AS.150.

202
Introduction to Islamic Philosophy

Hüseyin Güngör

Fall 2023
“Razian prophecy rationalized”
Heretical and Conservative Razi

Stroumsa: Razi is an unwavering critic of prophecy and revealed religion.

▶ Prophets: contradicts God’s wisdom and benevolence
▶ Holy books: not useful
▶ Miracles: frauds
Rashed/Adamson: Razi’s critique is towards Ismaili imams/leaders
▶ Rashed: Razi participates in exegetical debates about holy books and prophets
▶ Adamson: Abū H.atim takes Razi’s actual remarks out of their context
Me: concerns about Stroumsa, Rashed and Adamson.
A Razian Synthesis

My focus will be:

Clues from Razi’s Spiritual Physick and On the Signs of a Prosperous State
▶ Provide a role for prophecy in Razi’s ethics and metaphysics
Situation about miracles = complicated
▶ A distinction between strong and weak miracles
▶ Reject the possibility of strong miracles
▶ Open to the possibility of weak miracles
Rationalize notion of prophecy for Razi
Abū H.atim and Stroumsa’s Razi

What God would not do

Why do you hold it to be necessary that God singled out one particular people for prophecy rather than
another, preferred them above all other peoples [...] and caused mankind to need them?
(Proofs of Prophecy, 1)

What God would do

It would have been more worthy of the wisdom of the Wise One to have inspired all His creatures with
the knowledge of what is to their benefit. (Proofs of Prophecy, 1)
Rashed and Adamson’s Razi

Razi aligning with prophets

[Razi] asserted that [...] all the prophets and envoys who have come before have condemned
the world. But if God Most High had been the first to create and establish the world, prophets
would certainly not have condemned it. (Fakhr al-Dı̄n, al-Matālib al-āliya, §7, 418–419)

Razi aligning with Qur‘an

[Razi says:] “The saying of the Most High is an example of this: “How has the love of the desires
for this world been embellished for men...” (Fakhr al-Dı̄n, al-Matālib al-āliya, §7, 418–419)
Vallat against Rashed

Al-Kā‘bi responding to Razi

[...] And all of this proves that reason is not self-suffcient, but inescapably requires a master, a
pedagogue, a guide, someone who shall make it remember. (Al-Maqdisı̄, Kitāb al-bad’, vol. 1, p.
109, 10-14.)

Razi on the self-sufficiency of reason

Reason can assess, through personal examination, what is good regarding the knowledge of
God’s essence, attributes and pious deeds. (Fakhr al-Dı̄n al-Rāzı̄, al-Mat.ālib al-‘āliya, vol. 8, p.
33, 6-13.)
Adamson against Vallat

Neither al-Kā‘bı̄ nor Razi

But there is no real reason so far to tie this passage to al-Ka‘bı̄ specifically, and still less is
anything here reminiscent of anything we know about Razi. (Adamson, 150)

Brahmins not Razi

There is a further problem with Vallat’s reconstruction [...] Al-Maqdisı̄ clearly identifies the
authors of the anti-prophetic argument: Brahmins (Adamson, 151)
Doubting everything and everyone

Here are some problems for everyone.

Redundancy or irrationality?

Dilemma for prophecy

What prophets say is either consistent or inconsistent with reason.
If the former, humans could have discovered it without prophets
If the latter, they are irrational—no reason to accept.

What does Rashed/Adamson say about the dilemma?

Rashed and Adamson: rationality ✓
So message of the prophets must not be redundant, but how?
Non-Shı̄ā Biruni

Birūnı̄’s first-hand evidence

The proof of what I say [about Razi’s heretical writings] can be found at the end of his book On
Prophecies. This work corrupted his thought, tongue and pen.a
a
Deuraseh, Nurdeng (2008). “A Comprehensive Bibliography of the Works of Abū Bakr Al-Rāzı̄ (d.313/925) and
Al-Bı̄rūnı̄ (d. 443/1051).” Afkār: Journal of Aqı̄dah and Islamic Thought. 9: 51–99.

Birūnı̄ was neither Shı̄ā, nor did he support any need for imāms, yet he took Razi to be a
heretic.
Both heretical and non-heretical titles in Razi’s biobibliography

Razi has both heretical and conservative titles in his biobiblioraphy:

173 Fi al-Nubuwwat (On Prophecies). It was claimed to be against religions.
174 Fi Hiyal al-Mutanabbin (On the Tricks of False Prophets). It was claimed as attacking the
necessity of the prophets.
There are some pro-religion/prophecy books in there as well, though:
138 Fi Wujub Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Naqara bi al- Nubuwwat (Obligation to Propagate the
Teachings of the Holy Prophet (pbuh) Against Those who Denied Prophecies).
139 Fi Wujub al-Du‘a’ Min Tariq al-Hazm (The Obligation of Prayer in Absolute and Sincere
Faith).
Looking at primary sources

Heretical and conservative views focus on secondary sources.

Prophecy from Razian philosophy

Is there anything in Razi’s primary material not directly about prophecy which would bear on
Razi’s views on prophecy?

This is my focus.
What is prophecy or prophethood?

One common feature of prophecy in Judaism, Christianity and Islam:

Moral guidance
Prophets are seen as moral and ethical role models. They often preach principles of justice,
righteousness, compassion, and ethical behavior. Their teachings include commandments and
laws that guide the ethical and moral conduct of their followers.

The paper briefly mentions couple examples, but I would love to expand those mentions here.
Moses’ Compassion and Humility

Compassion, Exodus 32:11-14

But Moses sought the favor of the Lord his God. “Lord,” he said, “why should your anger burn
against your people, whom you brought out of Egypt with great power and a mighty hand?
Why should the Egyptians say, ‘It was with evil intent that he brought them out, to kill them in
the mountains and to wipe them off the face of the earth’? Turn from your fierce anger; relent
and do not bring disaster on your people. Remember your servants Abraham, Isaac and Israel,
to whom you swore by your own self: ‘I will make your descendants as numerous as the stars in
the sky and I will give your descendants all this land I promised them, and it will be their
inheritance forever.’” Then the Lord relented and did not bring on his people the disaster he
had threatened.
Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount
On Reconciliation, Matthew 5:23
“Therefore, if you are offering your gift at the altar and there remember that your brother or sister has something
against you, leave your gift there in front of the altar. First go and be reconciled to them; then come and offer your
gift.

On Turning the Other Cheek, Matthew 5:38-42

“You have heard that it was said, ‘Eye for eye, and tooth for tooth.’ But I tell you, do not resist an evil person. If
anyone slaps you on the right cheek, turn to them the other cheek also. And if anyone wants to sue you and take
your shirt, hand over your coat as well. If anyone forces you to go one mile, go with them two miles. Give to the one
who asks you, and do not turn away from the one who wants to borrow from you.

On Charity, Matthew 6:2-4

“So when you give to the needy, do not announce it with trumpets, as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and on
the streets, to be honored by others. Truly I tell you, they have received their reward in full. But when you give to
the needy, do not let your left hand know what your right hand is doing, so that your giving may be in secret. Then
your Father, who sees what is done in secret, will reward you.
Muhammad’s trustworthiness
Reconciling tribal conflict
A traditionalist alleged that Abū Umayya b. al-Mughira b. ’Abdullah b. ’Umar who was at the
time the oldest man of Quraysh urged them to make the first man to enter the gate of the
mosque umpire in the matter in dispute. They did and the first to come in was the apostle of
God. When they saw him they said, ‘This is the trustworthy one’. We are satisfied. ‘This is
Muhammad.’ When he came to them and they informed him of the matter he said, ‘Give me a
cloak,’ and when it was brought to him he took the black stone and put it inside it and said that
each tribe should take hold of an end of the cloak and they should lift it together. They did this
so that when they got it into position he placed it with his own hand, and then building went on
above it. (Ish.aq 1955, 86)

Qur‘an, At-Tawbah, 128

There certainly has come to you a messenger from among yourselves. He is concerned by your
suffering, anxious for your well-being, and gracious and merciful to the believers.
From moral exemplariness to moral guidance

Prophets often display morally exemplary qualities.

Also they often arrive in societies which require moral guidance.
▶ If everything was morally perfect in a society, then there would be no need for prophets.
So legitimacy and nonredundancy of prophecy requires that people be in need of some
moral guidance.
From moral guidance to moral deference

Prophecy presupposes need for moral guidance.

Such guidance unavailable otherwise.

A question of Razian epistemology and ethics

Does Razi think people need moral guidance?
From moral guidance to moral deference

If Razi thinks that there are situations where deferring to a moral expert is rational, then
this is a nod in the direction of prophecy.
Q: Why?
From moral guidance to moral deference

If Razi thinks that there are situations where deferring to a moral expert is rational, then
this is a nod in the direction of prophecy.
Q: Why? A: Because this is one of the essential qualities of prophets!
Structure of the argument

If φ, ψ, χ, ξ are individually necessary and jointly sufficient conditions for P, then satisfying
each condition makes it more likely that P.
Rationality of moral deference is a necessary condition for the legitimacy of prophecy.
Razi endorses the rationality of moral deference.
So this makes it more likely that Razi endorses the legitimacy of prophecy.
Spiritual Physick, Chapter IV: Of How a Man may Discover his Own Vices.
Discusses how we can figure out our vices to get rid of them.
Razi advising to keep a personal mentor
Inasmuch as it is impossible for any of us to deny his passion, because of the affection he has
for his own self and the approval and admiration he feels for his own actions, or to look upon
his own character and way of life with the pure and single eye of reason, it can scarcely fall to
any man to have a clear view of his vices and reprehensible habits. Since the knowledge of this
is denied him, he will hardly depart out of any vice, seeing that he is not even aware of it; much
less will he think it disgraceful and endeavour to be rid of it. He must therefore rely in this
matter upon an intelligent man who is his frequent associate and constant companion. (Spiritual
Physick, 36)
Yes, he does!
Razi advising a gluttonous man
I remember I was eating once with a certain man in Baghdad, and a huge quantity of dates was
put before us. I refrained from taking more than a moderate amount, but he persevered until
he had very nearly finished the lot. When he was full and had given over eating, I noticed that
he was goggling at the remainder as if they were removed from the table; and so I asked him
whether his soul was satisfied and his appetite assuaged. He answered, ”I only wish I could be in
my former state again, and this plate be put before us right now!” I said to him, ”If the pain and
gnawing of desire have not left you even now, would it not be better to refrain before you are
full, so as to relieve yourself at least of the heaviness and distention of being replete? The
indigestion which you cannot be sure of not suffering is bound to bring upon you ailments that
will be many, many times more painful for you than the pleasure you had in what you have
taken.” I saw that he understood my meaning, and that my words went home and did him
good; and upon my life, such reasoning as this satisfies those who have not been trained in the
discipline of philosophy, more than arguments based on philosophic principles. (Spiritual Physick,
75-76)
Whence rationality of moral deference?

How does Razi justify the rationality of moral deference?

Rational soul and appetitive Soul.
Emphasis on keeping the mentor close by:

Keep your mentor close!

Moreover, [one] must renew his request to such a supervisor time and time again, for evil
characteristics and habits have a way of returning after they have been expelled. (Spiritual
Physick, 37)
From moral guidance to a positive role for prophecy

Razi checks a big necessary condition for the legitimacy of prophecy in general.
Also provides a positive role for prophets in Razian philosophy.
Razi’s affirmation of moral deference vis-à-vis extant interpretations

Vallat:
▶ Emphasis on self-sufficiency of reason
▶ Our passage conflicts with it.
Rashed:
▶ Prophets = envoys of reason
▶ Cannot be in general, since some of the goods not conveyed through prophets
▶ However, restricted to moral propositions.
Why is prophecy not redundant?

Because the dual nature of humanity prevents us from having full command of reason all
the time
Divine revelation?

No!
All of the features brought up so far do not require any divine intervention to manifest.

Yes!
Reason is God’s gift for every individual. For Razi this is all the revelation a prophet would need.
State of play so far

So far it looks like we are supporting conservatives.

Now push in the heretical direction
Miracles or no miracles?

No miracles
[Razi] had alleged that the performers of legerdemain and magical tricks, such as dancing upon
halters and spinning upon the points of spears and other such tricks that many people can
perform, were also to be called miracles. He even compared them to the miracles of
Muhammad. [...] [Razi] alleged that the signs of Muhammad were transmitted by [only] one, two
or three people, who could have been colluding with one another. (Proofs of Prophecy, 200)

Miracles
[Razi] said: “It is not impossible that there is among people someone who masters the
properties of things and their nature, because everything is distin- guished by a property and a
nature. So it is not impossible that Moses, peace be upon him, mastered something similar to
what is distinguished among bodies by a similar property, which is why his hand did what the
hand of another did not do, the transformation of the staff into a serpent”.
What is a miracle?

Question: Well, what is it?

What is a miracle?

Question: Well, what is it?

Hume
A miracle is a violation of natural laws (An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 83)

Question: Why miracles for prophecy?

What is a miracle?

Question: Well, what is it?

Hume
A miracle is a violation of natural laws (An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, 83)

Question: Why miracles for prophecy?

Proof of God’s intervention

Miracles would exemplify an intervention by God on behalf of a prophet, distinguishing prophets
from regular people whose acts are strictly bounded by natural laws.
Does Rashed’s passage show Razi acknowledged miracles?

Miracles
[Razi] said: “It is not impossible that there is among people someone who masters the
properties of things and their nature, because everything is distin- guished by a property and a
nature. So it is not impossible that Moses, peace be upon him, mastered something similar to
what is distinguished among bodies by a similar property, which is why his hand did what the
hand of another did not do, the transformation of the staff into a serpent”.

Upshot: Rashed’s evidence for miracles is not really evidence for Razi’s endorsement for
miracles.
Strong vs. weak miracles

To explain the passage from Fakhr al-Dı̄n on Moses, we can help ourselves to a distinction:

Supernatural/strong miracles
An instance which constitutes a violation to some or a set of natural laws.

Weak/epistemic miracles
An event not as a violation of natural laws, but an event whose natural causes are merely
unknown.
So does Razi reject miracles?

Depends on which sense of miracles is necessary for prophecy!

▶ If weak, then Razi may accommodate it!
▶ If strong, then Razi definitely rejects it!
So does Razi reject prophecy?

Again depends on what one takes prophecy to be!

Razi can definitely accommodate a rationalized and naturalized conception of prophecy:
▶ Rational because even rational agents may need to defer to a moral guide for knowledge of
good and bad;
▶ Naturalistic because miracles are merely knowledge of some not-commonly-known fact
deployed.
So I contend that Razi was somewhere in between when it came to the debate on
prophecy.
Challenges to both views alleviated

Redundancy or irrationality
According to my proposal, prophecy is neither irrational nor redundant, because moral knowledge may
not always be in plain sight for bounded rational agents

Non-Shı̄ā Biruni
The withering criticism is explained by Razi’s tendency to naturalize aspects of prophecy which may be
seen as miraculous and tied to divine intervention. It is easy to see how untethering prophecy from
divine intervention could have been viewed as heretical.

Heretical and non-heretical writings

Heretical titles are explained by the naturalistic notion of prophecy which must have looked to people
heretical. But importantly, my account can also explain the conservative titles, especially, Fi Wujub
Da‘wat al-Nabi ‘Ala Man Naqara bi al-Nubuwwat (Obligation to Propagate the Teachings of the Holy Prophet
(pbuh) Against Those who Denied Prophecies). Which teachings should be propagated? Moral teachings!!!
References I

Abū Bakr Muhammad ibn Zakarı̄yā al Rāzı̄. The Spiritual Physick of Rhazes. trans. by Arthur J. Arberry. The Wisdom
of the East Series. London: Murray, 1950.
David Enoch. A defense of moral deference. Journal of Philosophy, 111(5):229–258, 2014. doi:
10.5840/jphil2014111520.
Galen. On the Passions and Errors of the Soul. Translated by Paul W. Harkins and edited by Walther Riese. Columbus,
OH: Ohio State University Press, 1963.
Hüseyin Güngör. Razian prophecy rationalized. British Journal for the History of Philosophy, pages 1–25, forthcoming.
doi: 10.1080/09608788.2023.2235613.
Ish.aq. The Life of Muhammad. Translated and edited by A. Guillaume. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1955.
Sarah McGrath. The puzzle of pure moral deference. Philosophical Perspectives, 23(1):321–344, 2009. doi:
10.1111/j.1520-8583.2009.00174.x.
Bernard Williams. Making Sense of Humanity: And Other Philosophical Papers 1982?1993. Cambridge University Press,
1995.