Course NO.

-PEC303 Course Name-Natural Gas Engineering

Prepared by Om Prakash (20MT0253)]
Edited by : Dr. Tarun Kumar Naiya
Topic- Introduction: Composition of Natural Gas, Utilization of Natural Gas, Natural Gas
Industry, Natural Gas Reserves, Types of Natural Gas Resources, Future of the Natural Gas
Industry

1. Composition of Natural Gas:-

Natural gas is simply a naturally occurring mixture of
combustible hydrocarbon (HC) gases and impurities. Typical natural gas components are
Methane (70-98%) , Ethane (1-10%), Propane (trace-5%), Butane( trace-2%) , Pentane (trace-
1%) some amount of Hexane, Heptane & higher carbon compound is found and these impurities
include: nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and water vapor (H2O).
The impurities do not add any calorific value to natural gas. They can be either neutral (such as
nitrogen), or can cause harmful effects such as corrosion (i.e., water vapor, CO2) or poisoning
(i.e., H2 S). During the processing of gas, the heavier hydrocarbons beyond butane are removed
from the gas as liquids, and sold as liquids. Therefore, the majority of gas after processing is
methane. The impurities are also removed at the surface to improve the calorific value of gas as
well as to minimize the corrosion.

The non-hydrocarbon components of natural gas contain two types of materials: diluents such as
N2, CO2, and water vapor, and contaminants, such as H2S and other sulfur compounds. Diluents
are noncombustible gases that reduce the heating value of the gas. The disadvantages include
greater horsepower and plpelining requirements for the same energy content of the gas, greater
Internal corrosion, and freezing. Contaminants are very detrimental to production and transport
equipment (some are hazardous pollutants), and the primary reason for gas conditioning and
processing is to remove them as soon as possible from the gas stream.

2. Utilization of Natural Gas:-

Natural gas, as a fuel, has been used for more than 150 years.
Although used as a fuel over a long period, natural gas has achieved prominence as an important
energy supply only recently. When produced as an associated gas in the oil fields, natural gas was
rarely used efficiently. In most instances, oil production was considered important, and gas
production a nuisance. Natural gas was used as a supply for energy requirements for the oil field,
and the rest was flared. Even today, this practice continues in many parts of the world. Part of the
reason oil companies burn off natural gas is that it cannot be stored easily. It has to be utilized or
transported as soon as it is produced. If the end user is far away, an efficient infrastructure has to
be established before gas can be transported from one location to another. In many places, the cost
associated with transportation can be significant. Another option with associated gas is to reinject
it in an oil field. Reinjecting increases the reservoir pressure and, hence, the oil production.
However, this option also requires drilling injection wells and using compressors to inject gas.
Further, if you have the potential to sell the gas, possible cash flow is postponed.
In the last 25 years, the importance of natural gas has increased. Starting at 17% 25 years ago,
today natural gas provides 22% of the world’s total energy. In comparison, crude oil provides
about 39% of the world’s energy.
The reasons for the increased importance of natural gas are:-
1. Significant infrastructure of pipelines and compressor stations is being developed, or is already
established. Especially in the United States, most of the regions have significant pipeline
infrastructure.
2. Gas has been established as an environmentally friendly fuel. Compared to oil or coal, natural
gas, as a fossil fuel, burns much more efficiently. Unlike coal or oil, limited amounts of by-
products that are harmful to the environment are released from the burning of gas.
3. New technologies are developed that will expand the use of natural gas as a heating fuel or as a
feedstock in petrochemical plants. With better engines, natural gas is also being used as a motor
fuel. Many school buses and local buses are being retrofitted for the use of natural gas as a fuel.
These engines are friendlier to the environment and are proving to be quite efficient. The
technology is constantly evolving and may result in natural gas being used as a regular motor fuel
for long distance traveling.
4. Another potential application of natural gas is its use as a feed stock for generating hydrogen
for fuel cells. Fuel cells are expected to dominate in the new energy economy as we make the
transition from coal-based fuel to hydrogen-based fuel. Natural gas is an ideal source for
generating hydrogen.
5. Gas prices are not subject to the same geopolitical pressures as oil. Unlike oil, which is a truly
global commodity, the price of gas is controlled by regional factors. The price of oil, no matter
where you buy it, is about the same anywhere in the world. Since transportation of gas is much
more difficult, gas is sold more on a regional basis rather than global basis. As a result, regional
issues, rather than global issues, control the price of gas. Therefore, there is better predictability
about the gas prices than oil prices.
Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of cogeneration, gas
turbines and steam turbines. Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association
with renewable energy sources such as wind or solar and for alimenting peak-load power stations
functioning in tandem with hydroelectric plants.
Natural gas dispensed in a residential setting can generate temperatures in excess of 1,100 °C
(2,000 °F) making it a powerful domestic cooking and heating fuel. In much of the developed
world it is supplied through pipes to homes, where it is used for many purposes including ranges
and ovens, gas-heated clothes dryers, heating/cooling, and central heating.
Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of ammonia, via the Haber process, for use
in fertilizer production. Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one common method
being the hydrogen reformer. Hydrogen has many applications: it is a primary feedstock for
the chemical industry, a hydrogenating agent, an important commodity for oil refineries, and the
fuel source in hydrogen vehicles.
Protein rich animal and fish feed is produced by feeding natural gas to Methylococcus
capsulatus bacteria on commercial scale. Natural gas is also used in the manufacture
of fabrics, glass, steel, plastics, paint, synthetic oil, and other products. The first step in the
valorization of natural gas components is usually the of the alkane into olefin. The oxidative
dehydrogenation of ethane leads to ethylene which can be converted forther to ethylene epoxide,
ethylene glycol, acetaldehyde or other olefins. Propane can be converted to propylene or can be
oxidized to acrylic acid and acrylonitrile.

3. Natural Gas Industry:-

Indian Gas Exchange (IGX) is the online trading platform for
natural gas with delivery hubs at Dhabol and Jaighar in Maharashtra, Dahez and Hazira in Gujarat
and Kakinada in Andhra Pradesh. The Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB)
was created in the year 2005 to regulate downstream activities in the petroleum and natural gas
sector. Buyers can transport the purchased natural gas from these hubs on daily basis to their
consumption points through the existing cross country gas pipelines (owned by GAIL and others)
on chargeable basis.

According to government data, India's natural gas production increased by 22.7% YoY in April
2021, as Reliance Industries Ltd. and its partner, BP plc, increased production in the KG-D6 block
on the east coast. In February 2021, Petronet LNG announced its plans to increase in its Dahej
terminal's capacity by 29% to 22.5 million tonnes per annum (mtpa) to meet the rising demand
Notable projects expected to come online in 2020 are Reliance Industries’ R-Cluster in the KG-
D6 block and state-run ONGC’s KG-DWN-98/2 oil and natural gas deepwater project in the KG-
D5 block. Both fields are located in the Krishna Godavari Basin, offshore from India’s east coast.
The first set of fields from the KG-DWN-98/2 project, which began producing natural gas in March
2020, will reach a peak of 190 billion cubic feet (Bcf) per year and have a 15-year lifespan.
Reliance Industries’ RCluster has a production capacity of 160 Bcf per year and a 13-year lifespan.

In February 2021, the government launched key oil and gas projects such as the Ramanathapuram
– Thoothukudi natural gas pipeline and Gasoline Desulphurisation Unit at Chennai Petroleum
Corporation Limited, Manali.
 Segment Brief About Segement Oil Gas
Companies Companies
Upstream The upstream sector involves the searching for ONGC, OIL, ONGC, OIL,
and the recovery and production of crude oil GSPC, RIL, Cairn,
and natural gas. The upstream component of oil ESSAR, GSPC, RIL,
& gas sector includes the searching for potential Cairn, BG Prize
underground or underwater oil and gas fields, Energy, Petroleum &
drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently Niko various JV
operating the wells that recover and bring the Resources, Companies
crude oil and/or raw natural gas to the surface. The Shell, Geo
upstream oil sector is also known as the Global,
exploration and production (E&P) sector. Jubilant
Energy,
Oilex

Midstream The midstream segment processes, stores, RIL, MRPL, GAIL,

markets and transports commodities such as IOCL, GSPL,
crude oil, natural gas, Liquefied Natural Gas BPCL, RGTIL (East
(LNG) like ethane, propane, butane and sulphur. HPCL, Essar West
Midstream operations are usually included in the Oil, Public Pipeline),
downstream category. Sector JV PLL, Shell,
Refinery PIL
Companies
Downstream The downstream segment involves the refining IOC, BPCL, GGCL,
of petroleum crude oil & processing of raw natural HPCL, RIL, GSPC Gas,
gas and the selling & distribution of processed Shell, BP, IGL, MGL,
natural gas and the products derived from ESSAR Adani,
petroleum crude oil. The downstream sector MNGL,
includes oil refineries, petrochemical Bhagyanagar
plant, petroleum product distribution, retail Gas, SGL,
outlets and natural gas distribution companies GAIL

4. Natural Gas Reserves:-

 Proved energy reserves are estimated quantities of energy sources
that analysis of geologic and engineering data demonstrates with reasonable certainty are
recoverable under existing economic and operating conditions. The location, quantity, and grade
of the energy source are usually considered to be well established in such reserves.

As of 2005, the proven reserves are 6,400 TCF (181 Tm3).3 It is interesting to note that over the
last 20 years, on a worldwide basis, annual discovered reserves have grown approximately four
times the quantity being consumed. Over the last two decades the estimated reserves have grown
by 90%. In addition to improved technology, this is partly due to increased concentration on
exploration for gas rather than finding gas only by accident. Although, worldwide, the reserves to
production ratio is estimated to be 60 years (in contrast to 40 years for crude oil), the regional
reserves to production ratio varies widely. For example, the reserves to production ratio for the
United States is 10, the reserves to production ratio for Central and South America is 72, the
reserves to production ratio for the former Soviet Union is 80, and the reserves to production ratio
for the Middle East is over 100.
The variance in these ratios indicates that gas is consumed in different places than where it is
located. This is due to differences in infrastructure as well as the usage of natural gas. Based on
the current available data, Russia has 30% of the proven reserves, whereas the Middle East has
35% of the proven reserves. The United States has only 3.3% of the reserves, but consumes about
25% of the natural gas [in 2005].
India holds 43 trillion cubic feet (Tcf) of proven gas reserves as of 2017, ranking 22nd in the world
and accounting for about 1% of the world's total natural gas reserves of 6,923 Tcf. The largest
reserves are found in the Western Offshore (Mumbai High, Krishna-Godavari Basin) (40%), and
Assam (27%). The estimated reserves of natural gas in India as of 31 March 2018 was 1,339.57
billion cubic meters (BCM), increasing by 3.87% from the previous year.
In 2020, reserves of natural gas for India was 47.31 trillion cubic feet. Reserves of natural gas of
India increased from 22.85 trillion cubic feet in 2001 to 47.31 trillion cubic feet in 2020 growing
at an average annual rate of 4.16%.

5. Types of Natural Gas Resources:-

Hydrocarbon deposits are entrapped in these
sedimentary rocks (sandstones, shale, limestones), and may migrate from their place of formation
(source-rock) through suitable porous and permeable strata to suitable geologic traps where they
accumulate. The type of organic matter and the temperature have an important bearing on the
formation of oil or gas. Some scientists believe that terrestrial (land) plants and animals
predominantly produced natural gas and some waxy crudes, whereas the aquatic (sea) organisms
produced normal crude oil. Because rivers play a major role in transporting terrestrial matter to the
sea, river deltas are favorable places for gas to exist. Typically, the deepest sediments, deposited
in the continental rift and rich in terrestrial organic matter, are overlain by marine sediments rich
in aquatic matter. Thus, a vertical sequence has been envisaged, with the gas-generating material
at the bottom and the oil-generating material at the top. There are many types, shapes, and sizes of
geologic structure that form the reservoirs for the accumlation of oil and gas, such as anticlines
and domes, fault traps, unconformities, dome and plug traps, len.se traps. And combination traps.

Natural gas in Conventional Reservoirs:-

Gas is found in sedimentary subsurface strata
composed of sandstone, limestone, or dolomite. An oil reservoir always has some amount of
natural gas associated with it (either free gas, or gas in solution in the oil), and some reservoirs
may be completely gas reservoirs. Each well in the reservoir may produce gas with a different
composition, and the composition of the gas stream from each individual well may change as the
reservoir is depleted. Thus, production equipment may need to be changed from time to time to
compensate for the altered composition of the gas.

In addition to its composition and Btu content, natural gas is frequently characterized in terms of
its nature of occurrence underground, as follows:
1. Non-associated-Found in reservoirs with no or minimal amounts of crude oil non-associated gas
is typically richer in CH4 poorer in heavier components.

2. Dissolved or associated. Gas in solution with crude oil is termed dissolved gas, whereas the gas
found in contact with the crude oil as gas cap gas is termed associated gas. Typically, associated
gas is poorer in CH4 but richer in heavier components.
3. Gas condensates. Gas condensates have high amounts of hydrocarbon liquids and may occur as
gas in the reservoir.

The most desirable gas is the non-associated type. Because it can be produced at high pressure.
Associated or dissolved gas is separated from the crude oil at lower separator pressure; and.
Therefore entails more compression expenses. Such gas is often flared or vented. Gas condensates
represent a greater amount of gas associated with the liquid than the associated or dissolved gas
types. But require similar separation facilities and compression costs.
Tight Sands:-
Large amounts of gas are locked within very tight formations, with porosities in
the range of 5-15%, irreducible water saturation of 50-70%, and ultralow permeabilities in the
range of 0.001 to 1 md (millidarcy). Many geologic formations, especially in the Rocky Mountain
area of the USA, contain such gas, which is not possible to produce using conventional fracturing
and completion methods. There is a need to develop special artificial fracturing techniques to
produce gas economically from tight sands. Three major techniques have been proposed: nuclear
explosives, chemical explosives, and massive hydraulic fracturing (MHF). Nuclear blasts are
dangerous and probably not feasible at this time. Chemical explosives are also quite dangerous,
and effective only in areas where natural fractures: exist (which is not the case for most tight
sands). MHF has been quite successful, and is presently the subject of much research. An MHF
treatment typically requires the injection of a fracturing fluid (water) at high pressures for many
hours to induce a fracture, followed by a fluid containing the propping agents (glass beads or sand).
When pumping stops, the fluids flow back into the well bore, leaving the proppant behind to hold
the fracture open.

Tight Shales:-
Shales are generally rich in organic matter, finely laminated, with a permeability
of the order of 1 md. Shales predominantly composed of quartz, with some kaolinite, pyrite,
feldspar. and other minerals, constitute about 5% of all sedimentary rocks in the USA. The
Devonian shales in eastern Kentuch and western West Virginia are well known gas producers. In
these shales production is controlled by natural fractures. The production profile exhibits a long,
slow decline. The gas has a high Btu value, as high as 1.250 Btu/Scf techniques are useful for tight
shales also. These tight shales are an attractive source of gas and may contribute very significantly
to gas production in the coming years.

Geopressured Aquifers:-
High-pressure brine in geopressured aquifers, which can form due
to rapid subsidence, may contain up to 40 scf of natural gas per barrel of water. In the USA, such
geopressured aquifers are located predominantly in a band that extends onshore and offshore from
Texas to Florida along the Gulf of Mexico. An estimated 2,700 Tscf of gas reserves (unproven at
this time) are associated with this region, However, no commercial means of recovering this gas
have been developed to date.
Coal Beds:-
Methane gas occluded in coal in minable coal beds with depths less than 3,000 ft
has been estimated to be 260 Tscf in the US. This significant resource base, however, may only
produce less than 40 Tscf due to practical constraints. Another source of gas generation is coal
gasification. The gas derived from coal usually has a lower heating value than natural gas. The
commercial viability of coal gasification is not favorable yet.

Gas hydrates:-
Gas hydrates are solid, metastable minerals that are formed from water and gas
molecules at low temperature and high pressure. Gas hydrates are ice-like solids forming cage-like
structures known as clathrate. The potential worldwide resources of hydrocarbon gases
accumulated in a hydrate state are estimated to be 530,000 TCF (15,000 Tm3).16 Because of the
uncertainty, the amount ranges between 100,000 TCF (2,830 Tm3) and 300,000,000 TCF (8.5 ×
106Tm3). Contrast this number to the conventional estimated natural gas resources to about 13,000
TCF (368 Tm3). That is, we have 50 times as much gas available in the form of natural gas hydrates
compared to conventional resources. Deep drilling programs and seismic studies by the United
States, Japan, India, Russia, and Korea have revealed more than 120 deposits of gas in hydrate
form.
Most of the gas hydrates exist as individual hydrate grains in pores of sedimentary rocks. These
zones range from tens of centimeters to tens of meters in thickness. Gas hydrates can also occur as
a pure layer as much as 4 meters thick. Although available in vast quantities, production of gas
from hydrates poses significant challenges. The three potential methods for producing natural gas
from hydrates are:
Increase the temperature above stability temperature by using hot water or steam injection.
Inject an inhibitor, such as methanol or glycol, to decrease hydrate stability.
Decrease reservoir pressure below hydrate equilibrium, thus releasing methane contained in
clathrate.

6. Future of the Natural Gas Industry:-

North America will continue to rely on gas for
domestic use and exports, although domestic demand will start to decline after 2035. The use of
gas in power generation will decline as renewables, new energy-storage solutions, and energy
carriers such as hydrogen become more prominent in the mix. A few years ago, the Indian
government announced its ambition to almost triple the share of natural gas in its energy mix to
15 percent by 2030. India’s share of gas stands at just over 6 percent, low compared to the global
average, and only aggressive growth in gas can bring India closer to its target. Many countries
view natural gas as a ‘bridge’ fuel in the gradual transition to a low-carbon economy.
However, for India, there are several aspects to consider when it comes to the feasibility of natural
gas as a transition fuel, both from an economic and decarbonisation perspective.
Natural gas is a major fuel for multiple end uses — electricity, industry, heating — and is
increasingly discussed as a potential pathway to reduced oil dependence for transportation. Gas is
often presented as a promising candidate to deliver cleaner air and decarbonization, which are
reasons why many outlooks see a continued need for gas to 2040 and beyond, even assuming a
rapid energy transition.the idea that the world can sharply curtail gas use in the next decade or so
and still meet its climate and environmental goals is not very convincing. But equally questionable
is the idea that gas must have a privileged position in the energy transition, that a low-carbon future
must be good for gas. The reality is somewhere in between. Gas does different things in different
markets and at different costs, so broad statements about how gas will fare in the future are
unhelpful. In some markets, moving away from gas is a logical decarbonization path; in others,
additional gas use will deliver environmental benefits.

Industry might rely on a mix of Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS), hydrogen, and bioenergy.
Hydrogen generated from gas with CCS or from renewables could offer a low-carbon option, but
the economics are still challenged. In its 2019 Future of Hydrogen report, the IEA noted that
“Despite having the potential to eliminate emissions from high-temperature heat for industry,
hydrogen remains an expensive alternative to fossil fuels in the context of a low-carbon pathway
for the energy system, even when CO2 prices reach USD 100/tCO2.” In fact, bioenergy might beat
hydrogen in terms of economics; according to the IEA, “Bioenergy is set to become cost-
competitive with natural gas as a source of high-temperature heat in 2030 in India, China and
Japan, even at the higher end of the bioenergy price range explored (USD 12/GJ),” largely because
gas is expensive there. industry should be a good market for natural gas because the market for
high-temperature heat has no compelling options that could displace gas, although developments
along the learning curve could make both hydrogen and bioenergy competitive post 2030. And
while gas might be squeezed by low-carbon options, its attractiveness against both coal and oil
will remain, offering some potential for near-term fuel switching that benefits gas.
Gas in marine transportation has slightly better prospects in part because LNG can meet the
pollution thresholds imposed by IMO 2020 (International Maritime Organization) and because
options for deep decarbonization for marine shipping are non-existent. By 2050, the shipping
industry has a goal to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 50 percent relative to 2008. A
recent report by DNV GL showed that LNG could be the dominant maritime fuel in 2050 to meet
that target, with the help of strong efficiency gains and zero-carbon technologies. These alternative
options will have to overcome various obstacles, like cost, infrastructure, and energy density.
Introduction to Natural Gas
● Natural Gas (NG)
–Natural gas is a mixture of combustible gases
formed underground by the decomposition of organic
materials in plant and animal.
● Natural Gas is formed when layers of decomposing plant
and animal matter are exposed to intense heat and
pressure under the surface of the Earth over millions of
years.
● The main component of Natural Gas (NG) is methane
(CH4), other components includes:
– Methane; CH4 : 70-90%
– Ethane; Propane, Butane: 0-20%
– Water vapor, Hydrogen sulfide, Carbon
dioxide, Nitrogen, and Helium: < 10%
Note:
● The composition of Natural Gas (NG) depends on the
chemical composition of decomposed materials in plants and
animals.
 Gas Source Rocks

• A sources rocks is rich in organic matter which, if heated

sufficiently, will generate oil or gas.
• Typical source rocks, usually shales or limestones, contain about
1% organic matter and at least 0.5% total organic carbon (TOC),
although a rich source rock might have as much as 10% organic
matter.
• Rocks of marine origin tend to be oil-prone, whereas terrestrial
source rocks (such as coal) tend to be gas-prone.
● Reservoir Rocks
–are the rocks that have ability to store fluids inside its
pores, so that the fluids (water, oil and gas) can be
accumulated.
●In petroleum geology, reservoir is one of the elements
of petroleum system that can accumulate
hydrocarbons (oil or gas).
●Reservoir rock must be has good porosity and
permeability to accumulate and drain oil in
economical quantities.
 Gas/Hydrocarbon Generation

● Natural Gas (NG) or Petroleum is generated from productive

source beds which have high organic carbon content.

● This high organic carbon content resulted from the burial of plants
and animals.

● Since all plants are not of equal carbon content and so do

animals, the C range of the petroleum change when the carbon
source changes.
●Maturation is the ability of the rock to generate
hydrocarbons, and indicates its maturity. Therefore, the
more the rock quality is, the more mature it is.
●Maturation occurs through millions of years in which
diagenesis and catagenesis processes take place.
●About 10 to 20% of petroleum is formed during
diagenesis.
●Most petroleum is formed during the catagenesis and
metagenesis of the residual biogenic organic matter.
Natural Gas/Petroleum Generation Process
• There are three stages for generation of petroleum products
from the decomposed materials;
• Diagenesis
• During diagenesis there is shallow burial of organic matter at
near normal temperature (<50 C) and pressure as well as some
decay.
• Methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), and water (H2O) are
released leaving behind the complex hydrocarbon called
kerogen.
Products
-Biochemical Gas

<50oC
Catagenesis
– Deeper burial results in increased temperature (60C-
200C) and pressure.
– Petroleum is released from the kerogen.
– First oil is released (2-3 km depth) and second gas is
released (3-5 km depth).
Cracking reactions and condensation reactions takes place at
this stage.
Products:
-Gas
-Oil
Metagenesis
– Takes place at temperatures over 200C (>200C) and is
considered to be a type of verylow-grade metamorphism.
– The only hydrocarbon that is released during this phase
is methane (Gas).
– At this point the petroleum has matured enough to migrate
to traps.
 Products: -Natural Gas

>200oC
Natural Gas/Petroleum Migration
• Migration
• – Movement of petroleum from source rock toward a reservoir
or seep.
• Causes of Petroleum migration
• – Kerogen expansion
• – Increase in pressure and
• – Hydrocarbon expulsion out of source rock
Petroleum Migration
Petroleum Accumulation
• Petroleum accumulations from the Earth’s crust can be
grouped into conventional and unconventional ones.
• Unconventional accumulation
• – The unconventional accumulation takes place mostly
in source rocks
• – Examples
• Shale oil and gas and
• Coal bed methane
• Conventional accumulation
• The conventional accumulation takes place mostly in
reservoir rocks
• Examples
• Sands reservoirs
Conversion Accumulation

Note:
• For conversion accumulation
• There is a movement of
hydrocarbon from source to
Source Rocks reservoir rocks
Natural Gas Compositions
• Natural gas is a naturally occurring gas Mixture, consisting
mainly of methane (CH4).
• The truth is,
• – The composition of Natural Gas is different
depending on the location.
• – The exact composition at any site will vary among the
different regions and over time.
• – Each well has a different Natural Gas composition and
different amounts of each hydrocarbon gases component.
● Gases which may found into the Natural Gas:
– Natural gas is a combustible mixture of
hydrocarbongases into a different proportionality.
● Ethane (C2H6),
● Propane (C H ),
3 8
Butane (C4H10), and
●

● Pentane (C H )
5 12
●The gas that we get as consumers is made up of
almost entirely pure methane
Natural Gas Compositions
●When there is almost pure methane, Natural
Gas is considered dry gas.
●When the heavier hydrocarbons are present,
the gas is considered wet gas.
 During the processing of gas, the heavier hydrocarbons beyond butane are removed from the gas as
liquids, and sold as liquids.

 The majority of gas after processing is methane.

 The impurities are also removed at the surface to improve the calorific value of gas as well as to
minimize the corrosion.

 The non-hydrocarbon components of natural gas contain two types of materials: diluents such as
N2, CO2, and water vapor, and contaminants, such as H2S and other sulfur compounds.

 Diluents are noncombustible gases that reduce the heating value of the gas.

 The disadvantages include greater horsepower and plpelining requirements for the same energy
content of the gas, greater Internal corrosion, and freezing.

 Contaminants are very detrimental to production and transport equipment (some are hazardous
pollutants), and the primary reason for gas conditioning and processing is to remove them as soon
as possible from the gas stream.
 Utilization of Natural Gas
Initially natural gas was used as a supply for energy requirements for the oil field, and the rest was
flared.

Even today, this practice continues in many parts of the world.

Part of the reason :
 Oil companies burn off natural gas is that it cannot be stored easily.
 It has to be utilized or transported as soon as it is produced.
 If the end user is far away, an efficient infrastructure has to be established before gas can be
transported from one location to another.

 In many places, the cost associated with transportation can be significant.

 Another option with associated gas is to reinject it in an oil field.

 Reinjecting increases the reservoir pressure and, hence, the oil production.

 However, this option also requires drilling injection wells and using compressors to inject gas.

 Further, if the gas have the potential to sell the gas, possible cash flow is postponed.
• In the last 25 years, the importance of natural gas has increased.
• Starting at 17%, 25 years ago, today natural gas provides 22% of the world’s total energy.
• In comparison, crude oil provides about 39% of the world’s energy.
The reasons for the increased importance of natural gas are:-
1. Significant infrastructure of pipelines and compressor stations is being developed, or is already
established.
Especially in the United States, most of the regions have significant pipeline infrastructure.

2. Gas has been established as an environmentally friendly fuel.

 Compared to oil or coal, natural gas, as a fossil fuel, burns much more efficiently.
 Unlike coal or oil, limited amounts of by-products that are harmful to the environment are released
from the burning of gas.

3. New technologies are developed that will expand the

 Use of natural gas as a heating fuel or as a feedstock in petrochemical plants.
 With better engines, natural gas is also being used as a motor fuel.
 Many school buses and local buses are being retrofitted for the use of natural gas as a fuel.
 These engines are friendlier to the environment and are proving to be quite efficient.
 The technology is constantly evolving and may result in natural gas being used as a regular motor fuel
for long distance traveling. Utilization of Natural Gas
4. Another potential application of natural gas is its use as a feed stock for generating hydrogen
for fuel cells.
Fuel cells are expected to dominate in the new energy economy as we make the transition
from coal-based fuel to hydrogen-based fuel.
Natural gas is an ideal source for generating hydrogen.

5. Gas prices are not subject to the same geopolitical pressures as oil.

 Unlike oil, which is a truly global commodity, the price of gas is controlled by regional factors.

 The price of oil, no matter where anyone buy it, is about the same anywhere in the world.

 Since transportation of gas is much more difficult, gas is sold more on a regional basis rather than
global basis.

 As a result, regional issues, rather than global issues, control the price of gas.
Utilization of Natural Gas

 Therefore, there is better predictability about the gas prices than oil prices.
 Natural gas is a major source of electricity generation through the use of cogeneration, gas
turbines and steam turbines.

 Natural gas is also well suited for a combined use in association with renewable
energy sources such as wind or solar and for alimenting peak-load power stations
functioning in tandem with hydroelectric plants.

 Natural gas dispensed in a residential setting can generate temperatures in excess of

1,100 °C (2,000 °F) making it a powerful domestic cooking and heating fuel.

 In much of the developed world it is supplied through pipes to homes, where it is used for
many purposes including ranges and ovens, gas-heated clothes dryers, heating/cooling,
and central heating.
 Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of ammonia, via the Haber process, for
use in fertilizer production.
 Natural gas can be used to produce hydrogen, with one common method being
the hydrogen reformer.
 Hydrogen has many applications: it is a primary feedstock for the chemical industry, a
hydrogenating agent, an important commodity for oil refineries, and the fuel source
in hydrogen vehicles.
The Haber process,[1] also called the Haber–Bosch process, is an artificial nitrogen fixation process and is the main industrial procedure for
the production of ammonia today.[2][3] It is named after its inventors, the German chemists Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch, who developed it in the first
decade of the 20th century. The process converts atmospheric nitrogen (N2) to ammonia (NH3) by a reaction with hydrogen (H2) using a metal
catalyst under high temperatures and pressures:

Before the development of the Haber process, ammonia had been difficult to produce on an industrial scale, with early methods such as
the Birkeland–Eyde process and Frank–Caro process all being highly inefficient.
Although the Haber process is mainly used to produce fertilizer today, during World War I it provided Germany with a source of ammonia for the
production of explosives, compensating for the Allied Powers' trade blockade on Chilean saltpeter.
 Protein rich animal and fish feed is produced by feeding natural gas to Methylococcus
capsulatus bacteria on commercial scale.

 Natural gas is also used in the manufacture

of fabrics, glass, steel, plastics, paint, synthetic oil, and other products.

 The first step in the valorization of natural gas components is usually the of the alkane
into olefin.

 The oxidative dehydrogenation of ethane leads to ethylene which can be converted farther
to ethylene epoxide, ethylene glycol, acetaldehyde or other olefins.

 Propane can be converted to propylene or can be oxidized to acrylic acid and

acrylonitrile.
 Natural Gas Industry

Indian Gas Exchange (IGX) is the online trading platform for natural gas with delivery
hubs at Dhabol and Jaighar in Maharashtra, Dahez and Hazira in Gujarat and Kakinada in
Andhra Pradesh.

The Petroleum and Natural Gas Regulatory Board (PNGRB) was created in the year 2005
to regulate downstream activities in the petroleum and natural gas sector.

Buyers can transport the purchased natural gas from these hubs on daily basis to their
consumption points through the existing cross country gas pipelines (owned by GAIL and
others) on chargeable basis.
According to data from Government of India, India's natural gas production increased by
22.7% in April 2021, as Reliance Industries Ltd. and its partner, BP plc, increased production
in the KG-D6 block on the east coast.

In February 2021, Petronet LNG announced its plans to increase in its Dahej terminal's
capacity by 29% to 22.5 million tonnes per annum (mtpa) to meet the rising demand.

Notable projects expected to come online in 2020 are Reliance Industries’ R-Cluster in the
KG-D6 block and state-run ONGC’s KG-DWN-98/2 oil and natural gas deepwater project in
the KG-D5 block.

Both fields are located in the Krishna Godavari Basin, offshore from India’s east coast.

BP PLC, formerly called Anglo-Persian Oil Company, Ltd. (1909–35), Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Ltd. (1935–54), British
Petroleum Company Limited (1954–82), British Petroleum Company PLC (1982–98), and BP Amoco (1998–2000),
British petrochemical corporation that became one of the world’s largest oil companies through its merger with the Amoco
Corporation of the United States in 1998.
The first set of fields from the KG-DWN-98/2 project, which began producing natural gas in
March 2020, will reach a peak of 190 billion cubic feet (Bcf) per year and have a 15-year
lifespan.

Reliance Industries’ RCluster has a production capacity of 160 Bcf per year and a 13-year
lifespan.

In February 2021, the government launched key oil and gas projects such as the
Ramanathapuram – Thoothukudi natural gas pipeline and Gasoline Desulphurisation Unit at
Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited, Manali.
 Segment Brief About Segement Oil Companies Gas Companies
Upstream  The upstream sector involves the searching for and the recovery ONGC, OIL, ONGC, OIL,
and production of crude oil and natural gas. GSPC, RIL, Cairn, GSPC,
 The upstream component of oil & gas sector includes the ESSAR, Cairn, RIL, Prize
searching for potential underground or underwater oil and gas BG Energy, Niko Petroleum &
fields, drilling of exploratory wells, and subsequently operating Resources, Shell, various JV
the wells that recover and bring the crude oil and/or raw natural gas Geo Global, Companies
to the surface. Jubilant Energy,
 The upstream oil sector is also known as the exploration and Oilex
production (E&P) sector.
Midstream  The midstream segment processes, stores, markets and transports RIL, MRPL, GAIL, GSPL,
commodities such as crude oil, natural gas, Liquefied Natural Gas IOCL, BPCL, RGTIL (East
(LNG) like ethane, propane, butane and sulphur. HPCL, Essar Oil, West Pipeline),
 Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream Public Sector JV PLL, Shell, PIL
category. Refinery
Companies
Downstream  The downstream segment involves the refining of petroleum IOC, BPCL, GGCL, GSPC
crude oil & processing of raw natural gas and the selling & HPCL, RIL, Gas, IGL, MGL,
distribution of processed natural gas and the products derived Shell, BP, Adani, MNGL,
from petroleum crude oil. ESSAR Bhagyanagar
 The downstream sector includes oil refineries, Gas, SGL, GAIL
petrochemical plant, petroleum product distribution, retail outlets
and natural gas distribution companies
 Importance of Natural Gas to India

•Currently, the largest share of Natural gas, about 40%, is consumed in the
production of fertilizers.

•About 30% is used in power generation and 10% is used in LPG. There have
been complimentary growth in Natural Gas production and all of these sectors.
Especially after 1971, there has been a manifold increase in the production of
Natural gas.

•Power stations using gas accounted for nearly 10 percent of India’s

electricity.

•Despite the country reeling under a power crisis, gas power stations are lying idle
due to a lack of feedstock.
•Existing plants are operating below capacity on expensive imported liquefied
natural gas (LNG).

•India’s oil reserves are insufficient for its growing energy needs and the situation
is made worse by policy paralysis which increases the gestation period of the
projects.

•We need to diversify our energy basket through alternate fuels so that we need
not have to bear the brunt of external shocks.

•Natural gas contributes to about a quarter of global energy consumption. In

India, however, it constitutes only 6% of the energy consumed, while crude oil
and coal dominate. The Indian government has promised to raise the share of
natural gas to 15% by 2030.
 Distribution of Natural Gas in India
•Gulf of Kutch, Gulf of Khambhat, Bassein field (Vasai field), Bombay High, Barmer in
Rajasthan, KG basin, Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Assam, Tripura, etc.

•India’s economically viable reserve of natural gas is 541 BCM (on-shore, Assam, and
Gujarat), besides them 190 BCM offshore in Bay of Cambay and 190 BCM(billion cubic
metres) in Bombay High.

•Recently a huge reserve of 400 BCM is reported in Tripura Basin. Besides them, 72 BCM
is in the Rava structure and a huge reserve is reported around Andaman and Nicobar
island.

•On the basis of remote sensing information, Andaman and Nicobar reserves are estimated
to be around 1700 BCM.

•Its economic viability is yet to be established, that’s why production has not yet started. This
reserve will solve the problem or need of India for 100 years. This may produce an economic
revolution in eastern India.
Some Milestones
•1988-89
• Oil strikes at Cauvery offshore and at Nanda in Khambhat basin, besides gas found in Tanot in
Jaiselmer basin in Rajasthan were major discoveries.
•1988
• Production from South Bassein Gas Field started in September 1988.
•1989-90
• During 1989-90 oil/gas structures had been discovered in Adiyakkamanglam in Tamil Nadu,
Andada in Gujarat, Khovaghat in Assam, Lingla in Andhra Pradesh, Mumbai Offshore and
Kachchh offshore.
•2002
• Krishna-Godawari basin
• The gas discovered by Reliance Industries in the deep waters of the Krishna-Godavari off-
shore basin has brought the sector into sharp focus.
• It is reported to be the largest discovery of natural gas in the world in the year 2002 and
compares with global findings in the past in the Gulf and Sakhalin Island. The reserves are
estimated to 14 trillion cubic feet. The field is 200 km into the sea from Vishakhapatnam.
• This is the deepest oil exploration in India. This discovery is believed to yield 60-80 million
cubic metres of natural gas per day from a single field.
•2003
• In the Barmer district of Rajasthan also, gas was discovered along with crude oil in
2003
•2004
• In yet another gas discovery, Reliance Industries struck gas off the Orissa coast in the
Bay of Bengal in June 2004.
•2005
• In June 2005, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) made a significant hydrocarbon
find in the shallow waters of Krishna Godawari basin, south-west of Rava
field discovered by ONGC in 1987. The new find is around 12 km from the Amalpuram
coast.
Properties of Natural Gas
Different Gas Reservoir
 Composition of Natural Gas

Fuel CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10 C5H12 N2 CO2 MN

No.1 87.1 8.8 2.5 0.8 0 0.8 0 70.7
No.2 97.3 2.1 0.2 0.1 0 0.3 0 90.6
No. 3 87.0 9.4 2.6 0.6 0 0.4 0 70.9
No.4 91.2 6.5 1.1 0.2 0 1.0 0 79.3
No.5 88.6 4.6 1.1 0.3 0.1 3.9 1.4 82.2
No.6 82.9 3.2 0.6 0.2 0.1 12 1 87.9
No.7 92.3 3.2 0.6 0.2 0.1 3 0.4 85.7
No.8 89.5 3.1 3.6 0.2 0.1 2.9 0.4 76.3
No.9 87.7 3.0 5.6 0.2 0.1 2.9 0.4 71.8
No10 84.9 2.9 8.5 0.2 0.1 2.7 0.3 66.5
 Dry-gas reservoirs

If the path from reservoir to separator is represented by AA′′′, we call this a “dry”
gas reservoir.

Both the initial reservoir stage, as well as the final stage at separator conditions,
is outside the two-phase envelope.
In most cases, a dry gas reservoir represents very lean composition of gas with
gas gravity less than 0.6 and comprised of mostly methane.

 Initial temperature greater than cricondentherm

 No liquid production at the surface
 Initial fluid remains in single-phase throughout depletion.
 Wet-gas reservoirs

If the path from reservoir to separator is represented by AA′′, we call

the reservoir a “wet” gas reservoir. This is because the reservoir fluid
will produce liquid at the surface.

 Initial temperature greater than cricondentherm

 Initial gas-oil ratio greater than 50,000 SCF/STB (9,000 m3/m3)
 Transparent liquid production with high API gravity
 Initial fluid remains in single-phase throughout depletion.
Since this behaviour is against what one would expect from single-component
behaviour, it is called retrograde condensation.

 Initial temperature between critical point and cricondentherm

 Initial gas-oil ratio between 3,300 (587 m3/m3) and 150,000 (26,715 m3/m3)
SCF/STB
 Less than 12.5% of heptane+
 Light liquid production with API gravity greater than 45
 Liquid dropout in reservoir once the dew-point line is crossed
 Depleting the reservoir can result in significant loss of liquid production.
 Combustion features
 Air-fuel ratio is the ratio of air to fuel in stoichiometric conditions.

 Network operator sells natural gas volume but final customer needs heat. Low heating value
LHV is the link and is very important.
 By contract, network operator takes obligations on the LHV minimum value.

 Wobbe index (W) is an important criterion of inter-changeability of gases in the industrial

applications (engines, boilers, burners, etc).
 Gas composition variation does not involve any notable change of the factor of air and the
velocity burning when the index of Wobbe remains almost constant.

 Methane number (MN) characterizes gaseous fuel tendency to auto-ignition. By convention,

this index has a value 100 for methane and 0 for hydrogen (Leiker et al., 1972).
 The gaseous fuels are thus compared with a methane-hydrogen binary mixture.
 Two gases with same value MN have the same resistance against the spontaneous
combustion.
1.The lower heating value (also known as net calorific value) of a fuel is defined
as the amount of heat released by combusting a specified quantity (initially at
25°C) and returning the temperature of the combustion products to 150°C, which
assumes the latent heat of vaporization of water in the reaction products is not
recovered.

2.The higher heating value (also known gross calorific value or gross energy) of a
fuel is defined as the amount of heat released by a specified quantity (initially at
25°C) once it is combusted and the products have returned to a temperature of
25°C, which takes into account the latent heat of vaporization of water in the
combustion products.
 The assumptions with regards to the kinetic theory of gases are:
 The average distance between the molecules is sufficiently important so that
the molecular interactions (other than shocks) are negligible,
 The number of molecules per unit volume is large and constant (gas
homogeneity on a macroscopic scale).

The following assumptions are relating to kinematics:

 Between two shocks, presumed elastic, the movement of each molecule is
rectilinear and uniform,
 The direction of the Speed Vectors of the various molecules obeys a uniform
space distribution,
 The module of the Speed Vectors varies according to a law of distribution
which does not depend on time when the macroscopic variables of state are
fixed.
 Behaviour of ideal gas

For pure gas, ideal gas law can be written as:

pV = nRT 2.1

R Units
82.06 atm, cc/g – mole, °K
1.987 Btu/lb – mole, °R
10.73 psia, ft3/lb – mole, °R
62.37 mmHg, liters/g – mole, °K m
pV = RT
M
8.314 J/kg – mole, °K = nRT
8.314 kPa, m3/kg-mole, °K
 Apparent Molecular Weight
T

Ma = yi Mi
i=1

Where Ma is the apparent molecular weight of a gas mixture and Mi is

the molecular weight of component i and T is the total number of
components.
 Standard Volume

nRTsc 1 10.73 520

Vsc = =
Psc 14.7
Or
Vsc = 379.4 𝑠𝑐𝑓/(𝑙𝑏 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙)

Where:
Vsc = standard volume, scf/lb-mol
Scf = standard cubic feet
𝑇𝑠𝑐 = standard temperature, °R
𝑃𝑠𝑐 = standard pressure, psia
 Specific gravity

ρg
γg =
ρair

Psc Ma
RTsc
γg =
Psc Mair
RTsc Ma Ma
Where: γg = =
Mair 28.96
γg =gas specific gravity
ρair = density of the air
Mair = apparent molecular weight of the air = 28.96
Ma = apparent molecular weight of the gas
𝑃𝑠𝑐 = standard pressure, psia
𝑇𝑠𝑐 = standard temperature, °R
 Compressibility factor

Compressibility factor (z) is an indication of deviation of a real gas from an

ideal gas. The theory of corresponding states dictates that the z-factor can be
uniquely defined as a function of reduced pressure and reduced temperature.
The reduced pressure and reduced temperature are defined as:
𝑃 T
𝑃pr = and Tpr =
P𝑝𝑐 𝑇𝑝𝑐
The most commonly used method to estimate the z-factor is the graphical
procedure provided by Standing and Katz. The z-factor chart is shown in
Figure 2.1. The chart covers the range of reduced pressure from 0 to 15, and the
range of reduced temperature from 1.05 to 3.

In cases where the composition of a natural gas is not available, the

pseudocritical properties, i.e., Ppc and Tpc , can be predicted solely from the
specific gravity of the gas.
Brown et al. (1948) presented a graphical method for a convenient
approximation of the pseudo-critical pressure and pseudo-critical temperature of
gases when only the specific gravity of the gas is available. The correlation is
presented in Figure 2.2.
 Fig. 2.1. Compressibility of natural
gases as a function of reduced pressure
and temperature (after Standing and
Katz, courtesy AIME)11 © 1942
Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Wichert Aziz for Sour Gas
Wichert and Aziz
Relation
Tpc = 356.59
Ppc = 674.05 psia
 Figure 2-2 Pseudo-
critical properties of
natural gases.
(Courtesy of GPSA
and GPA Engineering
Data Book, 10th
Edition, 1987).
Example 2-1
Three pounds of n-butane are placed in a vessel at 120°F and 60
psia. Calculate the volume of the gas assuming an ideal gas
behaviour. Given the molecular weight of n-butane M=58:123.

Example 2-2
Using the data given in the above example, calculate the density of n-butane.
Example 2-3
A gas well is producing gas with a specific gravity of 0.65 at a rate of 1.1
MMscf/day. The average reservoir pressure and temperature are 1,500 psi and
150°F.
Calculate:
a. Apparent molecular weight of the gas
b. Gas density at reservoir conditions
c. Flow rate in lb/day
 Formation volume factor

The gas formation volume factor is used to relate the volume of gas, as measured at
reservoir conditions, to the volume of the gas as measured at standard conditions, i.e., 60°F
and 14.7 psia.
The formation volume factor for gas is defined as the ratio of volume of one mole of gas at
a given pressure and temperature to the volume of one mole of gas at standard conditions.

Using the real gas law and assuming that the z-factor at standard conditions is one, the equation for gas
formation volume factor (𝐵𝑔 ) can be written as:

znRT
Vp, 𝑇 p Psc zT 𝑧𝑇
Bg = = = × 𝐵𝑔 = 0.02827
Vsc zsc nRTsc Tsc P 𝑃
Psc zT
Bg = 0.3507
P
 𝑧𝑇 m pMa
𝐵𝑔 = 0.02827 ρg = =
𝑃 V zRT
Ma Ma 3
𝐵𝑔 = 0.02827 = 0.002635 , f t s cf
Rρg ρg
where 𝐵𝑔 is in ft 3 /SCF, and P is in psia and T is in °R
zT
Bg = 0.3507
3
P3
Where Bg is in m /Sm , P is in kPa, and T is in °K.

Ma Ma 3
𝐵𝑔 = 0.02827 = 0.002635 , f t s cf
Rρg ρg
 It is more convenient to define the value of Bg in bbl/SCF. The equation can be written as:

zT
Bg = 0.005035
P

The reciprocal of the gas formation volume factor is called the gas expansion factor and
is designated by the symbol 𝐸𝑔 , or:
P
Eg = 35.37 , 𝐬𝐜 𝐟 𝐟 𝐭 3
zT

Rρg ρg
Eg = 35.37 = 379.52 , sc f f t 3
Ma Ma
P
Eg = 198.6 , 𝐬𝐜 𝐟 𝐛 𝐛𝐥
zT
 Gas Compressibility

By definition, the isothermal gas compressibility is the change in volume per unit volume for a unit change in pressure or, the
gas compressibility is defined as the relative volume increase per unit pressure drop at a constant temperature. the isothermal
compressibility of gas is calculated as:

1 𝜕V
cg = −
V 𝜕p 𝑇

Where 𝑐𝑔 is isothermal gas compressibility, (1/psi) and V and P are volume and pressure respectively, and T is the
absolute temperature.
nRTz
From the real gas equation-of-state: V=
P
Differentiating the above equation with respect to pressure at constant temperature T gives:

𝜕V 1 𝜕z z
= nRT − 2
𝜕p P 𝜕p p
 Substituting into Equation produces the following generalized relationship:

1 1 𝜕z
𝑐𝑔 = −
𝑃 𝑧 𝜕p 𝑇

If the relationship between the z-factor and pressure at a given temperature is known, we can
calculate the compressibility of gas.
Since we already know the relationship between z and p, we can numerically calculate the
derivative and, hence, the value of the compressibility.
Equation can be conveniently expressed in terms of the pseudoreduced pressure and temperature by simply replacing p with
(ppc , ppr ), or:

1 1 𝜕z
cg = −
Ppr Ppc z 𝜕 ppr Ppc
Tpr
 Multiplying the previous equation by ppc yields:
1 1 𝜕z
cg = −
1 1 𝜕z Ppr Ppc z 𝜕 ppr Ppc
Tpr
cg Ppc = cpr = −
ppr z 𝜕ppr
Tpr

The term 𝑐𝑝𝑟 is called the isothermal pseudo-reduced compressibility and is defined by
the relationship
cpr = cg ppc
Where:
cpr = isothermal pseudo-reduced compressibility
cg = isothermal gas compressibility, psi–1
ppc = pseudo-reduced pressure, psi
𝜕z
Values of can be calculated from the slope of the Tpr isotherm on the Standing and
𝜕ppr
Tpr
Katz z-factor chart.
 Gas Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal fluid friction (resistance) to flow. If the friction between layers of the
fluid is small, i.e., low viscosity, an applied shearing force will result in a large velocity gradient.

As the viscosity increases, each fluid layer exerts a larger frictional drag on the adjacent layers and velocity gradient
decreases.

The viscosity of a fluid is generally defined as the ratio of the shear force per unit area to the local velocity gradient.
𝐹
The viscosity, µ, as defined is called dynamic viscosity. In addition, the ratio of the dynamic
µ= 𝐴 viscosity of a fluid to its density, known as kinematic viscosity (ʋ), is also used in many flow
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝐿
problems: µ
ʋ=
𝜌
The gas viscosity is a function of temperature, pressure, and molecular weight (gas gravity).
µg = f(p, t, yi )
The viscosity of gases increases as temperature increases and is approximately proportional
to the square root of temperature.
This is due to the increase in the frequency of intermolecular collisions at higher
temperatures.
Since most of the time the molecules in a gas are flying freely through the void, anything
that increases the number of times one molecule is in contact with another will decrease the
ability of the molecules as a whole to engage in the coordinated movement.
The more these molecules collide with one another, the more disorganized their motion
becomes.
Viscosities are expressed in terms of poises, centipoise, or micro poises. One poise equals a
viscosity of 1 dyne-sec/cm2 and can be converted to other field units by the following
relationships: 1 poise =100 centipoise
=1 × 106 micro poises
=6.72 × 10−2 lb mass/ft-sec
=2.09 × 10−3 lb-sec/ft2
If the analysis of a gas is known, it is possible to calcu1ate the viscosity of the gas mixture
from the component viscosities. First, the viscosity is determined at one atmosphere (or any
"low" pressure) and the given temperature using the Herning and Zipperer (1936) mixing
rule: 𝑛 0.5
µ 𝑦
𝑖=1 1𝑔 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 𝑀
µ1𝑔 = 𝑛 0.5
𝑖=1 𝑦 𝑖 𝑀 𝑖
 Calorific Value
 A British thermal unit Btu, is equal to 1055.055 joule.
 It has been described as the quantity of heat that must be added to one pound of pure water
to raise its temperature from 58.5 to 59.5○ F under standard pressure.
 The description is included to give an idea as to the magnitude of a Btu.
 Calorific value (CV) is a measure of heating power and is dependent upon the
composition of the gas.
 The CV refers to the amount of energy released when a known volume of gas is
completely combusted under specified conditions.
 The CV of gas, which is dry, gross and measured at standard conditions of temperature
(15○ C) and pressure (1013.25 millibars), is usually quoted in megajoules per cubic metre
(MJ/m3).
Gas passing through our pipeline system has a CV of 37.5 MJ/m3 to 43.0 MJ/m3.
 Importance of CV

 Knowledge of the CV of natural gas is an essential part of our day-to-day activities, as this
information is used to determine the amount of energy we transport.

 CV information is provided daily to gas shippers and suppliers, which is then used to bill
gas consumers.

 We also use this data to determine transportation charges for gas shippers and suppliers.
 Measuring CV

 The CV of natural gas is measured continually, using process gas chromatographs.

 Process gas chromatographs separate natural gas into its constituent compounds (i.e.
methane, ethane, carbon dioxide, etc.) and measures the amount of each in the gas.

 The physical characteristics of each component, as defined by ISO 6976, are programmed
into the chromatograph and an overall CV is derived from the measured composition.

 The determination of the CV of gas is carried out in accordance with international standards
and the Gas (Calculation of Thermal Energy) Regulations, as amended in 1997.
 These regulations stipulate when and where the CV of gas is measured and the
type of instrument to be used.

 The regulations are enforced by Ofgem, who also perform audit checks on the
primary data.

 The calorific value of natural gas is measured at reception terminals and other
locations on our pipeline system.

 At present, the CV of gas is measured at over 110 different locations in the UK

mainland.
 The CV of natural gas is measured continually, using process gas chromatographs.

 Process gas chromatographs separate natural gas into its constituent compounds (i.e.
methane, ethane, carbon dioxide, etc.) and measures the amount of each in the gas.

 The physical characteristics of each component, as defined by ISO 6976, are

programmed into the chromatograph and an overall CV is derived from the measured
composition.
A standard cubic foot is the unit volume for purposes of measurement and is one cubic foot
of gas at a temperature base of usually 60○ F and a base pressure of usually 14.65, 14.696,
14.73, or 15.025 psia.
One standard cubic foot of gas in equilibrium with liquid water contains water vapor in the
volume ratio that the partial pressure of the water vapor bears to the standard pressure.

Thus, at 60○ F and 14.696 psia:

Vapour pressure of water at 60○ F = 0.25636 psia
Water vapour mole fraction = 0.25636/14.696 = 0.01744
Gas mole fraction = (14.696 – 0.25636)/14.696 = 0.98256
The LHV Wobbe Index Calorimetric Systems are specific integrated analysis
systems aimed to assess, in real time, the following parameter(s) relevant to a gaseous
stream:
•Wobbe Index
•LHV Low Heating Value
•Gas Density
•Minimum Air Requirement CARI
Why those parameters? They are the simplest way :
•To understand the Energy Content of gas for Trading

•To guarantee the Interchangeability of different fuel gases

•To measure the overall Quality of a gas mixture or with a Changing composition

•To calculate the Combustion Air required

Therefore, the most common applications for LHV Wobbe Index systems are:
•(Petro) Chemical plants
•Blast-furnace and cokery plants
•Cogeneration power plants
•Fuel gas control for burners and ovens
•Gas bottles production
•Gas turbines & gas engines
•Glass and porcelain factories (furnaces & ovens control)
•Incineration plants
•LPG / Air mixing plants
•Mixing and/or blending of gas streams with variable compounds
•Refineries – tail gas mixing
•Sewage, bio and landfill gas
 HEATING VALUE OF FUEL

Introduction
Combustion is one of the most important chemical reactions in today's energy seeking world.

The combustion process involves the oxidation of constituents in the fuel.

The heat liberated during this reaction is called the heat of combustion, and the amount of heat
corresponding to a unit mass of the fuel is called the heating value.

The terms Higher Heating Value (HHV) and Lower Heating Value (LHV) are used to
distinguish cases in which water in the combustion products is either liquid (HHV) or gaseous
(LHV).

The difference between these two values may be written as

HHV- LHV = m hfg
where m is the mass of water produced per unit mass of fuel and hfg is the latent heat of
vaporization of water at the standard reference state.
Fuel Constituents, Vol % HHV LHV
CO H2 CH4 C2H6 CO2 N2 Btu/ft3 kJ/m3 Btu/ft3 kJ/m3
Town Gas 9 54 25 3 6 540 20,000 482.2 18,000
Producer
29 12 3 4 52 162.7 6,100 161.7 6,025
Gas
Blast
Furnace 27 2 11 60 92.3 3,440 91.3 3,400
Gas
Natural
1 93 3 3 977 36,400 880 32,800
Gas
Carbon
100 318 11,850 318 11,850
Monoxide
Hydrogen 100 320 11,920 270 10,060
Fuel Mass Analysis, Wt. % HHV LLV
C H S API SG Btu/lbm kJ/kg Btu/lbm kJ/kg
Aviation
85.1 14.9 0.01 69 0.71 20,340 47,310 18,918 44,000
Gasoline
Motor
855 14.4 0.1 61 0.74 20,160 46,890 18,792 43,710
Gasoline
Kerosene
86.3 13.6 0.1 42 0.82 19,854 46,180 18,558 43,160

Diesel
86.3 12.8 0.9 38 0.83 19,764 45,970 18,558 43,160
Oil
Light
86.2 12.4 1.4 38 0.83 19,260 45,630 18,090 42,080
Fuel Oil
Heavy
86.1 11.8 2.1 15 0.97 18,900 43,960 17,784 41,360
Fuel Oil
 Measurement of Heating Value

 Calorimeters provide the engineer a simple means of measuring the heating values of fuels.

 There are two basic types of calorimeters: a steady-flow calorimeter to measure the heating
value of gaseous fuels and the bomb calorimeter (constant-volume) for use with liquid and
solid fuels.

 Figure 1 shows a typical oxygen bomb calorimeter. The solid/liquid fuel sample is placed in
the crucible and the bomb is subsequently pressurized with pure oxygen.

 Ignition is accomplished by passing a current through a wire in contact with the fuel. When
combustion is complete, the temperature rise of the bomb and its surrounding water bath is
measured.
Bomb Calorimeter
Basically, a bomb calorimeter consists of a
 Small cup to contain thesample
 Oxygen
 A stainless steel bomb
 Water
 A stirrer
 A thermometer
 The dewar (to prevent heat flow from the calorimeter to the surroundings)
 Ignition circuit connected to the bomb.
 Calculations

Consider a system that consists of the sample (s), the bomb (b), and the calorimeter water (w)
and bucket.

The sample is contained within the bomb, which is immersed within the water contained by
the calorimeter bucket.

Applying the First Law of Thermodynamics to this system gives :

DU = QV - W
where:
DU = the change in internal energy of the system
QV = the heat transfer at constant volume
W = work performed on or by the system
Since there is no work crossing the system boundary, W = 0. If the entire system is adiabatic, the heat of combustion is
used to change the temperature of the water and the bomb:

Assuming constant specific heats

where DT = the total temperature change of the system.

The heat transfer is also equal to the heat of combustion of the sample :
QV = (mu)s
 In the case of a liquid fuel, the sample is composed of fuel (f), gelatin capsule (c), and fuse wire (fw).
Therefore,

The heating value of the fuel (HHV) can now be expressed as

This development does not include energy contributions associated with the stirrer.
This effect could be included if more precision is desired, but the calculations become somewhat cumbersome.
Other corrections have also been neglected since they are minor effects and are difficult to determine in the current setting.
These effects include corrections due to the heat of formation of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and for the heat of formation of nitric
acid (HNO3).
Example 2-1
Three pounds of n-butane are placed in a vessel at 120°F and 60
psia. Calculate the volume of the gas assuming an ideal gas
behaviour. Given the molecular weight of n-butane M=58:123.

Example 2-2
Using the data given in the above example, calculate the density of n-butane.
Example 2-3
A gas well is producing gas with a specific gravity of 0.65 at a rate of 1.1
MMscf/day. The average reservoir pressure and temperature are 1,500 psi and
150°F.
Calculate:
a. Apparent molecular weight of the gas
b. Gas density at reservoir conditions
c. Flow rate in lb/day
 -]

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 Table 3-3'
Molal Heat Capacity (ldeal-Gas State), Btu/(lb mol-oR..)
Oo
t9
Chemical Mol
formula wt OoF 50"F 1000F 1 50.F 200"F 250"F 300.F
l\lt.t Ir u nc
r\
CII l 16.0.13 tt.23 8.12 8.16 tt.65 tJ.95 9.28
Ethrne lAr.ctrlcn(') . .... .. 9.61 10.01
C:II: 26.038 9.6t] t0.22 I0.33 10.71 I t.ls I1.55 11.90 12.22 \:
Ethent. (Ethrlenr.) ........ c-2II{ 28.05.1 9.33 I0.02 e
10.16 10.i2 I t.1l 12.09 I2.76 13.{l
Ethant.. Crfll 30.070 I I.44 t2.17 12.32 12.95 t 3.7r] 11.63 15."19 16.31 o
Propent, 1l'ropllenc) ...... CrHo 42.081 13.63 I4.69 14. ito 15.75 I6.80 r 7.85 I8.88 19.89
Propanc C.H^ 11.097 15.65 I6.tts I7. l3 t8.t7 19.52 20.8!) z,)_ in
l-Butene lBrrtvlene) ...... ClIIS 56.108 17.96 19.59 19.9 I 21.18 oo 11 21.26
cis-2-Brrtene CoHn
2i.t6 0\
56.108 I6.51 I8.01 18.31 19.51 21.01 22.53 21.01 2s.17
Irarrs-2-Brr tcne C.Ht s6. l0B 18.81 20.23 20.50 21.61 23.00 25.73 27.07 a
iso-Brrtane c{rI i0 58. I21 20.10 22.15 22.5r 23.95 25.7i
:
27.59 29.39 31.1I
n-Br rtane C,H,u 58. r2.1 20.80 o9 10 ,a
22.38 2,1.08 25.Ul 27.55 to 9a 30.90
iso-Pentant' cslIr2 72.15t 21.91 27.li 27.61 29.12 3l .66 33.87 36.03 38.11
rr -Pent ane CrH,, 72.151 25.61 27.61 28.02 29.7 | 3I.86 33.99 36.08 38. I3
Bt'nzent, CnHn 78. I l1 16.11 18.41 t8.78 20.16 22.45 24.16 26.31
n-Hcrant, 28. I5
C.H,., 86. I78 30. l7 32.78 33.30 JJ..t / 37.93 40.15 42.91 15.36
rr-Ht.ptant. CtH,n I 00.20s 34.96 38.00 38.61 41.0I 11.00 46.94 19. tt I 52.61
Ammonia NrI3 17.031 8.52 8.52 8.52 8.52 u.52 8.53 8.53 8.53
Air .... 28.964 6.94 6.95 6.95 6.96 6.97 6.99 7.0r 7.03
Watcr . IIrO rB.0l5 7.98 8.00 8.01 u.03 8.07 8. l2 8.
Oxygt,n .
t7 8.23
o: 31.999 6.97 6.99 7.00 7.03 7.0i 7.12 7.t7
Nitrogcn 7.23
N2 28.0I3 6.9s 6.95 6.95 6.96 6.96 6.97 ti.98 7.00
I 11 drogcn IIr 2.016 6.78 6.86 6.87 6.91 6.91 6.9s 6.97
Hvdrogen sulfide .
6.98
II!S 34.076 8.00 8.09 u.11 8. I8 8.27 8.36 8.16 8.55
Carbon monoxide ........ CO 28.010 6.95 6.96 6.96 6.96 6.97 6.99 7.01 7.03
Carbon dioxide CO, 14.0I0 u.38 8.70 8.76 9.00 9.29 9.56 9. Ul 10.05
* Courtest,of Gas Processors Suppliers Association

"Illdrogen Sulfide," J. R. West, Chem. Eng. progress,,t,1, 2u7,

I9.18.

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Wobbe index
The Wobbe Index (WI) or Wobbe number[1] is an indicator of the interchangeability of fuel gases such
as natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and town gas and is frequently defined in the specifications of
gas supply and transport utilities.

If is the higher heating value, or higher calorific value, and is the specific gravity, the Wobbe Index,
, is defined as:

is the density of the gas at standard conditions (0°C, 101.325 kPa), is the density of air at
standard conditions, is the molar mass of the gas and is the molar mass of air which is about 28.96
kg/kmol.

The Wobbe Index is used to compare the combustion energy output of different composition fuel gases in an
appliance (fire, cooker etc.). If two fuels have identical Wobbe Indices then for given pressure and valve
settings the energy output will also be identical. Typically variations of up to 5% are allowed as these would
not be noticeable to the consumer.

The Wobbe Index is a critical factor to minimise the impact of the changeover when analyzing the use of
substitute natural gas (SNG) fuels such as propane-air mixtures. The Wobbe Index also requires the
addition of propane to some upgraded biomethane products,[2] particularly in regions where natural gas has
a high calorific value such as Sweden. [3]

Contents
Wobbe Index of common fuel gases [4]
Usage
Limitations
References

Wobbe Index of common fuel gases [4]

 Upper index Lower index Upper index Lower index
Fuel gas
kcal/Nm³ kcal/Nm³ MJ/Nm³ MJ/Nm³
Hydrogen 11,528 9,715 48.23 40.65
Methane 12,735 11,452 53.28 47.91
Ethane 16,298 14,931 68.19 62.47
Ethylene 15,253 14,344 63.82 60.01
Natural gas 12,837 11,597 53.71 48.52
Propane 19,376 17,817 81.07 74.54
Propylene 18,413 17,180 77.04 71.88
n-butane 22,066 20,336 92.32 85.08
Iso-butane 21,980 20,247 91.96 84.71
Butylene-1 21,142 19,728 88.46 82.54
LPG 20,755 19,106 86.84 79.94
Acetylene 14,655 14,141 61.32 59.16
Carbon monoxide 3,060 3,060 12.80 12.80

Note: 1 Joule = 2.3901 × 10−4 kcal.

Usage
The Wobbe index is expressed in MJ/Nm³ (where the ill-advised symbol 'Nm³' is intended to mean 'm³ in
Normal conditions, much against the BIPM prescription for writing SI units), or sometimes in BTU/scf. In
the case of natural gas (molar mass 17 g/mol), the typical heating value is around 39 MJ/Nm³ (1,050
BTU/scf) and the specific gravity is approximately 0.59, giving a typical Wobbe index of 51 MJ/Nm³
(1,367 BTU/scf).

There are three ranges or "families" of fuel gases that have been internationally agreed based on Wobbe
index. Family 1 covers manufactured gases, family 2 covers natural gases (with high and low ranges) and
family 3 covers liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). Combustion equipment is typically designed to burn a fuel
gas within a particular family: hydrogen-rich town gas, natural gas or LPG.

Family Type of gas Wobbe Index range (MJ/Nm3) Wobbe number range from [1]
1 Town gas / Syngas 22.5 – 30.0 24.0 – 29.0
2L Natural 39.0 – 45.0
2H 45.5 – 55.0 48.0 – 53.0
3 LPG 73.5 – 87.5 72.0 – 87.0

Other flame characteristics and composition limits may determine the acceptability of the replacement gas,
e.g. flame speed, "yellow tipping" due to incomplete combustion, sulfur content, oxygen content, etc.

Limitations
In spite of its usefulness, Wobbe index alone is not a good indicator of the interchangeability of two or more
gases, or mixtures of them. It is necessary to bear in mind other criteria while determining the plenty
substitution of a fuel by other, different of the one used to adjust the burning system.[5]
References
"The Wobbe Index and Natural Gas Interchangeability" (http://www.documentation.emersonprocess.co
m/groups/public/documents/application_notes-tech._briefs/d301334x012.pdf?&xBusinessUnit=Remot
e%20Automation%20Solutions) (PDF). Emerson Process Management. 2007-07-30.
1. Treloar, R.D. (2005). Gas Installation Technology (https://archive.org/details/gasinstallationt00trel).
Blackwell. p. 24 (https://archive.org/details/gasinstallationt00trel/page/n39). ISBN 978-1-4051-1880-4.
2. http://www.biogasmax.eu/media/d3_3v2biogasmax_iwes_v2f_nov2010__052078600_1109_10022011.pdf
3. B [1] (http://www.sgc.se/gasification2011/Resources/Ingemar_Gunnarsson.pdf).
4. Wobbe Index and Fuel Gases (http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/wobbe-index-d_421.html)
5. Flórez-Orrego,Daniel, Escola Politécnica da USP. "Fuel Gas Interchangeability" (https://unalmed.acade
mia.edu/DanielFl%C3%B3rezOrrego/Papers/1913409/Intercambiabilidad_de_gases_combustibles_Fuel
_Gas_Interchangeability_Intercambiabilidade_dos_gases_combustiveis/). Retrieved 8 Sep 2012.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wobbe_index&oldid=1041750900"

This page was last edited on 1 September 2021, at 08:14 (UTC).

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you
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profit organization.
 Class Notes
PEC – 303 Natural Gas Engineering

Unit 2- Properties of Natural Gas

1 Phase Behaviour

A multicomponent natural-gas system may occur in the liquid or the gas phase, or both,
depending on its pressure, temperature and composition. The phase behaviour of a natural-gas
system of given composition is schematically illustrated in the pressure-temperature (PT)
diagram shown in Fig. 1.1

Fig. 1.1 - Pressure-Temperature Diagram of Hydrocarbon Mixture at Constant Composition

In the PT diagram the two-phase area is indicated by the area within the locus B-C-D. Outside
this area the system is either in the liquid or the gas state.
The curve B-C marks the boundary between the liquid phase area above it and the two-phase
area. Imagine a fluid cell charged with hydrocarbon fluid in the liquid state, thus at a pressure
and temperature above curve B-C. Expansion of the cell volume causes the pressure within the
cell to drop. At a certain pressure gas bubbles appear and move to the top of the cell. This
pressure is called the bubble-point pressure and lies on the curve B-C which is therefore called
a bubble-point curve.
The curve C-D delineates the single-phase gas phase area and the two-phase area. Here
traversing the boundary from above leads to the formation of a liquid. For this reason, the locus
C-D is called the dewpoint locus. The phenomenon of liquid formation upon reducing the
pressure is known as retrograde condensation. The point C where the bubble-point and the
dew-point loci meet is called the critical point.
In this point the gas and liquid phases are identical and have equal physical properties. Other
characteristic points on the phase boundary are the cricondentherm CT and the cricondenbar
CB.
The cricondentherm is the maximum temperature on the two-phase boundary; above the
cricondentherm single-phase conditions exist regardless of the pressure. The cricondenbar is
the maximum pressure on the two-phase boundary; two-phase conditions can only exist below
the cricondenbar.
Within the two-phase area one can draw curves of equal liquid saturation defined as the
fractional volume occupied by liquid. On the bubble point locus, the saturation is unity and on
the dewpoint locus it is zero. Intersection of these iso-saturation lines with a vertical line yields
an isothermal, constant-composition depletion curve. The shape of this curve depends greatly
on the location of the vertical line with respect to the critical temperature. This is illustrated in
Fig. 1.2 showing a depletion curve at a temperature below (curve a) and above the critical
temperature (curve b), respectively.

Fig. 1.2 Constant-Composition Depletion Curve at a Temperature Below (a) and Above (b)
the Critical Temperature
For the curve below the critical temperature the liquid saturation decreases with decreasing
pressure. Above the critical temperature, however, the depletion curve exhibits a maximum due
to retrograde condensation. At pressures below this maximum the curve shows the normal
vaporizing behaviour: a decreasing liquid saturation with decreasing pressure.
1.1 Classification of gas reservoirs: -

Based on the phase diagram of a multicomponent system, the gas reservoirs can be divided into
dry gas, wet gas, or condensate reservoirs. Figure 1.3 shows a phase diagram for Different gas
reservoir.
Both the wet and dry gas reservoirs are represented by point A. In figure 1.3, AA′ represents
the phase behaviour in the reservoir. As the reservoir pressure is depleted, under isothermal
conditions (constant temperature), the path AA′ is followed in the reservoir. The path AA′
never intersects the two-phase diagram and, hence, throughout the depletion process, the
reservoir fluid (gas) remains under single-phase flow conditions.
Although the depletion path in the reservoir can be represented by isothermal conditions, the
path from reservoir to separator is represented by changes in the temperature. Typically, as the
reservoir gas is brought to the surface, both pressure and temperature are reduced.

Fig 1.3 Different Gas Reservoir

1.1.1 Dry-gas reservoirs

If the path from reservoir to separator is represented by AA′′′, we call this a “dry” gas reservoir.
Both the initial reservoir stage, as well as the final stage at separator conditions, is outside the
two-phase envelope. In most cases, a dry gas reservoir represents very lean composition of gas
with gas gravity less than 0.6 and comprised of mostly methane.

 Initial temperature greater than cricondentherm

 No liquid production at the surface
 Initial fluid remains in single-phase throughout depletion.
1.1.2 Wet-gas reservoirs

If the path from reservoir to separator is represented by AA′′, we call the reservoir a “wet”
gas reservoir. This is because the reservoir fluid will produce liquid at the surface.

 Initial temperature greater than cricondentherm

 Initial gas-oil ratio greater than 50,000 SCF/STB (9,000 m3/m3)
 Transparent liquid production with high API gravity
 Initial fluid remains in single-phase throughout depletion.

1.1.3 Gas-condensate reservoirs

Condensate reservoir behaviour is represented by the flow path BB′. Condensate reservoirs are
initially present as single-phase gas in the reservoir. As the reservoir pressure is depleted, the
pressure path passes through the dew-point curve resulting in the dropping of liquids—heavier
components—which are commercially valuable. As the pressure depletes, more and more
liquid drops out of the system. In addition, due to changes in the composition of the remaining
fluid in the reservoir, the two-phase diagram shifts to the right, making it difficult to recover
dropped liquid. If the composition in the reservoir would remain the same, the line BB′ would
eventually intersect the dew-point line below it and all the liquid would vaporize again.
Unfortunately, as the composition gets heavier in the reservoir, the two-phase diagram shifts
to the right, making it difficult for line BB′ to intersect the dew-point line again.
The process of liquid dropping as the pressure is reduced is called “retrograde condensation.”
The word retrograde means “against the grain.” If this behaviour is contrasted against a single-
component behaviour, one will notice that, for a single component system+, as the pressure is
reduced at constant temperature, liquid-phase goes into vapor-phase. In contrast, for
condensate reservoirs, as the
pressure is reduced, some of the original gas phase goes into liquid phase. Since this behaviour
is against what one would expect from single-component behaviour, it is called retrograde
condensation.

 Initial temperature between critical point and cricondentherm

 Initial gas-oil ratio between 3,300 (587 m3/m3) and 150,000 (26,715 m3/m3)
SCF/STB
 Less than 12.5% of heptane+
 Light liquid production with API gravity greater than 45
 Liquid dropout in reservoir once the dew-point line is crossed
 Depleting the reservoir can result in significant loss of liquid production.

From the reservoir engineering viewpoint there is no fundamental difference between dry-gas
and wet-gas reservoirs. In both cases single-phase conditions are maintained within the
reservoir throughout the depletion period. Dry-gas reservoirs are just a subset of wet-gas
reservoirs, viz., wet-gas reservoirs with a zero-condensate content in the well stream.
 2 Physical Properties
In this section, we discuss important gas properties needed for evaluation of gas reservoirs and
gas wells. These properties include compressibility factor, formation volume factor, density,
compressibility, and viscosity.

2.1 Behaviour of ideal gas

For pure gas, ideal gas law can be written as:

pV = nRT 2.1

where p is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of gas moles, R is a gas constant, and T is
the absolute temperature. Depending on the units selected for individual terms in equation
(2.1), the value of R will change.
Table 2.1 provides the values of R for different units. For example, if p is psia, V is in ft 3 , n is
in lb-moles, and T is in °R, the value of R is 10.73.

R Units
82.06 atm, cc/g – mole, °K
1.987 Btu/lb – mole, °R
10.73 psia, ft3/lb – mole, °R
62.37 mmHg, liters/g – mole, °K
8.314 J/kg – mole, °K
8.314 kPa, m3/kg-mole, °K

Table 2.1. Values of R in various units

Instead of pure gas, if the gas is a mixture of several components, and if the mixture is ideal,
we can still apply equation 2.1 for the mixture. The only difference is n will be the total number
of moles. In addition, in equation 2.2 we define the mole fraction of an individual component
as:
ni
yi = 2.2
n

where yi is the mole fraction of component i, ni is the number of moles of component i in the
mixture, and n is the total number of moles.
The number of pound-moles of gas, i.e., n, is defined as the weight of the gas m divided by the
molecular weight M, or:
m
n=
M

The partial pressure exerted by individual component is calculated by:

pi = pyi 2.3
where pi is the partial pressure of component i. Equation 2.3 is also called Dalton’s Law.
The ideal gas law can also be written as:
m
pV = ( ) RT 2.4
M

where m is the mass of gas, and M is the molecular weight of the gas.

Apparent Molecular Weight

For a pure gas, the molecular weight is known. For a gas mixture, we can calculate the
molecular weight as:
T

Ma = ∑ yi Mi 2.5
i=1

Where Ma is the apparent molecular weight of a gas mixture and Mi is the molecular weight
of component i and T is the total number of components.

Standard Volume

In many natural gas engineering calculations, it is convenient to measure the volume occupied
by l lb-mole of gas at a reference pressure and temperature. These reference conditions are
usually 14.7 psia and 60°F, and are commonly referred to as standard conditions. The standard
volume is then defined as the volume of gas occupied by 1 lb-mol of gas at standard conditions.
Applying the above conditions to Equation 2.1 and solving for the volume, i.e., the standard
volume, gives:
nRTsc (1)(10.73)(520)
Vsc = =
Psc 14.7
Or
Vsc = 379.4 𝑠𝑐𝑓/(𝑙𝑏 − 𝑚𝑜𝑙)

Where:
Vsc = standard volume, scf/lb-mol
Scf = standard cubic feet
𝑇𝑠𝑐 = standard temperature, °R
𝑃𝑠𝑐 = standard pressure, psia

Specific gravity

The specific gravity is defined as the ratio of the gas density to that of the air. Both densities
are measured or expressed at the same pressure and temperature. Commonly, the standard
pressure 𝑃𝑠𝑐 and standard temperature 𝑇𝑠𝑐 are used in defining the gas specific gravity:

ρg
γg =
ρair

Assuming that the behaviour of both the gas mixture and the air is described by the ideal gas
equation, the specific gravity can then be expressed as:
 Psc Ma
RTsc
γg =
Psc Mair
RTsc
Or

Ma Ma
γg = = 2.6
Mair 28.96

Where:
γg =gas specific gravity
ρair = density of the air
Mair = apparent molecular weight of the air = 28.96
Ma = apparent molecular weight of the gas
𝑃𝑠𝑐 = standard pressure, psia
𝑇𝑠𝑐 = standard temperature, °R

Once we can calculate the value of the molecular weight of the mixture, we can calculate the
specific gravity of the mixture.

2.2 Behaviour of Real gases

Although at room temperature and pressure, the natural gas behaves as an ideal gas, it starts
deviating from ideal gas behaviour at high values of pressures and temperatures. To account
for the deviation from ideal behaviour, we can write the gas law as:

pV = znRT 2.7

where z is the compressibility factor. For ideal gas, the value of z is equal to one.
At standard conditions (Psc = 14.7 psia [101.35 kPa], Tsc = 520°R [289 K]), we also assume
that the z-factor is equal to one. At any other pressure and temperature, we need to calculate
the value of z-factor.

2.3 Compressibility factor

Compressibility factor (z) is an indication of deviation of a real gas from an ideal gas. The
theory of corresponding states dictates that the z-factor can be uniquely defined as a function
of reduced pressure and reduced temperature. The reduced pressure and reduced temperature
are defined as:

𝑃 T
𝑃pr = and Tpr = 2.8
P𝑝𝑐 𝑇𝑝𝑐

where 𝑃𝑝𝑟 and 𝑇𝑝𝑟 are reduced pressure and reduced temperature respectively; and 𝑃𝑝𝑐 and 𝑇𝑝𝑐
are critical pressure and critical temperature of the gas respectively.
The values of critical pressure and critical temperature can be estimated if the composition of
the gas and the critical properties of the individual components are known. As an
approximation, we can calculate the critical properties of the mixture as:

𝑃𝑐 = ∑ 𝑃𝑐𝑖 𝑦𝑖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇𝑐 = ∑ 𝑇𝑐𝑖 𝑦𝑖 2.9

𝑖 𝑖

Where Pci is a critical pressure of component i, and Tci is a critical temperature of component
i. Once critical properties of the mixture are calculated as stated in equation 2.9, we can use
equation 2.8 to calculate the reduced properties of the mixture.

The most commonly used method to estimate the z-factor is the graphical procedure provided
by Standing and Katz. The z-factor chart is shown in figure 2.1. The chart covers the range
of reduced pressure from 0 to 15, and the range of reduced temperature from 1.05 to 3.

In cases where the composition of a natural gas is not available, the pseudocritical properties,
i.e., Ppc and Tpc , can be predicted solely from the specific gravity of the gas.
Brown et al. (1948) presented a graphical method for a convenient approximation of the
pseudo-critical pressure and pseudo-critical temperature of gases when only the specific gravity
of the gas is available. The correlation is presented in Figure 2.2.
Standing (1977) expressed this graphical correlation in the following mathematical forms:

Case 1: Natural Gas Systems

Tpc = 168 + 325γg − 12.5γ2g 2.10

𝑃pc = 667 + 15.0γg − 37.5γ2g 2.11

Case 2: Gas-Condensate Systems

Tpc = 187 + 330γg − 71.5γ2g 2.12

𝑃pc = 706 + 51.7γg − 11.1γ2g 2.13

Where:
Tpc = pseudo-critical temperature, °R
Ppc = pseudo-critical pressure, psia
γg = specific gravity of the gas mixture
Fig. 2.1. Compressibility of natural gases as a function of reduced pressure and temperature
(after Standing and Katz, courtesy AIME)11 © 1942 Society of Petroleum Engineers.
Figure 2-2 Pseudo-critical properties of natural gases. (Courtesy of GPSA and GPA
Engineering Data Book, 10th Edition, 1987).
2.4 Gas Density

The gas density is defined as mass per unit volume. Using equation 2.4, we can write the density
as:

m pMa
ρg = = 2.14
V zRT

for ideal gas z=1.

m pMa
ρg = =
V RT

Knowing that molecular weight of gas is the product of specific gravity and molecular weight
of air, and the value of R is 10.73 in field units [8.314 in SI units], we can write the equation
for density as:

pγg
ρg = 2.7 2.15
zT

where ρg is in lbm/ ft 3 , p is in psia, and T is in °R. Alternately,

pγg
ρg = 3.49 2.16
zT
3
where ρg is in kg/m , p is in kPa, and T is °K.
The density can also be written as:
𝛾𝑔
ρg = 0.0764 2.17
𝐵𝑔

where ρg is in lbm/ft 3 , and Bg is in ft 3 /SCF. Alternately,

𝛾𝑔
ρg = 1.224 2.18
𝐵𝑔
where ρg is in kg/m3 , Bg is in m3 /Sm3 .

2.5 Specific Volume

The specific volume is defined as the volume occupied by a unit mass of the gas.
this property can be calculated by applying Equation 2.4:
1 𝑉 zRT
v= = = 2.19
ρg 𝑀 pMa
2.6 Formation volume factor

The gas formation volume factor is used to relate the volume of gas, as measured at reservoir
conditions, to the volume of the gas as measured at standard conditions, i.e., 60°F and 14.7
psia.
The formation volume factor for gas is defined as the ratio of volume of one mole of gas at a
given pressure and temperature to the volume of one mole of gas at standard conditions. Using
the real gas law and assuming that the z-factor at standard conditions is one, the equation for
gas formation volume factor (𝐵𝑔 ) can be written as:

znRT
Vp, 𝑇 p Psc zT
Bg = = = ∗ 2.20
Vsc zsc nRTsc Tsc P
Psc

where the subscript 𝑠𝑐 represents the standard conditions. If we assume that 𝑃𝑠𝑐 is 14.7 psia
[101.35 kPa] and 𝑇𝑠𝑐 is 520°R [289°K], we can write equation 2.10 as:

𝑧𝑇
𝐵𝑔 = 0.02827 2.21
𝑃

where 𝐵𝑔 is in ft 3 /SCF, and P is in psia and T is in °R. Alternately,

zT
Bg = 0.3507 2.22
P

Where Bg is in m3 /Sm3 , P is in kPa, and T is in °K.

Equation 2.21 can be expressed in terms of the gas density 𝜌𝑔 if combined with Equation 2.14,
to give:

Ma Ma 3
𝐵𝑔 = 0.02827 = 0.002635 , ft /scf
Rρg ρg

In some cases, it is more convenient to define the value of Bg in bbl/SCF. The equation can be
written as:

zT
Bg = 0.005035 2.23
P

where T is in °R and P is in psia.

The reciprocal of the gas formation volume factor is called the gas expansion factor and is
designated by the symbol 𝐸𝑔 , or:

P
Eg = 35.37 , 𝐬𝐜𝐟/𝐟𝐭 𝟑
zT

or in terms of the gas density 𝜌𝑔 :

 Rρg ρg
Eg = 35.37 = 379.52 , scf/ft 3
Ma Ma

In other units:

P
Eg = 198.6 , 𝐬𝐜𝐟/𝐛𝐛𝐥
zT

2.7 Gas Compressibility

By definition, the isothermal gas compressibility is the change in volume per unit volume for
a unit change in pressure or, the gas compressibility is defined as the relative volume increase
per unit pressure drop at a constant temperature. the isothermal compressibility of gas is
calculated as:

1 ∂V
cg = − ( ) 2.24
V ∂p 𝑇

Where 𝑐𝑔 is isothermal gas compressibility, (1/psi) and V and P are volume and pressure
respectively, and T is the absolute temperature.

From the real gas equation-of-state:

nRTz
V=
P

Differentiating the above equation with respect to pressure at constant temperature T gives:

∂V 1 ∂z z
( ) = nRT [ ( ) − 2 ]
∂p P ∂p p

Substituting into Equation 2.24 produces the following generalized relationship:

1 1 ∂z
𝑐𝑔 = − ( ) 2.25
𝑃 𝑧 ∂p 𝑇

𝜕𝑧
For an ideal gas, z =1 and (𝜕𝑝) = 0, therefore:
𝑇
1
𝑐𝑔 = 2.26
𝑃

If the relationship between the z-factor and pressure at a given temperature is known, we can
calculate the compressibility of gas.
Since we already know the relationship between z and p, we can numerically calculate the
derivative and, hence, the value of the compressibility.
Equation 2.25 can be conveniently expressed in terms of the pseudoreduced pressure and
temperature by simply replacing p with (ppc , ppr ), or:

1 1 ∂z
cg = − [ ]
Ppr Ppc z ∂(ppr Ppc )
Tpr

Multiplying the above equation by ppc yields:

1 1 ∂z
cg Ppc = cpr = − ( ) 2.27
ppr z ∂ppr
Tpr

The term 𝑐𝑝𝑟 is called the isothermal pseudo-reduced compressibility and is defined by the
relationship

cpr = cg ppc 2.28

Where:
cpr = isothermal pseudo-reduced compressibility
cg = isothermal gas compressibility, psi–1
ppc = pseudo-reduced pressure, psi

∂z
Values of (∂p ) can be calculated from the slope of the Tpr isotherm on the Standing and
pr Tpr
Katz z-factor chart.

2.8 Gas Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal fluid friction (resistance) to flow. If the
friction between layers of the fluid is small, i.e., low viscosity, an applied shearing force will
result in a large velocity gradient. As the viscosity increases, each fluid layer exerts a larger
frictional drag on the adjacent layers and velocity gradient decreases.
The viscosity of a fluid is generally defined as the ratio of the shear force per unit area to the
local velocity gradient.

𝐹
µ= 𝐴
𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝐿
The viscosity, µ, as defined is called dynamic viscosity. In addition, the ratio of the dynamic
viscosity of a fluid to its density, known as kinematic viscosity (ʋ), is also used in many flow
problems:
µ
ʋ=
𝜌
Viscosities are expressed in terms of poises, centipoise, or micro poises. One poise equals a
viscosity of 1 dyne-sec/cm2 and can be converted to other field units by the following
relationships:

1 poise =100 centipoise

=1 × 106 micro poises
=6.72 × 10−2 lb mass/ft-sec
=2.09 × 10−3 lb-sec/ft2
If the analysis of a gas is known, it is possible to calcu1ate the viscosity of the gas mixture
from the component viscosities. First, the viscosity is determined at one atmosphere (or any
"low" pressure) and the given temperature using the Herning and Zipperer (1936) mixing rule:

∑𝑛𝑖=1 µ1𝑔 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖0.5

𝑖
µ1𝑔 =
∑𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖 𝑀𝑖0.5
𝑛

Where, 𝑦𝑖 = mole fraction of component i in the gas mixture, µ1𝑔 = pure component viscosity
𝑖
at 1 atmosphere pressure and the temperature of interest.
The gas viscosity is a function of temperature, pressure, and molecular weight (gas gravity).
µg = f(p, t, yi )

The viscosity of gases increases as temperature increases and is approximately proportional to

the square root of temperature. This is due to the increase in the frequency of intermolecular
collisions at higher temperatures. Since most of the time the molecules in a gas are flying freely
through the void, anything that increases the number of times one molecule is in contact with
another will decrease the ability of the molecules as a whole to engage in the coordinated
movement. The more these molecules collide with one another, the more disorganized their
motion becomes.
 3 Gas Calorimetry

The heating value of natural gas determines its value as a fuel and under many recent contracts
it determines the sales price. As a result, the determination of heating value has become
important economically. The gas processors association established a standard for calculation
of gross heating values from compositional analysis. The 1984 standard was revised in 1986.
Consequently, the gas production engineer must have an elementary knowledge of the
calculation procedures.
A British thermal unit Btu, is equal to 1055.055 joule. It has been described as the quantity of
heat that must be added to one pound of pure water to raise its temperature from 58.5 to 59.5○ F
under standard pressure. The description is included to give an idea as to the magnitude of a
Btu.
Calorific value (CV) is a measure of heating power and is dependent upon the
composition of the gas. The CV refers to the amount of energy released when a known
volume of gas is completely combusted under specified conditions. The CV of gas, which
is dry, gross and measured at standard conditions of temperature (15○ C) and pressure
(1013.25 millibars), is usually quoted in megajoules per cubic metre (MJ/m3). Gas
passing through our pipeline system has a CV of 37.5 MJ/m3 to 43.0 MJ/m3.
The total or gross heating value or total or gross calorific value is the number of Btu’s evolved
by the complete combustion at constant pressure of one cubic foot with air, with temperature
of the gas, air, and products of combustion at 60○ F and all the water formed by the combustion
and originally in the gas as a vapour being condensed to liquid state. Under this definition water
vapour that may have been originally in the gas or formed as a result of the combustion
contributes to the gross heating value because the condensation of water vapor to the liquid
state releases heat. At 14.696 psia and 60○ F the heat released from condensation of water
vapour is 50.4 Btu per cubic foot of ideal gas.
The CV of natural gas is measured continually, using process gas chromatographs.
Process gas chromatographs separate natural gas into its constituent compounds (i.e.
methane, ethane, carbon dioxide, etc.) and measures the amount of each in the gas. The
physical characteristics of each component, as defined by ISO 6976, are programmed
into the chromatograph and an overall CV is derived from the measured composition.
A standard cubic foot is the unit volume for purposes of measurement and is one cubic foot of
gas at a temperature base of usually 60○ F and a base pressure of usually 14.65, 14.696, 14.73,
or 15.025 psia.
One standard cubic foot of gas in equilibrium with liquid water contains water vapor in the
volume ratio that the partial pressure of the water vapor bears to the standard pressure.
Thus, at 60○ F and 14.696 psia:
Vapour pressure of water at 60○ F = 0.25636 psia
Water vapour mole fraction = 0.25636/14.696 = 0.01744
Gas mole fraction = (14.696 – 0.25636)/14.696 = 0.98256
 4 Solved example
Example 2-1
Three pounds of n-butane are placed in a vessel at 120°F and 60 psia. Calculate the volume of
the gas assuming an ideal gas behaviour. Given the molecular weight of n-butane M=58:123.

Solution
for the volume of gas:

Example 2-2
Using the data given in the above example, calculate the density of n-butane.

Solution
Solve for the density by applying Equation 2.14

Example 2-3
A gas well is producing gas with a specific gravity of 0.65 at a rate of 1.1 MMscf/day. The
average reservoir pressure and temperature are 1,500 psi and 150°F. Calculate:
a. Apparent molecular weight of the gas
b. Gas density at reservoir conditions
c. Flow rate in lb/day
Solution
a. From Equation 2.6, solve for the apparent molecular weight:

b. Apply Equation 2.14 to determine gas density:

c. Step 1. Because 1 lb-mol of any gas occupies 379.4 scf at standard conditions, then
the daily number of moles that the gas well is producing can be calculated from:

Step 2. Determine the daily mass m of the gas produced:

a. Apply Equation 2.5 to calculate the apparent molecular weight:

Ma =18:42

b. Calculate the specific gravity by using Equation 2.7:

𝛾𝑔 = (Ma / 28:96) = (18:42 / 28:96) = 0:636

c. Solve for the density by applying Equation 2.14:

d. Determine the specific volume from Equation 2.19:

Step 1. Determine the pseudo-critical pressure from Equation 2.8:

𝑃𝑝𝑐 = 666.18

Step 2. Calculate the pseudo-critical temperature from Equation 2.8:

𝑇𝑝𝑐 = 383: 38

Step 3. Calculate the pseudo-reduced pressure and temperature by applying Equations 2-9,
respectively:
3000
𝑃𝑝𝑟 = = 4.50
666.18
640
𝑇𝑝𝑐 = = 1.67
383.38

Step 4. Determine the z-factor from Figure 2-1, to give:

𝑧 = 0.85
Example 2-6
A hydrocarbon gas mixture has a specific gravity of 0.72. Calculate the isothermal gas
compressibility coefficient at 2000 psia and 140°F by assuming:
a. An ideal gas behaviour
b. A real gas behaviour
Solution

Assuming an ideal gas behaviour, determine 𝑐𝑔 by applying Equation 2.26:

1
𝑐𝑔 = = 500 × 10−6 𝑝𝑠𝑖 −1
2000
Assuming a real gas behaviour

Step 1. Calculate Tpc and ppc by applying Equations 2-10 and 2-11

Step 2. Compute ppr and 𝑇𝑝𝑟 from Equations 2.8

Step 3. Determine the z-factor from Figure 2.1:

𝑧 = 0.78
𝜕𝑧
Step 4. Calculate the slope [𝜕𝑝 ] :
𝑝𝑟 𝑇𝑝𝑟 =1.52

𝜕𝑧
[ ] = −0.022
𝜕𝑝𝑝𝑟 𝑇
𝑝𝑟

Step 5. Solve for 𝑐𝑝𝑟 by applying Equation 2.27:

Step 6. Calculate 𝑐𝑔 from Equation 2.28:

0.3627
cg = = 543 × 10−6 psi−1
668.4
Example 2-7
A gas well is producing at a rate of 15,000 ft3/day from a gas reservoir at an average pressure
of 2,000 psia and a temperature of 120°F. The specific gravity is 0.72. Calculate the gas flow
rate in scf/day.

Solution
Step 1. Calculate the pseudo-critical properties from Equations 2.10, and 2.11, to give:

TPc = 395: 5∘ R , Ppc = 668: 4 psia

Step 2. Calculate the ppr and 𝑇𝑝𝑟 :

Step 3. Determine the z-factor from Figure 2-1:

Z=0:78
Step 4. Calculate the gas expansion factor from Equation:
P
Eg = 35.37 , 𝐬𝐜𝐟/𝐟𝐭 𝟑
zT

2000 scf
Eg = 35.37 = 151.15 3
(0.78)(600) ft
Step 5. Calculate the gas flow rate in scf/day by multiplying the gas flow rate (in ft3/day) by
the gas expansion factor 𝐸𝑔 as expressed in scf/ft3:

Gas flow rate = (151.15) (15,000) = 2.267 MMscf/day