchanged itself. Enzymes are
essentially what make cells alive. These proteins are responsible for all the chemical reactions
which result in cellular functions like respiration, photosynthesis and reproduction.
3. Cellulose
The most important polysaccharide is cellulose which plants use as a building material. Cellulose is
indigestible to most animals due to the way it is polymerized by plants.
Biopolymers (Natural Polymers) and their Uses
Polymer Monomer Use
Proteins amino acids growth and repair in the body
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Carbohydrates (polysaccharides) Monosacharides energy in the body
DNA Nucleotides Control of protein synthesis in

cells. The genetic material
responsible for heredity.
Synthetic Polymer Properties and Uses:
Polymer Properties Use
Polythene easily molded, good electrical plastic bags, bottle crates, electric
insulator, durable insulation, fabric coating
PVC strong, hard, and less flexible pipes, electrical insulation,

than polythene raincoats
Perspex transparent used as a glass substitute
Nylon hard, pliable, moldable clothing, parachutes
Tyrylene (polyester) softer than nylon clothes, video tapes, seat belts
Polystyrene (styrofoam) brittle and light packaging, insulation
Plastics
Plastics contain other materials as well as the polymers. These may be pigments, lubricants, antioxidants
or materials to increase the strength of the plastic, such as glass wool. Plastic can be moulded to a defined
shape.
Plastics are either;
a. Thermo Plastics or Thermosoftening Plastics
These contain polymers that soften on heating but become stiff and solid-like on cooling. Thus,
thermoplastics melt and flow when heated and becomes hard but with different shape when cooled. This
means that they can be remoulded. The polymer chains are able to move relative to each other. Examples
include; PVC, PTFE, Polythene, nylon, terylene, polystyrene
Properties
i. They are flexible

ii. They can be stretched
iii. Melts at lower temperature
iv. Can be remoulded
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Thermosets (Thermosetting Plastics)
When these are first moulded, the heat causes „crosslinks‟ to form between polymer chains. The resulting
plastic is a covalently bonded network of atoms and is hard and rigid. On heating, bonds eventually break
and the material „chars‟ as carbon is formed. Thus, thermosets do not melt when heated, simply break
down at high temperature and form dust
Examples include; melamine for table ware, phenolic for formica, etc
Properties
i. Cannot be remoulded
ii. Have cross links
iii. Have high melting point
Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers
Thermoplastics Thermosetting Plastics
melt or soften when heated do not soften when heated
can be heated or molded many times can be molded only once
have cross linked chains do not have cross linked chains
can be recycled can not be recycled
Factors that affect properties of polymers
i. Molecular structure of the polymer chains

 Linear chains pack more closely that branched chains
 Side groups oriented in a regular way pack closely together
 Long side-chains become tangled
ii. Strength and extent of the intermolecular forces between the chains
 The longer the polymer chain, he more extensive are the intermolecular forces
 The more closely the polymer chains can come together, the greater the strength of these
forces
Plastic Waste Management
Plastics are non-biodegradable which means they don‟t decay away or rot. This creates environment and
sanitation problems.
Plastic wastes can pollute environment if not well managed. The following are some of the ways
i. Dumping in a hole underground

ii. Destroying by burning
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iii. Recycling the plastics
iv. production of biodegradable plastics
Solutions:
- Incineration (burning)- useful in eliminating plastic wastes and providing heat energy, but releases
poisonous and acidic gasses that are hazardous to our health and environment.
- Recycling- requires waste management infrastructure and recycling plants. Thermosetting plastics can
not be recycled.
- Production of Biodegradable and Photodegradable Plastics- some plastics are now being created that can
be decomposed by light, bacteria, or water.
Waste Management of Paper
Unlike most plastics, paper is biodegradable. Also, if paper is soaked in water, compacted, and dried, it
can be used as a fuel called paper briquettes.
1. a. The table below shows some organic substances.
Substance Formula
A C2H4
B C6H12
C CH3COOH
D C6H13OH
E C2H5OH
(i) What are isomers? (1 marks)
(ii) Draw an isomer of substance E and give its name. (2 marks)
(iii) Draw the structural formulas of the two isomers of C4H10 and name (8 marks)
b. Give any two uses of substance C. (2 marks)
2. a. (i) Define polymer (1 mark)
(ii) What are the two reaction methods of polymerization (2 marks)
(iii) Draw the reaction of one polymerization method given in 7(ii) (4 marks)
b. (i) What is the problem with waste management of plastics (1 mark)
(ii) What are two solutions for the waste management of plastics (2 marks)
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PART II
PHYSICS
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CHAPTER 7
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Introduction
Nuclear stability is related to a decrease in potential energy when the nucleus forms from protons and neutrons.
If the neutron/proton ratio is unstable, the element will undergo radioactive decay. The rate of decay is
characteristic of each isotope; the time for half the parent nuclei to decay is called the half-life. Comparison of
the parent/daughter nuclei can be used to determine the age of a sample. Heavier elements are formed from the
fusion of lighter elements in the stars. Nuclear reactions take place in the sun. In plants, light from the sun is
transferred to oxygen and carbon compounds, which, in combination, have chemical potential energy
7.1 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
An atom comprises protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons form the nucleus. Nucleon is the
name for a particle found in the nucleus of an atom. Nucleons include protons and neutrons
Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, and neutrons have no charge. The simplest
nucleus is that of hydrogen as it contains one particle only (proton).
The standard notation for composition of a nucleus:
The number of protons in a nucleus is called atomic number, denoted by a letter Z. The total number of
neutrons and protons is called atomic mass number, denoted by letter A. The relationship between mass
number, atomic number and number of neutron is N = A-Z
Sometimes the notation is written using the name of the element followed by atomic mass e. g. C-12 meaning
carbon-12
Nuclides are atoms that have different nuclei. They could have a different number of protons and/or a different
number of neutrons.
Nuclear Notation
Nuclear Notation for The Electron, Proton And Neutron
Proton consist of a positive charge hence its atomic number is 1. Its mass number is also 1 since it has the mass
of 1 and the nuclear notation for the proton therefore is 1P
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Electron consists of a single negative charge, does not contain any nuclide (proton or neutron). Its atomic
number is -1 and its mass number is approximately zero, 0 and the nuclear notation for an electron is -1e
Neutron have no charge, hence its atomic number is 0. Its mass number is 1 since it has a mass of 1 and
nuclear notation for a neutron is 0n
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different mass number. This is due to different numbers of
neutrons in their nucleus. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but different mass numbers due
to different numbers of neutrons. eg.
Hydrogen isotopes are; Hydrogen 1 (proton atom), Hydrogen 2 (deuterium atom) and Hydrogen 3 (tritium)
Chlorine has two isotopes Cl 35 and Cl 37
¾ of chlorine is Cl 35
¼ of chlorine is Cl 37
Therefore the average atomic mass is 35(3/4) + 37(1/4) = 35.5amu
Isotopes have similar chemical properties since the number of electrons is the same.
Examples of Isotopes and Their Uses
Isotopes of carbon are; Carbon-12: C-12, Carbon -13: C-13 and Carbon-14: C-14. They are used in carbon-
14 dating
Isotopes of Hydrogen are used to make hydrogen bomb and to produce electricity
Note: Where the mass number is the same and atomic number is different, the elements are called isobars.
7.2 RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity is the emission of sub-atomic particles or rays, from a nucleus. It is involves the random
spontaneous disintegration of certain unstable atomic nucleus with the emission of different types of radiations.
All elements with atomic numbers above 83 are radioactive, and a few elements with atomic numbers below 83
like Carbon have naturally occurring radioactive isotopes. eg. C 14
Characteristics of radioactive substances
1. They have unstable nuclei
2. They can be transmutted to different elements
3. They emit energy in the form of radiation
Types of radiation
There are three types namely; Alpha radiation, Beta radiation and Gamma radiation
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1. Alpha (α) radiation
They consist of Helium nucleus. They have a charge of 2+. Alpha –particles are relatively heavy and are
positively charged.
Eg. Alpha decay of Uranium 238 to Thorium 234
238/92 U → 234/ 90 Th + 4/2 He
When the atomic mass of a radioactive substance is greater than 210, alpha particles are emitted.
Properties of alpha particle
i. They have slight penetration power

ii. They are readily absorbed by air, paper, and even the surface of skin.
iii. They are deflected by a magnetic or electric field.
iv. They have high ionization power, such that they cause gas atoms to be ions
v. They are emitted with the same velocity
2. Beta (β) radiation
Are fast moving electrons with high kinetic energy. They have no mass and are negatively charged. Lack of
mass makes beta particle to be light.
e.g. 14/6 C → 14/7 N + 0/-1 e
When the atomic mass of a radioactive substance is less than 210, beta particle are emitted.
Properties of beta particles
i. They have greater penetration power than alpha particles because they are smaller. For example, they
can penetrate paper, but they are absorbed by thin metals. Can be blocked by aluminium foil
ii. They cause less ionization in air
iii. Thus, they have medium ionizing power.
iv. They are deflected in the magnetic or electric field.
v. They have varying velocity and ranges in air
3. Gamma (γ) radiation
Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves that are shorter in wavelength than x-rays. They often accompany
either alpha or beta radiation. Gamma rays have neither mass nor charge.
Eg.Cs-137 (one of the radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants and atomic bomb explosions) decays to Ba-
137 and emits beta and gamma radiation.
Properties of Gamma Rays
i. They have greater penetration power than alpha or beta particles because they carry no charge.
ii. They are not deflected in a magnetic field.
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iii. They are not deflected in an electric field.
iv. They are absorbed by thick concrete and lead
v. They have low ionizing power.
Radiation detectors
Detection of Alpha and Beta Particles, and Gamma Rays
1. Electroscope
2. Cloud chamber
3. Scintillation counter
4. Spark counter
5. Geiger-Muller tube( G-M tube)
6. Photographic plate
7. Ionization chamber
Electroscope
Electroscope is device that uses charges to detect radiation. A charged electroscope will discharge when the air
around it has been ionized by α or β particles, or γ rays. When the electroscope is charged the leaf rises. When it
loses charges the leaf fall. When the radioactive substance is brought closer to the electroscope, the leaf falls
because ionized air is attracted.
Photographic plate
They are blackened by α and β particles, and γ rays. Photographic films become fogged or exposed (darkened)
when alpha, beta particles or gamma ray strike them. Thus they can be used to detect radiation. Usually they are
used in accidental discovery of radioactivity. Exposure of photographic plate is due to ionization done by the
radiating particles.
Geiger-Muller tube
When radioactive rays enter the GM tube ions are produced and allow a sudden large current pulse to pass
through the tube. This pulse can be detected by a scaler or a ratemetre. A scaler records the number of counts
while a ratemeter records the number of pulses or counts per second. α and β particles and γ rays can all be
detected in this way. Most used detector for ionizing radiation
G-M tube is sealed and contains an inert gas such as argon at low pressure. The thin mica window at the end of
the tube allows alpha particles and beta particles to enter the argon gas from outside. Gamma ray can enter
through the walls as well. Radiation ionizes the argon gas in the tube as it enters. The electrons are attracted
towards the anode while positive argon ions are attracted to cathode. The current flows in the circuit and is
recorded into scalar or rate meter
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Spark counter
Are like giant G-M tube with two plates, several metres long. Alpha particles are attracted by a negatively
charged plate and must pass through a positively charged grid on their way to the plate. A p. d is then applied
between the two plates until sparking occurs
As the alpha particles pass through the grid on their way to the plate, they ionize the air and allow a large
current to suddenly pass between the grid and the plate. The spark can be seen or head or registered by an
electronic device. The p. d is then reduced until sparking just stops. When a source of radiation is brought near
the plates, sparking occurs again. Thus, the ionisation of air between the plates causes the sparking in a Spark
counter
Scintillation counter
Scintillation is a flash of light. A scintillator is any material that produces flashes of light when nuclear radiation
falls on it. It detects α and β particles and γ rays. When radioactive rays fall on a fluorescent crystal, the
fluorescent crystal produces light spots or scintillations. The strength of the light pulse depends on the energy
of the radioactive rays.
Scintillation counter uses materials like sodium iodide or zinc sulphate which scintillates when it is hit by
radiation. Radiation knocks down electrons from the atoms. When the electron vacancies are refilled, light is
emitted. The light produced is so weak that can not be seen with naked eyes. A photomultiplier tube converts
flash of light (scintillation) to a flow of current. This current is amplified to a measurable level. Production of
current indicates ionization took place
Cloud chamber
The base of the chamber contains dry ice and the top of the chamber contains a felt ring soaked in alcohol. As
the alcohol diffuses downwards, it becomes cooled and ready to condense. When a radioactive substance is
released into the chamber, it produces ions along its path. These ions cause the alcohol vapor to condense. The
condensed vapor reflects light. α particles are seen as straight short thin tracks all about the same length, β
particles are seen as thin and twisted tracks, and γ rays are seen as straight tracks spreading outWhen radiation
particles moves in a cloud chamber, it leaves a trail or same kind of a cloud
There are two kinds of cloud chamber
1. Expansion chamber
Mixture of gases and vapor such as ethanol is cooled. Cooling is done by increasing the gas-vapor mixed thus
pulling down the piston. This makes gas vapor mixture to be supersaturated
When ions produced by incoming radiation meet the mixture, there is condensation (droplets) which forms a
trail of cloud along the path.
2. Diffusion chamber
Diffusion chamber contains two reservoirs of liquids, one on top which is heated and the other in the bottom
which is cooled. Vapor is produced at the top reservoir by heating. When the vapor in the chamber become
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super saturated, radiation passing through the chamber leaves a trail of liquid condensed on ions along the path.
Different type of radiation leaves different forms of trails, i. e.
In the diffusion chamber Alpha particle tracks are dense and straight since they are heavy. Beta particles tracks
are much thinner and fainter because they are not as strongly ionizing as alpha particles and Gamma rays have
no tracks
Ionisation Detector
Measures the ionization of a gas by α and β particles, and γ rays.
7.3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY
Radioactive Decay is the exponential breakdown of a nucleus to produce new types of atom and radioactive
particles. It can also be defined as the random and spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei of an atom. In
alpha and beta emission, the parent undergoes changes. The new nucleus is called daughter nucleus or decay
product
Alpha decay
The alpha particles are emitted from the parent nucleus. The parent reduces its mass number by 4 and atomic
number by 2
Example
A nitrogen atom is bombarded with a Helium nucleus to produce oxygen-17 and hydrogen.
14/7 N + 4/2 He → 17/8 O + 1/1 H
Radium-226 has 88 protons and emits an alpha particle when it decays to Radon 222
226/88 Ra →222/86 Rn + 4/2 He
Beta decay
The beta particles are emitted from the parent nucleus. The neutrons consist of a proto and electron when a
neutron breaks up, the electron is emitted and the proton remains in the nucleus. Therefore the parent nucleus
increases the atomic number by 1 and no change in mass number.
Example
Radioactive carbon-14 decays by beta emission to nitrogen
14/6 C → 14/7 N + 0/-1e
Pb-210 decays to Bi-210 by beta emission
La-139 decays by alpha emission to form Cesium followed by beta emission to form Barium-135
Gamma emission
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During gamma emission there is no change in mass number or atomic number. Usually this occurs together with
alpha or beta emissions
Nuclear Reaction and Nuclear equations
A Nuclear Reaction is a reaction in which a change takes place in the nucleus of atoms
Nuclear equations
The general equation for alpha decay is
X → Y + He
E.g. U → Th+ He
Ra → Rn + He
The general equation for beta decay
X → Y +e
Eg C → N+e
In the nucleus, the beta decay equation is
n → p+e
Half life
Half Life is the time taken for half of a radioactive substance to decay. It can also be defined as the time taken
for half the atoms in the radioactive sample to undergo radioactive decay.
Examples
Cobalt-60 has the half-life of 5.2 years
This means, if we start with 4grams of cobalt, 2g would remain after 5.2 years. After another 5.2 years (that is
10.4), 1 g would remain and so on
2. A radioactive source has half-life of 20 minutes. What fraction is left after 1 hour?
Solution
After 20minutes, fraction left= ½
After 40 minutes, fraction left = ½* ½= ¼
After 60 minutes, fraction left =1/2 * ¼ =1/8
After one hour 1/8 of the e sample will remain
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3. Carbon-14has the half life of 5700 year. A 10g sample of a living tree has activity of 160 counts
/minute. A piece of charcoal taken from a pre historic campsite also weighing 10g but has an activity of
40 counts / minute. Estimate the age of the charcoal
Solution
After 5700years the activity will be 160* ½ = 80counts / minute
After 285700years the activity will be 80* ½= 40 counts / minute
The age of the charcoal is 2*5700= 40 counts / minute
4. The ratio of the number of atoms of argon-40 to potasium-40 in a sample of a radioactive rock is
analyzed to be 1:3. Assuming that there was no potassium in the rock originally and that argon decays
to potassium-40 with a half life of 1.5billion years, estimate the age of the rock.
Solution
We assume there were N argon-40 in the rock when it was formed
After 1.5 billion years there will be N/2 atoms of argon left
Atoms of potassium-40 will be (N –N/2 ) = N/2
After 2* 1.5 billion years there will be N/2 * 1/2 = N/4atoms of argon
Atoms of potassium-40 will be (N – N/4) = 3N/4
Giving an Ar : K ratio of N/4: 3N/4= 1: 3
The rock must be about 3 billion years old
Exercise
1. A radioactive source has a half-life of 5 minutes. What fraction is left after 30 minutes?
2. A radioactive element has a half-life of 10 hours.
a. If initially the count rate measuring the intensity of radiation given out is 192 per minute, how long does
it take for the count rate to drop to 24 counts per minute?
b. What fraction of the original number of atoms is left when the count rate reaches 24 counts per minute?
3. When a source of radiation is placed in front of a Geiger-Muller counter, the initial count rate is 360.
After 20 days the count rate is 15. Calculate the half-life of the source.
4. The table below shows how the activity of a sample of Iodine-128 varies against time.
Time (minutes) 0 20 40 60 80
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Activity 75.8 43.5 25 14.4 8.3
(disintegrations/
second)
a. Plot a graph of activity against time.
b. From the graph, determine the half-life of iodine-128.
c. The wound of a girl which was treated with iodine-128 is found to have disintegrations of 30 per
second. From your graph determine how old the girl wound is.
Decay curve
Decay Curves plot the number of nuclei against time and show that Radioactive decay is exponential.
The average number of disintegration (decaying atoms) per second of a sample is activity.
Decay curve of activity against time can be plotted
The graph below shows that the activity decreases by the same fraction in successive equal time intervals.
It falls from 80 to 40 in 10 minutes, then to 20 in 10 minutes and so on
activit 160 80 20 10 5 2.5 1.25

y
time 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
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200
activity
100
0 Y-
Values
0 50
Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes are isotopes of an element that is radioactive. Some radioisotopes are produced by cosmic rays,
others by nuclear fusion. Cosmic rays are high-energy particles that falls on the earth from space. Carbon-14 is
a natural radioisotope formed from nitrogen
Dangers of radiation
i. Causes cancer such as leukemia and blood defects

ii. Extreme large dose of radiation can cause death
iii. Causes depletion of ozone layer
iv. It causes gene mutation
v. Causes skin burn
vi. Causes the lowering of disease resistance
vii. It causes serious abnormalities
Safety measures against radiation
i. Wear protective suits

ii. Check radiation levels regularly
iii. Use lead and concrete for protection
iv. Use thick lead-walled containers to transport radioactive materials
v. Handle with long tongs
vi. Don‟t hold near the eyes
vii. Wear a radiation dose badge and have it checked
viii. In nuclear power stations reactions should be controlled with Boron-steel or graphite rods and housed in
concrete.
ix. Use remote control equipments from behind thick glass or lead walls to handle radioactive materials
x. Do not use remote control to operate a TV screen when there is a person between the screen and the
remote. The remote control works by producing and sending beta particles to the screen
xi. Use lifting tools (forceps or tongs) to handle radioisotopes
Storage of Radioactive Substances
Radioactive substances should be stored in steel containers and buried in concrete bunkers.
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Uses of radiation
1. Carbon Dating
By measuring the amount of C-14 in dead organisms we can estimate how long they have been dead. There is a
fixed percentage of carbon 14 in the atmosphere. When an organism dies it stops taking in new carbon 14 and
the mass of carbon 14 in its body decreases.
2. In medicine
i. Treatment of cancer and tumor e.g. gamma ray from radium or cobalt- 60
ii. For investigating iodine intake in thyroid grand
iii. For diagnosis of circulatory problems e.g. sodium-24
iv. For sterilization of surgical instruments e.g. cobalt
3. In industry
i. For examining wear in machinery

ii. For searching problems in lubrication or leaking pipes hence stopping flow of liquid or powder in
machinery
iii. Can be used to measure the thickness of materials. For example, measuring thickness of plastic film and
paper
4. In Agriculture
Biochemical Tracers can be used as tracers. Tracers show where substances are moving in living organisms.
Obtaining information about animal or plant nutrition and to sterilize male insect thus reducing insect
population
5. Power Generation
Fusion reactions can be used to heat water in power stations. Also used in long life batteries in pacemakers and
space stations
6. Sterilisation and food preservation
Gamma rays can be used to kill bacteria.
Examinable Question
Describe how the thickness of a sheet of plastic could be controlled using radiation during manufacture (6
marks)
Natural and Induced Radioactivity
Radioactivity occurs in nature, but radioactivity can also be induced by bombarding a nucleus with neutrons.
eg.
Uranium- 235 is used in nuclear power plants.

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1/0 n + 235/92 U → 236/92U → 144/56 Ba + 90/36 Kr + 2 1/0 n
If sulphur-32 is bombarded with neutrons it forms P-32 and a proton atom.
Nuclear fission
Is a process by which a heavy unstable nucleus is split up into two or more smaller nuclei. They release vast
amount of energy and emits two or three neutrons called fission neutrons. Fission is induced by firing high
energy neutron at the unstable nuclei (e.g. uranium-235or platinium-239).
Radioactive fission is the splitting of a large nuclear mass into smaller masses.
1/0 n + 235/92 U → 236/92 U → 144/56 Ba + 90/36 Kr + 2 1/0 n + Energy
The neutrons released by induced fission will cause more fission and so on. This is a nuclear chain reaction. A
controlled chain reaction is allowed to occur in a fission reactor. An uncontrolled chain reaction occurs in a
fission bomb (atomic bomb is formed)
n+U La + Br +3n
For nuclear chain reaction
Uses of nuclear fission
Used to produce energy( nuclear energy) Controlled fission is used in nuclear power stations.
It is used to make an atomic bomb. Uncontrolled fission is used to make atomic bombs
Nuclear fusion
Radioactive fusion is the combination of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.
Nuclear fusion is the combination /joining of two light nuclei to form a heavier, more stable nucleus. Occurs
only at extremely high temperature (millions of degrees). Naturally, nuclear fusion occurs in the sun. Reaction
that takes place in the sun and other stars to produce energy. The kind of reaction that takes place in hydrogen
bombs
Hydrogen isotopes are fused together to form helium atom
2/1 H + 2/1 H → 4/2 He + 1/1 H + 1/0 n + Energy
Uses of fusion
i. It is used as a source of energy (sun)

ii. Used to make hydrogen bomb
iii. Used to produce electricity
1. a. Uranium – U, decays in a series of stages as follows
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(i) Which particles are emitted at each stage?

Stage 1 (1 mark)
Stage 2 (1 mark)
(ii) Apart from the particles mentioned in 1 a (i), what else is emitted at each stage? (2 marks)
(iii) State any two safety precautions when handling radioactive substances. (2 marks)
b. (i) Define half-life. (2 marks)
(ii) Which type of radiation from radioactive materials?
A. Has a positive charge? (1 mark)

B. Causes the most intensive ionization? (1 mark)
(iii) The radioactive isotope, carbon – 14, decays by beta (β) particle emission?
A. What is a beta (β) particle? (2 marks)

B. Plants absorb carbon-14 from the atmosphere. The graph in figure 1. Shows the decay
for 1g of carbon -14 taken from a flax plant.
Figure 1
Use the graph to find the half-life of carbon-14. (4 marks)
c. What particles are in the nucleus of the atom? (2 mark)
2. a. What are isotopes? (2 marks)
b. How many protons and neutrons in the nucleus of

(i) 126C (2 marks)
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(ii) 146C (2 marks)
3. a. Define radioactivity (2 mark)
b. Figure 1 is a diagram of a radioactive substance emitting radiation through an electric field
and hitting a photographic plate
photographic plate
- +
radioactive substance
Figure 2
a. Label the diagram in Figure 2 with three types of radioactivity (3 marks)
b. Why is the photographic plate used? (2 mark)
c. Describe 2 properties of one type of radiation (2 marks)
4. The following nuclear reaction takes place:

226
88Ra  22286Rn + ?
a. What is the missing particle? (1 mark)
b. How does the mass of the reactants compare with the mass of the products? (2 marks)
c. 20 moles of a radioactive substance starts to decay. How much is left after:
i. 2 half-lifes (2 marks)
ii. 4 half-lifes (2 marks)
c. Compare/contrast 2 properties of fission and fusion (4 marks)
d. What are is one use for radiation in medicine and environment? (2 marks)
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CHAPTER 8
FORCES AND MOTION

Mechanics is one of the oldest branches of physics. It deals with the study of particles or bodies when they are
at rest or in motion. Motion is the change of position of an object with respect to time. To study the motion of
the object, one has to study the change in position of the object with respect to the surroundings in relation to
the force applied. The motion of a particle can be described if its position is known continuously with respect to
time. A study of motion will involve the introduction of a variety of quantities, which are used to describe the
physical world. Examples of such quantities are distance, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration, mass,
momentum, energy, work, power etc. All these quantities can be divided into two categories – scalars and
vectors. In this topic, we are going to study the relationship between displacement, velocity, acceleration and
time of a given motion, without considering the forces that cause the motion. We are also going to study the
relationship between the motion of bodies and forces acting on them. Thus, this topic is called forces and
motion.
8.1 SCALAR AND VECTOR QUANTITIES
Scalar quantity is any quantity with magnitude only e.g. Speed, mass temperature, time etc
Vector quantity is any quantity with magnitude and direction e.g. velocity, acceleration, force displacement etc
Representing Vector Quantity
Represented by a straight line with an arrow head
Length of the line proportionally represents the size of the vector. The arrow head shows the direction of the
vectors. The arrow head is called the head of the vector. The other end of the line is called the tail of the vector
Nature of Vectors
Every vector can be thought of as being made up of two perpendicular pieces.
 A horizontal component
 And a vertical component
Vectors in the same direction can be added normally. Vectors in opposite directions can be subtracted normally.
Vectors on angles are a pain.
Addition of Vectors
Resultant vector is the single vector that has the same effect as two combined vectors. If vectors are acting in
same direction, then vectors are added to make resultant. If vectors are acting in opposite direction, then vectors
are subtracted to make resultant
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Vector addition is the same as combining vectors
Vectors acting in the Same Direction
When two vectors acts toward the same direction, simply add their magnitude to get the resultant
FR is the resultant vector usually symbolized as R. By simple arithmetic , FR= F1 + F2 + F3 + F4+ …
Fr is resultant vector, F1, F2, F3, … are components
Vectors acting in Opposite Direction
The resultant is found by subtracting the component
The negative sign on the resultant shows opposite direction
Vectors acting at an Angle
Two rules are used ; triangle rule and parallelogram rule
Adding Vectors using Triangle Rule
Sides of a right angled triangle represent vectors. The hypotenuse is the resultant of the two vectors.
Draw two vectors as show above
Another line parallel and equal to F1can be drawn
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A resultant drawn connecting tail of F2 to head of F1
Use Pythagoras theorem to find the resultant
Use trigonometric ratios to find direction of the resultant in terms of the angle
i.e. tanx= then x= tan-1( )
Example
Find the size and direction of the resultant of forces of 30N and 40N acting at right angle to each other
Solution
A right angled triangle will be drawn as below
FR = √
= √ )N
=√ N
=50N
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The angle shows direction
Tan θ = opp/ hyp
=30N/40N
=0.75
Θ =tan0.75 = 38.9⁰
The resultant is 50N at 38.9⁰ to the direction of 40N
Adding Vectors Using Parallelogram Rule
A parallelogram is drawn to scale. Sides of the parallelogram are vector components adding. The diagonal of
the parallelogram is the resultant. By proportion the magnitude of the resultant can be calculated
Example
Find the resultant force of two forces of 4.0N and 5.0N acting at an angle of 45⁰ to each other.
Use the scale of 1.0 cm = 1.0N
By parallelogram rule the diagonal AD represents the resultant in magnitude and direction measured as AD =
8.3 cm and angle BAD = 21⁰.
Then the resultant is 8.3 cm acting at an angle of 21⁰ to the force of 5.0N
A Summary on drawing Vectors
Use graph paper; draw each vector (magnitude/direction) as they occur in word problem
What if not exact same direction?
Triangle Rule – if vectors are 90° to each other, can use Pythagorean theorem to find resultant vector (opposite2
+ adjacent 2 = hypotenuse2)
Parallelogram Rule – if two forces are acting at a point represented in size and direction by the sides of a
parallelogram drawn from the point, their resultant is represented in size and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram drawn from the point (must use protractor and ruler)
**if vectors are drawn based on a scale (i.e. 1 cm = 10 N), students can simply measure the resultant vector with
a ruler and convert to the measurement (force, velocity, etc.) for both the Triangle AND Parallelogram Rule
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Components of A Resultant Vector
A vector at an angle is assumed to have two components; The horizontal and the vertical components.
A process where a vector is replaced in to two vectors is called vector resolution
There are two methods
A. Trigonometric method
B. Parallelogram method
Trigonometric Method
Uses the trigonometric ratios
Sketch a vector at an angle given as below
Vx and Vy are horizontal and vertical components respectively
Sin θ = opp/ hyp
=Vx/R
Vx = R sin θ
Vx = Rcosθ
Example
Resultant force acting at an angle of 30⁰ to x component has the magnitude of 50N. Resolve the force by
finding its x and y components.
Fx = F cos θ
=50N cos 30⁰
=43N
Fy = F sin θ
=50N sin 30⁰
=25N
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Parallelogram Method
Uses scale drawing to construct a parallelogram
The length of Vx and Vy gives the magnitude of the component
Making a vector component conversions factor for a given angle
Materials: Large sheet of paper, meter stick, protractor, calculator
1) Draw a vector 100cm long at an angle of exactly _____________ .
2) Drop a vertical line from the tip of the vector.
3) Extend a horizontal line from the tail of the vector (this should make a triangle).
4) Measure the length of the horizontal component. ______
5) Measure the length of the vertical component. ________
6) On the back of your sheet, calculate the decimal value of the horizontal and vertical component conversion
factor. (Answer 4 and 5 /100) Place these values on back of your sheet.
7) On the back of your sheet, show an example of how to use this conversion factor to find the horizontal and
vertical components for 50N.
8) On front of sheet, show how you would use graph to find vertical and horizontal component for 50N.
9) Be prepared to present your finished product to the class.
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8.2 LINEAR MOTION
Distance and Displacement
Distance represents different routes one can take to move from one point to another and has no specific
direction.
Displacement is the most direct, shortest and straight line route one can take to move from one point to another
and has a specific direction.
Graphs of Distance – Time
Graphs below can be interpreted as follows
The object is stationary. There is no motion
An object is moving at changing (variable), but increasing speed.
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Object moves at variable (changing) but decreasing speed
A body moves at constant speed
Note: Gradient of distance time graph gives speed
Speed = distance / time
Speed, Velocity and Acceleration
Speed is distance travelled per unit time. It has no specific direction hence it‟s a scalar quantity. Its measured in
m/s or km/hr
Velocity is displacement per unit time. It has specific direction hence it‟s a vector quantity. It is measured in
m/s or km/ hr.
Acceleration is change in speed per unit time in a given direction. Velocity can also be defined as change in
velocity per unit time. It is measured in m/s/s, or m/s2 or m.s-2
Speed – Time Graphs
The graphs are interpreted as follows
The body moves at constant (uniform) speed. There is no acceleration so it‟s zero acceleration
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The body moves at constant acceleration or uniform acceleration
The body moves at constant deceleration (negative acceleration)
A body moves with variable, but decreasing acceleration.
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A body moves with variable, but increasing acceleration
Area under speed – time graph gives distance travelled by an object
Gradient of speed – time graph gives acceleration
Example
The graph below shows the motion of a cyclist from village P to village Q
Calculate
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Distance travelled by the cyclist
Acceleration of the cyclist
Solution
Using area of trapezium
Area = ½ (sum of // sides) * height
= ½ ( 20 + 40 ) * 5
= 150m
OR
Area of triangle + area of rectangle
= ½ base * height + length * width
= ½ * 5 * 20 + 5* 20
= 150m
Acc = change in sped/ time taken
= 40m/s – 20m/s /5s
= 20/5 m/s/.s
=4m/s2
Equation of Motion for Uniform Acceleration
If a body is moving with uniform acceleration (a) and its velocity increases from u to v in time (t) then
a = (change in velocity) / time taken
= (v- u) / t
at =v–u
Therefore v = u + at
note v is final velocity and u is initial velocity
Average velocity = ( u + v ) / 2 and
Average velocity = total displacement
Total time taken
=s/t
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Then s/t = (u + v) / 2
Therefore s = t (u + v) / 2
From 1 v = u + at and
From 2 s/t = (u + v)/ 2
= (u + u + at) / 2
= (2 u + at) / 2
= (u + ½ at)
s = ut + ½ at2
From equation 1
v = u + at then
v2 = (u + at) = u2 + 2uat + a2t2
=u2 + 2a (ut + ½ at2)
= u2 + 2as
Therefore v2 = u2 + 2as
Example
A car accelerates from 4m/s to 20m/s in 8 s. how far does it travel in this time?
Solution
u = 4m/s, v = 20m/s
a = (v- u) / t
= (20m/s – 4m/s)/ 8s
=16m/s / 8s
=2m/s2
s = ut + ½ at2
=4 * 8 + ½ *2*82
= 32 + 64
=96
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A Summary of Symbols and Formulas
u – initial velocity t – time
v – final velocity m - mass
a – acceleration F - force
s – distance/displacement s = ut + ½ at2 a = (v-u)/t s = ½ (v + u) x t

F = ma
v = u + at F = (mv-mu)/t
v2 = u2 + 2as
**students must be able to interpret distance/time and velocity/time graphs
8.3 NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
There are three laws
First Newton’s Law of Motion
The law states that a body in motion will stay in motion at constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by
an outside force. It can also be states as a body at rest will remain at rest unless acted upon by an outside force.
One can also argue that an object in motion stays in motion and an object at rest stays at rest unless acted upon
by an outside force (Law of Inertia). Thus, an object at rest will continue to be at rest unless acted on by an
external force. An object moving at constant speed will continue to be in motion unless acted on by an external
force.
Examples: car stops, occupants lurch forward; stone at rest; bus starts moving, body tries to stay at rest 
moves back
Mass and Inertia
Inertia is that property of a body by virtue of which the body is unable to change its state by itself in the absence
of external force. The inertia of a body is directly proportional to the mass of the body. Inertia is the ability of a
body to stay in the state it is. It means if a body is in a state of rest, it will try to stay in state of rest. If it‟s
moving at constant speed it will try to continue moving at constant.
Inertia resistance to change a body‟s motion or resting state
Increase mass, increase inertia; increase inertia, increase force to change velocity
(example: stopping a person running vs on a bike vs in a car)
Momentum = mass x velocity (kg*m/s)
Mass is the measure of inertia. A larger mass means an object has greater inertia.
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Mass vs Weight
Mass
Mass is the amount of inertia (or resistance to change in motion) an object has. Mass is the same for an object
regardless of location. Mass is measured in kilograms
weight
Weight is the force due to gravity. It is measured in Newtons. On earth it is mass x 10. Weight changes when
the pull of gravity changes. Weight is the force due to gravity.
Formula w=mg
Weight changes as gravity changes from place to place. The mass of an object does not change.
What force does?
A net force changes an objects speed or direction (inertia). If an object does not change its motion, there must
be no net or unbalanced force.
Equilibrium
If there is no net force, all forces must vector ally add to zero. We call this state being in equilibrium.
Are you a little unbalanced?
Often times an object will have forces on it and not change its motion. When this occurs, we say the forces are
in equilibrium.
Implication of Newton’s First Law of Motion
i. Passengers in the bus must be seated or hold bar or chair or anything for support.
ii. Drivers must put on the seat belts and avoid suddenly and fast
iii. Have air bag in front of driver and front passengers. The air bag inflates during collision and deflates
after collision.
Second Newton’s Law of Motion
The net or unbalanced force is equal to an object mass time‟s acceleration. Only an unbalanced force creates
acceleration.
F = m x a (Force = mass x acceleration) (unit – Newton (N))
Force is directly proportional to change in momentum per unit time
F = (mv – mu) / t
Impulse (Ft) – change in momentum (Ft = mv –mu)
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Thus Newton‟s Second Law of Motion states that force acting on an object is directly proportional to the
product of its mass and acceleration
F α m × a thus
F = ma
Example
A lorry has a mass of 4000kg and moves at an acceleration of 0.6 m/s . What is the force a car was moving
with?
Solution
a = 0.6m/s m = 4000 kg
F = ma
= 4000kg * 0.6 m/s
= 2400kg. m/s
= 2400N
Example 2
A lorry of 5000kg slows down with a braking force of 3000N. Calculate its deceleration
Solution
m = 5000kg F = 3000N
F = ma
a = F/m
= 3000N / 5000kg
= 0.6 m/s2
Exercise
A car of 4000kg decelerates at 2.0 m/s. calculate the braking force
Momentum and Newton’s Second Law
Momentum of a body is the product of its mass by its velocity. Momentum is a vecto quantity with units of (
kg.m) / s
Momentum = mass * velocity
Large momentum needs high velocity and heavy mass

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Recall F = ma and a = (v – u) / t
then
F = m (v – u) = (mv –mu)/ t
therefore Ft = mv – mu
mv – mu is the change in momentum and is called impulse thus
impulse is Ft = mv – mu
Impulse is constant but the size of force can be made smaller if the time increase.
Example
A small car of 750kg travelling 30m/s hits a brick wall and it is made to stop in 0.1s. Calculate the force acting
on the belt if the hold during collision.
Solution
m = 750 kg t = 0.1s u = 30m/s and v = 0 m/s
F = (mv – mu) / t = (750* 0 - 750 * 30) / t
= 750 * - 300 = - 225000N
Without a crumple zone (boot and bonnet). A second car 0f the same mass is stopped by the wall in 0.04
seconds. Work out the force acting on the seat belt.
F = (m v – mu)/t = (7 50 * 0 – 750 * 30)
0.04
=750 * - 30/ 0.04
= -562500N
Exercise
Explain why a crumple zone is safe for the driver and passengers?
It absorbs more force during collision thereby saving driver and passengers from injury or death.
Conservation of Momentum
When two or more objects act on each other, their total momentum remains constant, provided no external
forces acting; m1v1 = m2v2
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Implications of Second Newton’s Law Of Motion
i. To avoid injury or death during collision

ii. Use cars that have crumple zone which absorbs shock in time of collision
iii. Bend or fold yourself if you happen to be falling from a tree or higher level to increase time of falling
iv. Use cars with impact absorbing bumpers.
Newton’s Third Law of Motion
The law states that for every force on acting on a body there is an equal and opposite force of reaction to the
body. If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B will exert an equal but opposite force to A. For every
force exerted on a body, the body will exert an equal and opposite force (on the other body)
For every force acting on a body, there is an equal and opposite force of reaction to the body (every action has
an equal and opposite reaction).Whenever one object exerts a force on another object, the other object exerts an
equal but opposite force
Note: each of the two forces in the pair
Action-Reaction Pair Examples
Ex: stepping from boat, car collision, tug of war
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Examples
i. Stepping from a rowing boat

ii. Tag of war game
iii. Gun explosion
iv. Jet engine
Principle of Conservation Of Momentum
When two or more objects act on each other, their momentum stays constant, if no outside force act on them
Total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
m1*v1 = m2*v2
Examples
1. A bullet of mass 10g and travel at a velocity of 1000m/s, enters a block of wood and stays there. What is
the final velocity of the wooden block if the mass of the wooden block is 990g.
Solution
m1 = 10g (0.01kg) v2 =1000m/s
mass of wood = 990g (0.99kg)
m2 =0.99kg = 0.01 kg
v2 = ( 0.01kg * 1000m/s) / 1kg
= 10 m/s
2. A truck of mass 2000 kg is moving to the right at a velocity of 2 m/s. A collision takes place with a
stationery truck of mass 1000 kg. If the two trucks stick. Together after the impact and there are no
outside forces, work out the final velocity of the trucks together?
Solution
m1 = 2000kg, v1 = 2 m/s
m2 = 1000kg+ 2000 kg = 3000 kg
m1 * v1 = m2 * v2
v2 = (2000 kg * 2 m/s) / 3000 kg
= 1.3 m/s
Friction Force
Friction – opposes motion of an object
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Friction is the "evil" of all motion. No matter which direction something moves in, friction pulls it the other
way. Move something left, friction pulls right. Move something up, friction pulls down. It appears as if nature
has given us friction to stop us from moving anything.
Friction is actually a force that appears whenever two things rub against each other. Although two objects might
look smooth, microscopically, they're very rough and jagged. Friction depends on the roughness of the surfaces.
There are also two types of friction.
Static and sliding
Sliding is always a smaller amount of friction than the same two surfaces before motion (static). This fact is
very important when you are braking. The amount of friction is determined by the two surfaces in contact and
no other factor.
Other types of friction forces
Solid friction  book on table
Fluid friction  air pressure
Factors affecting fluid friction
i. Shape/size of object – larger object, increase friction force; flat/rough object will have more resistance
than smooth/streamlined object
ii. Speed of object – increase speed, increase friction
iii. Viscosity of fluid – increase viscosity, increase friction free fall
In free fall, air resistance is negligible. In vacuum or space, all bodies fall with same acceleration
Heavy objects make air resistance negligible making them free fall
An object falling in liquids
Galileo was the first to make a systematic study of the motion of a body under the gravity of the Earth. He
dropped various objects from the leaning tower of Pisa and made analysis of their motion under gravity. He
came to the conclusion that “in the absence of air, all bodies will fall at the same rate”. It is the air resistance
that slows down a piece of paper or a parachute falling under gravity. If a heavy stone and a parachute are
dropped where there is no air, both will fall together at the same rate.
If an object i.e. a ball is thrown in a liquid, its speed will keep on increasing until it reaches its maximum speed.
Then the speed remains constant. This is called terminal speed
Therefore, terminal speed/ velocity is the maximum constant speed/ velocity reached by an object falling
through a gas or liquid
There are three forces that act on objects falling in liquids
a. Weight W, acting downward

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b. Up thrust U, acting up wards. It is a constant up ward force that acts on any body placed in liquids and is
not related to friction
c. Frictional force Fr, acting in an upward direction and opposing the downward motion of the body
Resultant force = W – ( U + Fr )
At terminal speed W = U + Fr hence, Resultant force = 0
Falling in Air
Two forces act on an object falling in air; weight W acting downwards and rictional force Fr acting upwards
opposing the motion also called air resistance. Up thrust in air is negligible for most bodies because weight is so
much greater than up thrust
FREE FALL
This is falling of objects in vacuum, where there is no air resistance. All bodies are assumed to fall with the
same acceleration called gravitational acceleration. The magnitude of the acceleration g is 10m/s2. If an object is
too heavy free fall also applies. Ideal rules for freefalling bodies according to Galilee Galileo are. All falling
bodies fall with the same motion, if started together they will fall together. The motion is one of the constant
acceleration of g, around 10m/s2.
1. a. State Newton‟s second law of motion (2 marks)
b. An object of mass 200kg decelerates uniformly from 80m/s to a velocity of 60m/s in 4

seconds
Calculate
i. The deceleration of the object. (3 marks)
ii. The force required to produce this deceleration. (2 marks)
iii If the object maintained the deceleration in 1.b.i, after how long did the speed reach zero.
(2marks)
c. Name the difference between a vector quantity and a scalar quantity. (2 marks)
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d. Two force of magnitude 40 N and 30 N are being used to pull a load at a right angle to
each other. Find the resultant force (5 marks)
2. a. Define terminal velocity (1 mark)
b. Figure 2 shows a ball bearing falling in engine oil
i. name the force labeled

Y: (1 mark)
Z: (1 mark)
i. Write down the relationship of force X, Y and Z at terminal velocity (2 marks)

ii. What law is observed as the ball approaches the terminal velocity? (1 mark)
iii. What law is observed as the ball is at terminal velocity? (1 mark)
iv. If the ball weighs 25 kgs, what is the force the fluid is to exert to overcome the weight?
(2 marks)
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CHAPTER 8
OSCILLATION AND WAVES

Waves occur frequently in nature. The most obvious examples are waves in water, on a dam, in the ocean, or in
a bucket. We are most interested in the properties that waves have. All waves have the same properties, so if we
study waves in water, then we can transfer our knowledge to predict how other examples of waves will behave.
We can use light rays to model mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, and prisms. The study of how light
interacts with materials is optics. When dealing with light rays, we are usually interested in the shape of a
material and the angles at which light rays hit it. From these angles, we can work out, for example, the distance
between an object and its reflection.
8.1 OSCILLATION AND WAVES
Oscillation (vibration) is a movement back and forth that repeats itself or a to and fro movement of an object at
a constant rate. Oscillation is a repeated, regular movement of an object that occurs at constant rate.
Characteristics Of an Oscillation
Cycle: a complete oscillation
Amplitude (a): maximum displacement of an oscillating object
Period (T): time taken to complete one oscillation. Units are seconds(S)
Frequency (f): number of complete oscillations per unit time.Units is hertz (Hz).
In all of the diagrams that follow:
-One full oscillation is ABCBA, BCBAB, or CBABC. The displacement is the distance from B and the
amplitude is equal to the displacement from B to A or from B to C.
-The kinetic energy (velocity) is greatest at B. The potential energy is zero at B and the kinetic energy is zero at
A and C. The potential energy is greatest at A and C.
- As the mass moves from A to B, almost all of the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy (a very
small amount of energy is lost due to friction). As the mass moves from B to C, almost all of the kinetic energy
is converted into potential energy (a very small amount of energy is lost due to friction).
-The amplitude of oscillations decreases over time because of friction, but the frequency of oscillation remains
constant over time.
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Oscillation of a pendulum
The potential energy at A and C is energy of height.
Oscillation of a cantilever
The potential energy at A and C is strain energy. There is also some potential energy of height at A, but it is
minor compared to the strain energy.
Oscillation of a spring
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The potential energy at A is energy of height, and the potential energy at C is strain energy. The potential
energy at B is 0 because the spring force and the gravity force are balanced.
Relationship between Frequency (f) and Period (T)
Frequency (f) =
Period (T) =
Frequency (f) x Period (T) = x
fxT=1
Therefore, T = or f =
Some Cases of Oscillation
Simple Pendulum
Vibrating Spring
Cantilever/cramped ruler
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Factors that Affect and Do Not Affect the Frequency of Oscillating Systems
Oscillating System Factors that Affect Factors that Do Not Affect

Frequency Frequency
pendulum length mass, initial displacement
spiral spring mass, strength of initial displacement

spring, length of
spring
cantilever mass on end, mass of initial displacement

cantilever, material of
cantilever
Factors Affecting Frequency of Oscillating systems
A Simple Pendulum
i. Length : When length of string increases, frequency also increase

ii. Material of pendulum
iii. Amplitude Change: increasing amplitude reduces frequency
Spring
i. Mass: As mass at the end of spring increases, frequency decreases

ii. Strength of the spring: Frequency of oscillating spring increases with increasing strength
Cantilever
Mass: Increasing mass on the end of cantilever reduces frequency.
Examinable Question
With the aid of a well labeled diagram, describe an experiment you can make to show how mass affect
frequency of a swinging spring. In your explanation use a spring, mass, stop watch and clamp stand. (13 marks)
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WAVES
A wave is a disturbance in a medium or a it is a regular periodic disturbance in a medium. Eg. sound, TV, radio,
water, and light waves
Types of Waves
A. Transverse waves
B. Longitudinal waves
Transverse Waves
Transverse Waves are waves that show displacement perpendicular to the direction they travel
eg. light
Labeled model of a transverse wave
Wave travels at right angle to the direction of the wave
Produces crests and troughs
Can travel through vacuum
Examples: Water waves, Light waves and radio waves
Longitudinal Wave
Longitudinal Waves are waves that show displacement in the same direction they travel. Eg. sound
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Sound waves coming from a speaker. C = compression (squeezing), and R = rarefaction (partial vacuum).
Travels along or parallel to the direction of vibration.
Produces compressions and rarefactions
Needs medium to travel
Examples: sound waves
Table showing the differences between longitudinal and transverse waves.
Transverse Waves Longitudinal Waves
Oscillations are at right angles to the Oscillations are in line with the direction the
direction the wave is traveling wave is traveling
can travel through a vacuum can NOT travel through a vacuum
produces crests and troughs produces compression and rarefaction
Examinable Question
With the aid of a well labelled diagram, describe an experiment which can be used to find out if sound waves
require a medium for their propagation. (12 marks)
Characteristics of Waves
Wave amplitude: maximum displacement of the particle in the wave
Wave Period: time taken for a vibrating particle in the wave to complete a cycle.
Wave Frequency (f): Number of Oscillations by a particle in a wave per unit time
Wave Length: distance between two consecutive crests or trough
Wave velocity (v): is the distance covered by a wave in a unit time
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Wave Equation
Frequency , velocity and wavelength has the following relationship
v= f‫ג‬
Example
A wave has a wavelength of 19m and frequency of 15.1 Hz. Calculate the velocity
Solution
v =f‫ג‬
= 15.1 Hz x 19 m
= 286.9m/s
A source of frequency 256 Hz is set into vibrations. Calculate wavelength of the waves produced if speed is
332m/s
Solution
v=f.‫ג‬
‫=ג‬
= 1.30 m
Other Examples from Past papers
Example 1
A vibrating tuning fork produces 500 waves every 2 seconds. If the speed of sound in air is 350m/s, what
is the wavelength of the sound wave?
f = no of waves/time taken = 500/2s = 250s-1 = 250Hz
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v = fλ so λ = v/f = (350ms-1)/(250s-1) = 1.4m
Example 2
A water wave travels 480cm in 2 minutes and has a wavelength of 5cm. Calculate the speed and the
frequency of the wave.
distance traveled = 480cm= 480cm(1m/100cm) = 4.8m
total time = 2min= 2min(60s/min)= 120s
wavelength= 5cm= 5cm(1m/100cm)= 0.05m
v = distance traveled/time taken = 4.8m/120s= 0.04m/s
f= v/λ= (0.04ms-1)/(0.05m)= 0.8s-1= 0.8Hz
Example 3
[MANEB 2002] A wave travels a distance of 30cm in 2 seconds and the distance between two successive
troughs is 3.0m.
Calculate:
velocity (2)
frequency of the wave (2)
distance= 30cm= 30cm(m/100cm)= 0.3m
total time= 2 s
wavelength= 3.0m
v= distance/time= 0.3m/2s= 0.15m/s
v= λf so f= v/λ= 0.15ms-1/3.0m= 0.05s-1= 0.05Hz
Example 4
[MANEB 2006] Figure 4 is a diagram showing waves on a rope xy
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Calculate the wavelength. (3)
If rope, xy is swung up and down 20 times in 2 seconds, calculate the average speed of the wave?
λ= total distance/total number of waves= 1.8m/4.5= 0.4m
f= 20oscillations/2s= 10s-1
v=f λ= (10s-1)(0.4m)= 4m/s
Example 5
[MANEB 2007] Figure 1 is a diagram of a wave.
Calculate the frequency of the wave. (2)
Calculate the velocity of the wave if its wavelength is 50m. (2)
frequency= number of oscillations/time= 1/2s= 0.5Hz
v= fλ= (0.5Hz)(50m)= 25m/s
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Properties of Waves
Reflection
Reflection is the bouncing back of waves by a reflector. Angles of reflection and incidence are always equal
for a wave reflected by a flat reflector.
Reflection of waves. i = angle of incidence, r = angle of refraction. i = r for all waves reflected by a flat
surface.
It‟s bouncing back of waves when they meet an obstacle.
angle of incidence = angle of reflection
Refraction
Refraction is the bending of waves when traveling in mediums of different densities. This bending occurs
because light waves travel at different velocities in mediums of different density.
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Refraction of light traveling through glass. i = angle of incidence = angle between the normal line and the
incident ray. r = angle of refraction = angle between the normal line and the refracted ray. i1=r2 and r1=i2
Change in direction of a wave as it passes from one medium to another.
The wave changes wave length and speed but not frequency
Diffraction
Diffraction is the spreading of waves at the edges of obstacles. If the gap width is increased the diffraction of
waves also decreases.
Spreading of waves which occur when a wave goes around an object or through a gap.
Diffraction of waves through a gap equal to 1 wavelength.
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8 diffraction of waves through gap equal to 3 wavelengths
Only direction changes.
Velocity, wave length and frequency do not change
Interference
Interference is the combination of waves to give a larger or smaller wave.
f. Interference. C = constructive interference. D = destructive interference
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Interference is the interaction of two or more waves of the same frequency emitted from coherent sources
Constructive interference
Constructive interference is the combination of waves with the same wavelength traveling in the same
direction in the same phase. The combination forms a wave with amplitude equal to the sum of the amplitudes
of the constituent waves with the same wavelength and direction as the constituent waves
.Occurs when identical wave s meet in phase resulting in n a wave of double the amplitude i.e crest meet and
troughs meet
Destructive interference
Destructive interference is the cancelling of waves that occurs when two waves have the same wavelength and
direction but opposite phases.
Destructive interference. peaks and troughs cancel.
Occurs when two identical waves meet out of phase resulting in cancelling of each other and stopping of all
movement i. e. trough and crest meet
Interference of water waves in a ripple tank
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Wave Front
8.2 OPTICS AND OPTICS
Lenses
Produces images by refracting light rays
Lenses are used in optical instruments and they often have spherical surfaces.
Types of Lenses
Convex (converging) Lens: are thickest in the middle.
bend light inwards
Concave (diverging) lens: are thickest on the edges and are thinnest at the centre
spread light
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Refraction of light by a converging lens
Refraction of light by a diverging lens
Some Terms in Lenses
Principal Focus/Focal Point (F)
It is a point through which all rays travelling parallel to principal axis pass after refraction through the lens.
A lens has principal focus on both sides
Principal Axis
An imaginary line which passes through the optical center at right angle to the lens
Optical Centre
This is a geometric center of the lens. Rays of light through it are not refracted
Focal Plane
Imaginary line passing through F and perpendicular to the principal axis
Focal Length (f)
Distance between optical centre and focal point
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Descriptions and symbols of terms used in ray diagrams
Name Description Symbol
principal axis an imaginary line PA

through the center
of the lens, which
is also
perpendicular to
the plane of the
lens
focal point/ the meeting point F

principal axis of a beam of light
focus rays after passing
through a convex
lens
optical center this is the center of C

a convex lens
where light rays are
not refracted
focal Plane an imaginary plane

passing through the
principal focus and
perpendicular to
the principal axis
focal length the distance f

between the optical
centre and the focal
point
Object a real thing o
Image a picture of a real i

thing
object distance the distance u

between the object
and the lens
Image distance the distance v

between the image
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and the lens
object height the distance from h1

the PA to the top of
the object
image height the distance from h2

the PA to the top of
the image
Magnification the multiple of m

enlargement of the
image from the
object
Characteristics of Image
Virtual or Real- A virtual image can not be formed on a screen (eg. a mirror image). A virtual image is found
on the same side of the lens as the object. A real image can be formed on a screen (eg. a projector image). A
real image is found on the side of the lens opposite to the object.
Upright (Erect) or Inverted (Upside Down)- An upright image is oriented in the same direction as the image.
An inverted image is oriented at 180˚ to the object.
Magnified, Diminished, or Same Size- A magnified image is larger than the object. A diminished image is
smaller than the object. Magnification can be calculated in 2 ways:
m= h2/h1 (magnification = image height/object height)
m= v/u (magnification = image distance/ object distance)
Ray Diagrams
Are used to illustrate how and where the image is formed
Constructing Light Ray Diagrams
Information about the position and characteristics of an image formed by a lens can be obtained by drawing 2 of
the following 3 rays:
i. A ray parallel to the principal axis which is refracted through the principal focus F.
ii. A ray through the optical centre C which is not refracted.
iii. A ray through the principal focus F which is refracted parallel to the principal axis
Where the lines intersect gives the image distance and the image height which can be used to calculate
magnification.
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Ray diagram for object beyond 2F. Image is real, inverted, diminished, and located between F and 2F.
Ray diagram for object at 2F. Image is real, inverted, the same size as the object, and located at 2F.
Ray diagram for object between F and 2F. Image is real, inverted, magnified, and located beyond 2F.
Ray diagram for an object at F. Image is magnified, real, inverted, and located at infinity.
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Ray diagram for object inside F. Image is virtual, upright, magnified and located on the same side of the lens
as the object.
Example in construction of Ray Diagram
Consider a few light rays when making a ray diagram especially two
A light ray which passes through the optical centre- never bends
A light ray that is parallel to the principal axis before the lens passes through the focal point on the other side
of the lens
Where these rays meet is the position of an image.
Example
An object is placed 20 cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 10 cm. if the object is 5cm high. Find by
scale drawing the
i. nature
ii. size
iii. image distance
LENS FORMULA
= +
f is focal length
v is image distance
u is object distance
∴f=
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magnification, m =
Example:
Calculate image distance (v) for an object that is placed 25cm from the lens of focal length 15cm
Solution
= -
= -
v=
= 37.5cm
If the object distance is 25 cm and image distance is 37.5 cm. Find magnification
Magnification m =
= = 1.5
Problem Solving Using the Lens Formula
Example
An upright object 6cm high is placed 30cm in front of a converging lens of focal length 10cm. Use the lens
formula to find
position of the image
size of the image
magnification of the image
characteristics of the image
a. 1/f = 1/v + 1/u
1/f – 1/u = 1/v
(u-f)/(fu) = 1/v
(fu)/(u-f) = v
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v = (fu)/(u-f)= ((10cm)(30cm))/(30cm – 10cm) = 15cm
b. m = v/u = h2/h1
h2/h1 = v/u
h2 = (h1v)/u = ((6cm)(15cm))/(30cm) = 3cm
c. m= h2/h1 = 3cm/6cm = 0.5
d. since u>F image is real and inverted
since m<1 image is diminished
Methods of Determining Focal Length of a Convex Lens.
a. Using lens formula

b. Using distant object: image distance is focal length
c. Using graph
Examinable Question
With the aid of a clearly labeled diagram described the arrangement you would use to produce a pure spectrum
of white light on a screen. In your description include an explanation on why each component is used.
(12 marks)
9.3 OPTICAL INSTRUMENT
Optical Instruments use light to form an image. eg. the human eye, a lens camera, a projector.
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Comparison between an eye and a camera
Table showing parts of the eye and their functions
Part Function
Iris controls the size of the pupil
Pupil the hole in the pupil that allows

light to enter the eye
Retina detects the light that enters the eye
Lens focuses light rays onto the retina
cilliary change the thickness of the lens to

muscles focus images on the retina from
objects at different distances
How an Eye Works
Light from an object passes through the convex lens in the eye. The cilliary muscles automatically adjust the
focal length (fatness) of the lens to focus light rays from the object on the retina. An inverted diminished
image is formed on the retina (fig. 3)
*Accomodation is the ability of the eye to change the focal length of the lens. Changing the focal length of the
lens helps the eye to focus images on the retina from objects at different distances
Parts of a Camera and Their Functions
A camera is used for taking pictures (images) of object.
Glass lens: refracts light rays and produce image
Aperture (hole): allows light rays to pass through
Diaphragm: controls the size of aperture. During bright day aperture narrows
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Shutter:
allow light into the camera by opening and closing
prevents light entering the camera when it is not needed
Film: it‟s a screen where image is formed
Threads: used for focusing the image
Camera box:
its dark inside to prevent damage of film
acts as a container.
Nature of image in a camera
image formed is real, diminished and inverted
How a Camera Works
An image is brought into focus by adjusting the distance of the lens from the film. The aperture of the camera is
adjusted according to the brightness of the light being reflected from the object being photographed. The shutter
of the camera opens briefly allowing the light refracted by the lens to form an inverted diminished image on the
film. The light leaves a chemical imprint on the film which can be used to produce photographs.
Similarities between Camera and a Human Eye
a. Both have convex lens to produce real image

b. Eye lid(eye) and shutter (camera) controls entry of light by closing and opening
c. Pupil (eye) and aperture (camera) are holes that allow light to enter.
d. Iris (eye)) and diaphragm(camera) controls the size of the hole
e. Retina (eye) and film (camera) are light sensitive where image is produced
f. Ciliary muscle (eye) and threads (camera) are adjusted to produce a clear image
g. Eye ball(eye) and Camera box (camera) are black inside and both are containers
Differences Between Camera and Human Eye
a. Eye lens is soft tissue while camera lens is a rigid glass

b. Eye produces clear image by process of accommodation while the camera produces clear image by
focusing
c. Human eye has fluid while the camera has no fluid inside
d. Eye has an optic nerve while camera does not have
e. Focal length of lens in an eye change while focal length of lens in a camera is fixed
f. The eye normally opens while the camera normally closes except when taking picture
g. in an eye, image distance is fixed while in a camera, image distance changes
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Parts of a Slide Projector and Their Function
Concave mirror:
acts as a reflector
sends back stray light directing to condenser
Lamp: Produce light for illuminating the object(slide)
Condenser: bends and directs more light to the slide
Projection lens: produce real image
Screen: where the image is produced
Table showing parts and function of a projector
Part Function
curved mirror to reflect light
Bulb to illuminate the film (object)
Condenser to converge (concentrate) light onto the film
projector lens to converge (refract) light rays onto the screen
Screen where the image is formed
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Nature of Image in a Slide Projector
The image formed is real, magnified and inverted
Slide is placed upside down to produce an upright image
Ray diagram of a projector
Light ray diagram for a slide projector. Image is real, inverted, and magnified.
How a Projector Works
In a projector, the object (film) is placed upside down so that the image appears upright to the viewer. Light is
passed through the film and then through a converging lens (projection lens). A magnified inverted image is
formed on the screen. The image is focused by adjusting the distance of the projection lens from the film.
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CHAPTER 10
ELECTRICITY MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC

INDUCTION I
Introduction
People all over the world depend on electricity to provide power for most appliances in the home and at work.
For example, flourescent lights, electric heating and cooking (on electric stoves), all depend on electricity to
work. To realise just how big impact electricity has on our daily lives, just think about what happens when there
is a power failure or load shedding. But, where does electricity come from? Humans have known about
magnetism for many thousands of years. For example, lodestone is a magnetised form of the iron oxide mineral
magnetite. It has the property of attracting iron objects. What is the connection between electricity and
magnetism? Be patient to explore this chapter and all your questions on electricity and magnetism will be
answered.
Types of Electricity
A. Static electricity (electrostatics)

B. Current
10.1 STATIC ELECTRICITY
Electrostatics is the flow of charges in insulators
Charge
Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons are fixed in the nucleus and are
therefore not able to move while electrons can be transferred from one substance to another. Protons are
positively charged, neutrons are neutral, and electrons are negatively charged. In a neutral substance, the
number of protons and electrons is equal so charge is balanced. Charge arises when electrons (negatively
charged particles) are transferred from one substance to another.
There are two types of charge: positive and negative
A substance becomes positively charged (more protons than electrons) when electrons are removed and
negatively charged (more electrons than protons) when electrons are added.
Like charges repel and opposite charges attract.
Observation: When a charged cellulose acetate strip is brought near a free hanging charged polythene strip,
the two strips are attracted to each other. If a charged cellulose acetate strip is brought near another charged
cellulose acetate strip, the strips repel.
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Explanation: Cellulose acetate becomes positively charged when it is rubbed, and polythene becomes
negatively charged when it is rubbed. Since opposite charges attract, the strips are attracted. Charged
cellulose acetate strips repel one another because they both carry positive charge.
The force between electric charges decreases as their separation increases.
Observation: The force exerted on charged cellulose acetate by charged polythene is greater when the strips
are close.
Explanation: The force between electric charges decreases with distance.
Differences between Charging Insulators and Conductors
Electrons can not move easily through an insulator. An insulator can be charged by rubbing because the charge
produced cannot move from where the rubbing occurs (the electric charge is static).
Electrons can easily move through a conductor. A conductor will become charged only if it is separated from
other conductors by an insulator; otherwise, electrons are transferred between conductors until they reach
ground.
Observation: rubbing a metal rod does not produce a charge.
Explanation: electrons are moving between the conductor and the ground through the hand of the person
rubbing the metal rod.
How can we detect charges?
Gold Leaf Electroscope
Charge can be detected with a gold-leaf electroscope.
Observation: When a charge is brought near the electroscope, the gold leaf moves away from the metal plate.
Explanation: Charges in the metal cap, rod and plate of the electroscope that are like the charge of the
charged object move away from the metal cap of the electroscope (like charges repel) and collect in the metal
plate and gold leaf. The metal leaf and the gold plate now carry like charges (like charges repel) so the gold
leaf moves away from the metal plate.
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In order to identify whether an object is positively charged, negatively charged, or neutral, a charged
electroscope can be used. An electroscope is charged by rubbing the metal cap with a charged object. The
charge on the electroscope pushes the gold leaf away from the metal plate. If the gold leaf moves closer to the
metal plate when an object is brought near the metal cap, then the charge of the object brought near the metal
cap is opposite to the charge of the electroscope.
Identifying Good Insulators and Good Conductors
In order to identify whether an object is a good conductor or a good insulator, touch it to the cap of a charged
electroscope. If the leaf of the electroscope falls rapidly, then the object is a good conductor. If the leaf of the
electroscope does not move when you touch the metal cap, the object is a good insulator.
Electrostatic Induction
Charge can be induced in a conductor with an insulated base. When a charged object is brought near a
conductor, electrons move in the conductor so that the region of the conductor nearest the charged object carries
charge opposite to the charged conductor and the region of the conductor farthest from the conductor carries the
same charge as the charged object.
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Charging by Induction
Charged object is approached to uncharged object. Charges in the uncharged object are repelled by the similar
charged object.
Attraction between Uncharged and Charged Objects
When a charged object induces charge in an uncharged ungrounded conductor, the opposite charge to the
charge on the charged object builds up on the face of the conductor closest to the charged object. Charges like
that of the charged object build up on the face of the conductor farthest from the charged object. The attraction
between the opposite charges of the conductor and charged object is stronger than the repulsion of the like
charges because the like charges are farther apart than the opposite charges. As a result, the charged object and
the conductor are attracted to each other.
Observation: When a charged polythene strip is brought near paper, the papers are attracted to the polythene
strip.
Explanation: The negative charge on the polythene rod causes the electrons in the paper to move to the bottom
of the paper which leaves the top face of the paper positively charged. Because the positive charge on the
paper is closer to the negatively charged polythene rod than the negative charge, the paper is attracted to the
polythene rod
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This is the same principle that causes papers to stick to a rubbed plastic pen case.
Applications of Static Electricity
There are many applications of static electricity such as;
i. Coal-burning power station(flue –ash precipitator)

ii. painting
iii. Capacitor
iv. Photocopying
FLUE-ASH PRECIPITATOR
Electrostatic Precipitation removes dust and ash that goes up chimney of coal burning plant or coal burning
power stations. It consists of a charged fine wire mesh which gives a similar charge to the particles of ash. Dust
and ash are then attracted to plates with an opposite charge. These are tapped from time to time to remove the
ash which falls to the bottom of the chimney.
PAINT SPRAYING
Electrostatics is applied when painting an object such as a car with a paint sprayer. Charged paint particles stick
to surface of object being painted. The body is given a negative charge and the paint from the sprayer have
positive charges. When the paint reaches on the body of the car for instance, it is evenly spread and stick
together due to charges. Even the paint that was supposed to drop down is attracted by the charges on the
body of the car.
PHOTOCOPIERS
Photocopiers contain a charged drum. The paper to be copied is laid over the glass plate, light reflects white part
of paper causes charge part of drum to disappear from the corresponding parts of the drum but the charged
pattern on drum remains (dark color on paper) where the toner powder is dusted over the charged part. When
the sheet of paper passes over the drum, the particles of tonner are attracted to it and fused in to place
by a short of heat
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CAPACITOR
It is a device that store charges (hold electricity/charge (switches). In its simplest form, it consists of two
parallel metal plates separated by an insulator called dielectric. The symbol of a capacitor is
The capacitor can be charged by connecting a battery across it
A positive Charge builds up on plate X since it is losing electrons and an equal negative charge builds up on Y.
10.2 CURRENT ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRIC CURRENT
Current Electricity is the flow of electrons through a conductor.
Conductors are materials like metals that allow electrons to flow (move) through them
Electrons in Metals
Recall that atoms consist of three types of particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. Protons have a positive
charge, neutrons have a no charge and electrons have a negative charge. Protons and neutrons are found in the
nucleus (center) of the atom and electrons are found outside of the nucleus. The protons and neutrons of metal
atoms are fixed (stuck) but electrons move freely.
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The movement of electric charges in a conductor occurs due to free electrons moving from one atom to the
other
When a battery is connected across the ends of such a conductor, the electrons move from negative to positive
terminal of a battery.
Electric Current is the rate of flow of electrons in a circuit.
Current is measured in units of Amperes called Amps (A) for short.
Current is measured by an ammeter
The letter I represents current.
Voltage is a measure of the ability of electrical energy to do work.
Voltage is measured by instrument called a voltmeter
Voltage is measured in units of Volts (V).
The letter V represents Voltage.
Resistance is a measure of the opposition to the flow of electrons in a material.
Resistance is measured in units of Ohms (Ω).
Resistance is not measured directly.
Effects of Electric Current
Heating effect
Nichrome wire has high resistance so it gives out lots of heat when it is connected in a circuit. Nichrome is
used in heating appliances. Copper wire has low resistance so it does not give out lots of heat when it is
connected in a circuit. Copper is used in electrical wiring because electrons that move through copper do not
lose much energy.
Fuses
A fuse is a device used to protect electrical appliances from large current. A fuse wire has a higher resistance
than copper and a low melting point. A fuse wire is placed in series.
How a Fuse Wire Works
1. If very large current passes through the fuse wire, the fuse wire becomes very hot
2. The fuse wire melts
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Lightning effect
In ordinary bulbs for instance consists of a filament. When current heats up the filament, the bulb glows red
which gives light.
Magnetic effect
When current is passed through a conductor it produces a magnetic field. Current can be used to produce
temporary magnets called electromagnets. The magnetic effects of electricity are what make the energy
conversions possible in dynamos and electric motors.
Chemical effect
Electric current can be used to separate metals from their ionic compounds using a conductivity apparatus.
eg. Plating of copper from copper sulphate
Circuits
This is a path where current flows (conductor). A junction is where different paths meet.
Circuit symbols
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Series Circuit
A circuit with all its components (cells, bulbs e.t.c) found in one connecting path. In a series circuit, there are no
junctions.
Parallel Circuits
A circuit which has components in different conducting paths. In a parallel circuit there are junctions.
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Measuring Current
Current is measured by an ammeter and the S I units for electric current is amperes
An ammeter is connected in series to the component it is measuring because all components in series receive the
same current.
Reading an Ammeter
The ammeters we use in our schools can have different scales such as 1A scale and a 5A scale.
The 1A scale
It is the top scale.
It is used by connecting the output wire to the 1A output terminal.
It is used when measuring small currents.
It is more precise than the 5A scale.
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The 5A scale
It is the bottom scale.
It is used by connecting the output wire to the 5A output terminal.
It is used when measuring large currents.
It give readings for a wider range of values than the 1A scale
Positive terminal of the ammeter is connected to the positive terminal of the cell
Negative terminal of the ammeter is connected to the negative terminal of the cell.
Measuring Voltage
A voltmeter measures voltage in volts (V)
A voltmeter is connected in parallel to the component measured because voltage is the same to components in
parallel.
Positive terminal of the voltmeter is connected to positive terminal of the cell and the negative terminal of the
voltmeter is connected to negative terminal of the cell
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Examinable Question
1. Define electromotive force of a battery (1 mark)
2. Using one cell, two identical bulbs, a voltmeter and a switch, describe an experiment you would carry
out to show that the brightness of the bulbs depends on the voltage. (11 marks)
Resistance
Resistance is defined as the opposition to the flow of electrons in a conductor or opposition of conductor to
current
Factors Affecting Resistance
Length of wire
As the length of the wire increases, the resistance of the wire increases.
Thickness of wire
As the thickness of the wire increases, the resistance of the wire decreases.
Temperature
As temperature increases, the resistance of the wire increases.
Number of cells (increase number cells, decrease resistance)
Type of material e.g copper has very low resistance while nichrome has very high resistance.
Calculating Resistance
Resistance is calculated as a ratio of voltage to current.
R=
Its units are Volts per ampere (V/A) or Ohms (Ω)
EXAMPLES
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A p.d of 12 V is needed to drive current of 2A through a wire. Find the resistance of the wire.
Solution
R= = =6Ω
A current flows through a coil of wire of resistance 80Ω when it is connected to the battery terminals. if the
potential difference is 60V,find the value of the current.
Solution:
I= = = 0.75Ω
Examinable Practical Questions
You are provided with a voltmeter, ammeter, nichrome wire, 2 cells, connecting wires and a metre rule.
Connect a circuit as shown in the figure
Complete the circuit by placing 100 cm of nichrome wire in the gap PQ
Note and record the voltmeter and ammeter readings in the table below under the 100 cm column.
Change the length of nichrome wire in the gap to 75 cm
Note and record the new voltmeter and ammeter readings in the table below under the 75 cm column.
Repeat steps (d) and (e) for the remaining lengths of 50 cm, 25 cm and 10 cm.
TABLE OF RESULTS
LENGTH (cm) 100 75 50 25 10
Voltmeter reading (V)
Ammeter reading (A)
Resistance
(6 marks)
g. Plot a graph of resistance against length of a wire (6 marks)
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h. Find the slope of the graph (1 mark)
You are provided with 2 cells, a 100 cm wire, an ammeter, a switch, connecting wires and a ruler.
Connect a circuit as shown in the diagram in the figure below.
Connect the ends of the wire (100 cm long) in the gap AB
Record the reading of the ammeter in the table of results.
Disconnect the wire from the circuit.
Connect in turn 80 cm, 60 cm, 40 cm, and 20 cm length of the wire in the gap.
Record in the table the readings of the ammeter for each length of wire
TABLE OF RESULTS
LENGTH (cm) AMMETER READING (A)

100
80
60
40
20
(5 marks)
Plot a graph of current against length (6 marks)
Describe the relationship between current and length of wire
__________________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________(1 mark)
RESISTOR
Resistor is an electrical component specifically designed to offer resistance to the flow of current in a circuit
Resistor Colour Code
This is a method used to indicate the resistance of a resistor. Each colour is given numerical value. Normally
resistors have four colour bands. The first 2 colour bands indicates the number. The 3rd band indicates the
number of zeros after the first two digits. The fourth band indicates the tolerance of the resistor.
The table below shows colour band s and their numerical value.
Colour Numerical value

Black …………… 0
Brown 1
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Red …………… 2
Orange bbbbbbbbbo 3
Yellow .>>>>>>>> 4
Green …………… 5
Blue …………... 6
Violet .................... 7
Grey …………… 8
White 9
Other tolerance values are given below
Colour Tolerance
Brow 1%
Red 2%
Gold 5%
Silver 10%
No colour 20%
Example
Using colour code, what is the resistance of the resistor below?
Solution:
Red: 2, Blue: 6, Black: no zeros, Red: Tolerance of 2 %
The resistance is 26 Ω ± 2%
2 % of 26 are 0.52
The resistance is (26 ± 0.52) Ω
The resistor has resistance of 2200 ± 110 Ω. Write all the colours of the resistor in order.
Solution:
2 is Red, 2 is Red, The two zero indicates Red
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110 is 5% of 2200 which is Gold
The colours are Red, Red, Red, and Gold
Resistance Code (Standard Notation)
This method indicates resistance of a resistor using the position of letters R and K.
Position of letter R or K before or in between figures gives the magnitude and position of a decimal
point in given figures. Usually a letter apart from the two is for tolerance e.g.
F = 1%, G= 2%, J= 5%, K =10%, M = 20%
Examples:
Find the resistance of the following resistor.
Resistance is 0.53Ω
Resistance is 5.3Ω
Resistance is 15 Ω
Resistance is 0.25 kΩ
Resistance is 2.5 kΩ
Resistance is 25 kΩ
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Working Out With Resistance in Parallel And Series Arrangement
Resistors Arranged in Series
Recall that current in Series Circuits is the same everywhere in a series circuit. Thus, ll the ammeters give the
same reading. A1 = A2 =A3 = A4 = A5
Current passing the through components connected in series is the same.
However, potential difference is different across them The sum of the voltage across all components in a series
circuit is equal to the terminal voltage. Thus Voltage in Series Circuits is additive
V1+ V2 = VC
V1 + V2 = V3
VC = V3
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V = V1 + V2 + V3
But V1 = IR1, V2 = IR2, and V3= IR3.
If R is also combined,
V =IR
IR = IR1+ IR2 + IR3.
Dividing I both sides,
R = R1+ R2+ R3.
Resistors in Parallel arrangement.
Recall again that Current in Parallel Circuits shared among the components while potential difference is the
same to all components
Thus, the total current entering a junction is equal to the total current exiting the junction.
The sum of the currents read by A2 and A4 equals the current read by A1
The sum of the currents read by A3 and A5 equals the current read by A6
The current read by A3 equals the current read by A2
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The voltage across each component in a parallel circuit is equal to the terminal voltage.
VC = V1 = V2
Therefore, current through resistors shares while potential difference is the same to all resistors
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I = I1+ I2 + I3 for total current
But I1 = , I2= , I3 = and also R combined is R =
= + + .
Dividing both sides by V it gives
= + +
R=
This reduces resistance
Note: If resistors are in series, resistance is increased than the same resistors connected in parallel.
EXAMPLES
Work out the total resistance of each resistor network below
Solution:
R = R1 + R2
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= 8Ω + 2 Ω
= 10Ω
Solution
R= = = =1.6Ω
Solution
For resistors in parallel
R= = = = 1.6Ω
For resistors in parallel
R = 1.6 + 2 = 3.6Ω
total resistance is 3.6Ω
EXERCISE
Work out the effective resistance for the network below
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CIRCUIT CALCULATIONS
When dealing with calculations in circuits the following must be considered
Total current in the circuit is that passes through the battery
Components (resistors, bulbs etc) of a circuit in series, current through them is the same, but their p.d
voltages are usually different in size
Note: only when R1 = R2 then V1 = V2
Components of a circuit in parallel, the voltage across are equal, but current through each component are
usually different
Only when R1=R2 the I1=I2.
At a junction in a circuit, the sum of the current entering the junction is equal to the sum of current leaving the
junction.
At junction Q: I = I1+ I2.
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At junction P: I = I1+ I2.
For a battery EMF, E volts, supplied to the circuit, EMF is equal to the sum of the p.d voltages used up across
the components in the external circuit.
E= V1 + V2 + V3.
Components in series have total resistance of
R= R1 + R2 + R 3.
Components in parallel have total resistance of
= + +
EXAMPLE
A p.d of 24 V from a battery is applied to the network of resistors in the figure below.
What is the combined resistance of resistors in parallel
Work out the ammeter reading
Work out the voltmeter reading.
What is the current in the 6Ω resistor?
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Solutions
Using R =
Combined resistance R= = = 4Ω
Redrawing the circuit, it will be as show below
Effective resistance in the circuit is
R = 4Ω + 8Ω = 12Ω
Using Ohms law
I= = = 2A
The ammeter reading is 2A
V = IR
= 4Ωx2A
= 8V
Since voltage for the parallel resistors is the same,
I= = = 1.33A
Electrical Power
Electric Power is the rate at which electrical energy is used per time or it is the rate of using up electrical
energy
Recal that, Power = Energy / time (P = E/t, Watts = J /s)
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Therefore, Electric power =
Electrical Energy, E = I2Rt
Therefore, Electrical Power = I2R
=VI
P = E / t = VI = I2R = V2/R
Examples
A torch bulb is labeled 2,5V, 0.3A. Calculate the power of the bulb.
Solution
Electrical Power, P = VI = 2.5x 0.3 = 0.75W
the power of the bulb is0.75W.
In 5 seconds, an electric iron takes 10,000 joules of electric energy from the main supply. What is its power
in
Watts?
Kilowatts?
Solution
Power = = = 2,000W
1,000W = 1kW
therefore 2,000W = 2kW
Power Rating
All electrical appliances like bulbs, Electric Iron Refrigerators, etc have power rating marked on them
either in Watts or kilowatts
For example, if a bulb has power rating of 100W, mean it converts 100J of electric energy every second.
The table below show some appliances with there Power rating
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Appliance Power Rating
Filament Lamp 25-150 W
Refrigerator 150W
Television 200
Electric iron 750
Electric Kettle 2-3kW
Immersion heater 3 kW
Electric cooker 3-5kW
ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Energy is calculated as
Energy = power (kW) x time (h)
Units for electrical energy consumed by an appliance are measured in kWh
1kWh mean an appliance used 1kW for an hour
Example
If a 100W bulb is switched on for 10 hours, Calculate the energy supplied in kWh
Solution
Energy supplied = Power x time = 0.1 kW x 10h = 1kWh
CALCULATING COST OF ELECTRICITY
Electricity is paid depending on how much energy has been used in kWh.
The consumption is calculated as follows
Cost = units used x unit price
In addition to the cost, customers also pay taxes as follows
Ministry of Energy, Mines, Natural Resources and Energy (MAREP) at 4.5%
Malawi Energy Regulatory Authority (MERA) at 1%
Value added Tax (VAT) at 16.5%
The total bill is the sum of the cost and all the taxes
Examples
What is the cost of heating water in a tank with a 3 kW heater for 90minutes, if the cost of electricity is
MK26.52 per unit (inclusive all levies)
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Solution
Cost of heating water = Units used x cost per unit
= Power x time x cost per unit
= 3 kW x 1.5h x 26.52
= MK 119.34
Examinable Question
6 KW of powers is fed to a transmission cable of resistance 3 ohm. Calculate the power wasted in the cable if
power is transmitted at 300V. (4 marks)
10.3 MAGNETISATION
Magnetism is a force that certain kinds of objects, which are called „magnetic‟ objects, can exert on each other
without physically touching. A magnetic object is surrounded by a magnetic „field‟ that gets weaker as one
moves further away from the object. A second object can feel a magnetic force from the first object because it
feels the magnetic field of the first object.
Magnetic fields
A magnetic field is a region in space where a magnet or object made of magnetic material will experience a
non-contact force.
Electrons inside any object have magnetic fields associated with them. In most materials these fields point in all
directions, so the net magnetic field is zero. For example, in the plastic ball below, the directions of the
magnetic fields of the electrons (shown by the arrows) are pointing in different directions and cancel each other
out. Therefore the plastic ball is not magnetic and has no magnetic field.
Properties of magnets
i. Attracts magnetic materials

ii. Have poles where force of attraction is greater,
iii. Like poles of magnets repels and unlike poles attract
Nature of magnetic materials
In some materials (e.g. iron), called ferromagnetic materials, there are regions called domains, where the
electrons‟ magnetic fields line up with each other. All the atoms in each domain are grouped together so that the
magnetic fields from their electrons point the same way. The picture shows a piece of an iron needle zoomed in
to show the domains with the electric fields lined up inside them.
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In permanent magnets, many domains are lined up, resulting in a net magnetic field. Objects made from
ferromagnetic materials can be magnetised, for example by rubbing a magnet along the object in one direction.
This causes the magnetic fields of most, or all, of the domains to line up in one direction. As a result the object
as a whole will have a net magnetic field. It is magnetic. Once a ferromagnetic object has been magnetised, it
can stay magnetic without another magnet being nearby (i.e. without being in another magnetic field). In the
picture below, the needle has been magnetised because the magnetic fields in all the domains are pointing in the
same direction.
Types of magnetic materials
1. Permanent magnets do not readily lose their magnetism
These magnets are used in
i. Bicycle dynamo to produce current

ii. Electric motor to produce movement
iii. Loud speaker to produce sound
Making Magnets (Magnetisation)
i. Stroking
ii. Electrical
Advantages of Electromagnet
1) Magnetism increases as current increases

2) Easily demagnetized by switching current off
3) Can easily be controlled than fixed magnet
Electromagnetic Induction
When a conductor cuts a magnetic field of force, it produces a current: Done by
1) Moving a conductor with in a fixed magnetic field

2) Moving magnet on fixed conductor
Strength of Induced Current increased by:
1) Number of coils
2) Strength of magnet
3) Speed magnet is plunged into coil
Flux/Field Pattern – direction of magnetic field
Right hand rule – fingers rip solenoid in direction of current, thumb points direction of magnetic field
Transformer
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Device used to increase or decrease voltage, uses principle of electromagnetic induction
How Works: AC current passes through primary coil and produces to/fro movement of magnetic field (flux)
which is cut by a conductor (secondary coil)  producing current
Cause of Energy Loss
1) Resistance of windings (creates heat)

2) Eddy currents – cause heat
3) Leakage of field line
To reduce energy loss – lubricate
Efficiency of Transformer (Ideally)
Power Input primary coil = power output secondary coil
Vp x Ip = Vs x Is or Vs/Vp = Ns/Np (N = # of turns)
End of Topic examination
1. a. What is electric power (1 mark)

b. If an electric heater takes a current of 4A when connect to a 230V supply. What is its power? (3 marks)
2. Figure 4 shows a long wire placed between the poles of the magnet. When current I flow through the wire, a
force acts on the wire causing it to move
i. Use Fleming‟s left hand rule; draw an arrow labeled F on the diagram to show the direction of force.(1mark)
ii. What will happen to the force on the wire when the size of the current through the wire increased? (1 mark)
iii. Name one practical device which uses this effect. (1 mark)
iv. Explain the effect of length of a conductor on its resistance (2 marks)
v. Explain how eddy currents are reduced in a transformer (2 marks)
3. a. Figure 1 is a circuit diagram showing the arrangement of three resistors.
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Using the values shown in the diagram, calculate the following.

i) Total resistance in the parallel arrangement. (2 marks)
ii) Voltage across the 3 ohm resistor. (2 marks)
iii) Reading of the voltmeter V1 (3 marks)
b. What do the following circuit symbols represent?
i)
ii)
(2 marks)
c. A 250 V 1KW electric heater is connected across the secondary coil of a transformer as shown below.
The number of turns in the secondary coil is 1600. The voltage across the primary coil is 1000 V and the
voltage across the heater is 250 V, Assuming that the transformer is 100% efficient, calculate the:
i) Number of turns in primary coil (2 marks)
ii) Current in the secondary coil (2 marks)

iii) Why is not usual to connect a dc supply across the input of a transformer. Explain your answer with
reference to physical principles involved.
(3 marks)
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Chapter 11
ELECTRICITY,MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETIC

INDUCTION II
Energy Levels
Shells of an atom are known as energy levels because they are associated with a certain quantity of energy. An
electron moving from one energy level to another absorbs energy if it is moving to a higher level and emits
energy if it is moving to a lower level.
Band Theory
Band Theory states that isolated energy levels of atoms in conductors, semiconductors, and insulators are
broadened into energy bands that belong to the crystal as a whole. The theory considers materials to contain
two bands where electrons are found namely, Valency Band and conduction band. Forbidden gap separate the
two bands
In order for a material to conduct electricity, its electrons must be able to escape from the filled inner bands into
a high energy band called the conduction band.
1. In metals, the energy gap to the conduction band is small so electrons are easily promoted when a small
potential difference (p.d.) is applied.
2. In semiconductors, the gap is larger so a higher p.d. is needed to promote electrons into the conduction band.
3. In insulators, the energy gap to the conduction band is so large that no electrons are promoted when a p.d. is
applied.
In conductors
The forbidden gap is narrow hence no energy is required for electrons to make a transition from valency band to
conduction band.
Semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials that only allow current to pass through under certain conditions. The two most
common semiconductors are Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si).
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At low potential differences they do not conduct. Thus, at low temperature, electrons cannot make a transition
from valency to conduction band. As temperature increases, conductivity increases (in conductors conductivity
decreases with an increase in temperature). Increasing temperature makes electrons to gain thermal energy and
cross forbidden gap. This increases conductivity of semiconductors.
However semiconductors are non-ohmic conductors (as voltage increases, current do not increase in a direct
proportion as it does in conductors that follow ohms law).
In Insulators
Forbidden gap is very wide, so no transition of electrons even when temperature increases.
More to Semi-Conductors
Semiconductors can be thought as materials that are insulators at normal temperature, and conductors at certain
condition. Thus, it is possible to improve conductivity in semiconductors (Doping)
Doping
Doping is a process of introducing very small amount of impurities into pure semi conductor
There are two ways to improve the conductance of a semiconductor (Doping):
1. Add electrons to the semiconductor lattice to create an n-type (negative) semiconductor
2. Remove electrons from the semiconductor lattice to create a p-type (positive) semiconductor.
The semiconductors Si and Ge both have 4 valence electrons each and therefore make 4 valence bonds each.
Adding Electrons- If Phosphorus (P) atoms with 5 valence electrons each are added to a Si or Ge lattice,
electrons are added to the lattice. These electrons can easily be promoted to the conduction band when a p.d. is
applied to the semiconductor.
Removing Electrons- Boron (B) atoms have 3 valence electrons so adding B atoms to a Si or Ge lattice creates
“holes” that electrons can easily move through when a p.d. is applied.
There are two types of semi-conductors
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Intrinsic semi conductors
extrinsic semi conductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Pure conductors, whose conductivity increases from within itself
Examples are Silicon and germanium
Extrinsic semi conductor
A pure semi conductor that has been doped.
Doping is done with elements from group 3( Boron,Aluminium,Gallium, Indium) and group 5 elements
(phosphorus, arsenic,antimony and bismuth)
n-type semiconductors.
elements with 5 electron valence are doped
4 electrons participate in bonding while 1 electron is free for conduction
the resulting semiconductor has majority charge carriers which are electrons (negatively charged) hence n-type
p-type semiconductors
An element with 3 valence electron is doped
Since 4 electrons are required for bonding, a hole is created
an electron moves from a bond to fill the hole, leaving another hole from its initial position.
this results into a positive hole as a charge carrier in a semiconductor hence p-type (p for positive).
p-n Junction diode
formed when p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined
n-type becomes an anode and p-type becomes a cathode
electrons moves from n-type to p-type
Diodes
Diodes are electric components that only allow current to flow in one direction. Diodes are useful for directing
and rectifying current. A rectifier converts alternating current (A.C.) to direct current (D.C.) Diodes are
semiconductors that have been doped so that one end is n-type and one end is p-type. The conduction band
electrons from the n-side are captured by the p-type atoms to make negative ions and the n-type atoms that lose
their electrons become positive ions. The very thin layer in which this happens is called the depletion layer.
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Reverse Bias
When the p-type end of the diode is connected to the negative side of a cell, the negative charge of the ions will
prevent electrons from flowing through the depletion layer.
Forward Bias
If the p-type end of the diode is connected to the positive side of a cel,l the effect of the depletion layer is
reduced or cancelled and current flows readily.
Uses of Diodes
protects electrical appliances from damage in case when d.c is connected in a reverse order.
It‟s a rectifier. That is, it changes alternating current to direct current.
Transistors
They are made of 3 layers of n, p, n or p, n, p semiconductor material. However, n-p-n are commonly used
transistors. The three layers are called the collector, base, and emitter.
In the symbols, the arrow shows the direction of convectional current. The base current is used to switch on a
much greater collector current.
Uses of Transitors
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Transistors amplify small electric currents.
They act as electric switches.
Transistors are used in electronics
eg. moisture detector, fire alarm, radio
Thus, transistors act as both an electric switch and a current amplifier.
When switch S is closed:
1. Current can flow through B1 and resistor R to the base. There is no initial current through B2 because the
circuit is not connected between c and e.
2. As current flows from the base b to the emitter e, it connects c and e which allows a large collector current to
flow through B2.
B1 does not give light because resistor R prevents a large current from flowing through the bulb, however, B 2
gives strong light because it is not wired in series with a resistor.
Examinable Practical Questions
You are provided with unknown components labelled X, Y and Z, connect wires (4), DC power supply (2 cells
in a holder), ammeter.
Set the apparatus as shown below
Connect a normal connecting wire on the gap MN
Record the ammeter reading.
Ammeter reading ___________________________________________________________(1 mark)
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Remove the wire and replace it with component X
Record the ammeter reading in the space below
Exchange the terminals of X and record the ammeter reading in the space below
Repeat (d) to (e) with components Y and Z
According to the ammeter readings, put a tick or cross where applicable in the table below
Table of results
Component Allows current to Reduces current Does not allow

pass in one current to pass
direction
(5 marks)
Identify the unknown components labelled X, Y and Z.
X:__________________________________________________________________________________
Y:__________________________________________________________________________________
Z: _________________________________________________________________________(3 marks)
You are provided with two cells, a bulb, connecting wires and three electronic devices labeled X, Y and Z.
Connect a circuit as shown in Figure 1 leaving a gap between K and L.
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Connect device X between M and N to complete the circuit and observe what happens to the bulb.
Record your observation in the appropriate column of the table of results provided.
Reverse connection of X and record what happens to the bulb.
Report procedure b, c and d using devices Y and Z
OBSERVATIONS
Device First connection Second (Reversed) connection
(6 marks)
(i) Which of the devices is a diode?______________________________________________(1 mark)
(ii) Give a reason for your answer to 1. f (i)_______________________________________(1 mark)
(iii) Which of the devices is an insulator?________________________________________(1 mark)
(iv) Give a reason for your answer to 1. f (iii).____________________________________(1 mark)
(V) Give two uses of insulators in the home._____________________________________(2 marks)
1. a. What is a semiconductor (1 mark)
b. Boron atoms are added to a silicon lattice
i) What type of semiconductor is made? (1 mark)
ii) Name this process (1 mark)
iii) Explain how this process improves the conductivity of silicon (4 marks)
iv) Describe how an n-type semiconductor is made (3 marks)
v) Name 3 devices in which semi-conductors are used (3 marks)
2. a. What is the function of a capacitor (1 mark)
b. Draw the circuit symbol for the capacitor (1 mark)
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3. a. Using band theory, explain why metals are good conductors while insulators can not conduct
electricity well (2 marks)
b. Below are circuits with forward bias diode and a reverse bias diode.
c. Explain why the bulb turns on for the forward bias diode, but not the reverse bias diode
(4 marks)
d. What is a use for a transistor? (1 mark)
REFERENCES
MANEB PAST PAPER(2003-2013)

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MALAWI SCHOOL CERTIFICATE OF

ST CHARLES LWANGA SECONDARY SCHOOL

PRIVATE BAG 482

1.1 KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER……………………………………………………6

1.2 GAS LAW…………………………………………………………………………….10

1.3 PRESSURE IN LIQUIDS……………………………………………………………..13

1.4 THERMAL EXPANSION OF SOLIDS………………………………………………25

2. ELEMENTS AND CHEMICAL BONDING

2.1 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM AND THE PERIODIC TABLE………………30

2.2 TYPES OF BONDS AND PHYSICAL ELEMENTS………………………………...39

2.3 SELECTED ELEMENTS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS……………………………..50

3.1 CHEMICAL REACTION AND CHEMICAL EQUATION………………………….56

3.3 HEATS OF REACTION……………………………………………………………….77

4.1 ELECTRON TRANSFER……………………………………………………………...83

4.2 PROTON TRANSFER………………………………………………………………...97

5.2 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS………………………………………………………………..107

7.1 NUCLEAR STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM……………………………………………128

7.3 RADIOACTIVE DECAY……………………………………………………………..133

8. FORCES AND MOTION

8.1 SCALARS AND VECTORS………………………………………………………….142

8.2 LINEAR MOTION…………………………………………………………………….148

8.3 NEWTON‟S LAW OF MOTION……………………………………………………...154

9. OSCILLATION AND WAVES

9.1 OSCILLATION AND WAVES……………………………………………………….165

9.2 THIN LENSES…………………………………………………………………………178

10. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM I

10.2 ELECTRIC RESISTANCE…………………………………………………………….

10.2 ELECTRICAL POWER AND ENERGY………………………………………………

10.4 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION…………………………………………………

11. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM II

Intramolecular and intermolecular forces

The theory is based on the following;

Kinetic Theory in Solids

Kinetic Theory of Liquids

Kinetic Theory of Gases

Aim: To show that different gases diffuse at different rate

a. Soak one piece of cotton wool in concentrated ammonia solution

The scale could be Kelvin scale or Celsius scale

i. 00C which is the melting point of ice

Absolute Zero Temperature

Conversion of Temperature Scale

If T represents temperature in Kelvin and Ө represents temperature in Celsius scale then

T = Ө + 273 for Kelvin

Ө = T – 273 for Celsius

Convert the following temperature Scale

i. 370C to a Kelvin scale

ii. Using Ө =T – 273

i. 250C to absolute temperature

N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa)

1.2 GAS PRESSURE AND GAS LAWS

Factors that affect Gas Pressure

The law can also be expressed as V1P1 = V2P2

50 cm3 x 1 x105 Pa = V2 x 2.1 x105Pa

The law can also be expressed as =

Pressure Law (Gay-Lussac‟s Law)

The law can also be expressed as P1/T1= P2/T2

Combining Gas Laws

Then (P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2

Rules for Using Gas Equation

1. Mass of the gas must be constant, fixed.

Standard Temperature and Pressure

Using (P1V1)/T1 = (P2V2)/T2