AQEx Review – Building Utilities 3

Building Utilities 3 - Lighting and Acoustic

ACOUSTICS AND LIGHTING - DEFINITION OF TERMS

Sound – a physical wave, or mechanical vibration, or a series of pressure variations, in

an elastic medium. Architecturally defined as an audible signal.

Longitudinal Waves - particles of the medium through which the sound is transported
vibrate parallel to the direction that the sound wave moves.

Transverse Waves - oscillations that are perpendicular to the direction of the wave.

Sound Level – the measure in terms of strength of the sound. (Energy, strength,
amplitude, loudness)

Amplitude – determines the loudness of a sound by the height of a sound wave form to
its peak to its valley.

Wavelength - the distance between identical points (adjacent crests) in the adjacent
cycles of a waveform signal propagated in space or along a wire.

Frequency – the pitch of a sound by its wavelength from one peak to another. (Pitch,
tone, wavelength)

Decibel – unit of measure of sound.

Vibration Intensity – measure of intensity of the vibration or shaking of a surface or

material.

Pitch – frequency of sound.

Hertz (Hz) – frequency of vibration.

Pure Tone – vibration produced at a single frequency.

Propagation – travel of sound waves from the vibrating material towards the surfaces it
is facing. (Path, elapsed time)

Reflection (sound) – bouncing back of sound waves from the surface.

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Refraction (sound) – bending of sound waves owing it to changes in the wave’s speed.

Diffraction (sound) – bending or spreading out of a sound wave in a single medium, in

which the speed of sound is constant.

Sound Absorption - the loss of sound energy when sound waves come into contact with
an absorbent material such as ceilings, walls, floors and other objects.

Room Noise Reduction - Adding carpet, plush furniture, window trimmings and even
plants can turn a hard, flat room into a softer, quieter area.

Reverberation Time (RT) - the time required for the sound in a room to decay over a
specific dynamic range, usually taken to be 60 dB, when a source is suddenly interrupted.

Sound Path Difference - the difference in distance traveled by the two waves from their
respective sources to a given point on the pattern.

Formula: X = (a + b) – c

Flutter – a buzzing/clicking sound comprised of repeated echoes traversing back and

forth between two reflective surfaces.

Range of sound for human ear – 20-20000 Hz.

Ultrasonic – more than 20000 Hz.

Convex – having an outline or surface curved like the exterior of a circle or sphere. A
curved surface best for sound diffusion.

Concave - having an outline or surface that curves inward like the interior of a circle or
sphere.

Ellipse – a two-dimensional shape, that is defined along its axes.

Parabola – Shape of a room with one focus point.

Luminous Flux (Φ) - quantity of light emitted by a source. (Unit: Im Lumen)

Luminous Efficiency – ratio of the luminous flux to the electrical power consumed
(lm/W).
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Luminous Intensity (I) – quantity of light that is radiated in a particular direction.

Luminaire – a complete electric light unit.

I. SOUND

Sound – made when an oscillating membrane disturbs the molecules in an elastic

medium – and that disturbance is heard. Elastic Medium may be solids or liquids, but air
is often used in architectural acoustics.

Three characteristics that describe the physics of sound:

• Sound level
• Frequency
• Propagation

Frequency – number of repeating sound pressure waves per second. (Hz – Hertz)

(See link for example of frequency: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qNf9nzvnd1k )

• Pitch – perceived frequency.

• Hertz (Hz) – frequency of vibration.
• Pure Tone – vibration produced at a single frequency.
Formula to get the period corresponding to a frequency of vibration:

• Phreaking – fraudulent manipulation of telephone signaling in order to make free

phone calls.

Sound Propagation – travel of sound waves in a medium. Waves can be:

• Reflected
• Refracted
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• Attentuated

Amplitude – determined by the magnitude of pressure fluctuation.

➢ Decibel – unit used to measure differences or to measure sound.

- named after Alexander Bell (inventor of the telephone)
- has two aspects: (1) ratio of measurement of energies or powers, and
(2) it is logarithmic.

II. SOUND THEORY

Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

• Plane Wave – sound waves propagating parallel to each other. (Ex. Sound wave
produced by a piston oscillating in a long cylinder.)
• Diverging Wave – sound waves spreading in a greater area as it propagates from
away from the source. (Ex. Speaker shouting through a cone in an auditorium.)
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• Spherical Wave – sound waves equally radiated in all directions. (Ex. Sound waves
propagating outwards from a source at mid-depth in the ocean.)
• Progressive Wave – sound waves’ propagation have transfer of energy in their
direction.
• Standing Wave – combination of two waves moving in opposite directions, each
having the same amplitude and frequency.

Velocity of Sound Waves Propagation

Airborne Sound – travels 1130 ft/s under normal temperature and air pressure.

III. WAVELENGTH

Wavelength – distance from one crest to another, or trough to another; the distance a
sound wave travels from one cycle of vibration to another.

The relationship between λ, f (frequency), and c is:

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C=λ*f

Where:

λ = wavelength (ft)

f = frequency (Hz)

And to find the wavelength of a sound in air at a specific frequency, use the formula:

λ = 1130 / f

IV. SOUND ABSORPTION

Sound Absorbing Treatment – reduction of sound levels with fibrous ceiling boards,
curtains, and carpets.

Types of Sound Absorbers:

- Porous and fibrous membrane/panels.

• Glass fiber
• Mineral fiber
• Fiberboard
• Acoustical ceiling tile
• Cotton
• Pressed wood shavings (oriented to foster pores)
• Velour
• Felt
• Open-celled foams

Sound Absorption Coefficient (SAC)

Sabines/sabins – unit of measurement for total absorption in a room (room

constant).

Formula:

A room constant = α1s1 + α2s2 + α3s3 + … and so on

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Where A = room constant.

α = absorption coefficient of surface

s = surface area

Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC)

Noise Reduction Coefficient – arithmetic average, rounded off to the nearest

multiple of 0.05, of the sound absorption coefficients (α) at 250, 500, 1000, and 2000 Hz
for a specific material and mounting condition.

Formula:

NRC = (α250 + α500 + α1000 + α2000) / 4

Where NRC = noise reduction coefficient (decimal percent)

α = sound absorption coefficient (decimal percent)

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Sound Absorption Data

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AQEx Review – Building Utilities 3
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Room Noise Reduction

The difference in decibels in reverberant noise levels, or noise reduction, under
two conditions of room absorption (commonly referred to the before and after treatment
of a room for sound absorption).

Formula:

NR = 10 log (α1 / α2)

Where NR = noise reduction (dB)

α1 = total room absorption before treatment (sabins)

α2 = total room absorption after treatment (sabins)

Pointers for sound absorption:

1. Apply sound-absorbing materials on surfaces that produce or allow echoes and

excessive reverberation. (Example: Acoustic ceiling tiles and fibrous acoustic wall
panels in a recording studio.)
a. Ceilings – use sound-absorbing materials (fibrous/porous) to control
excessive noise in a room. It may be an alternative to carpet flooring and
acoustic wall paneling.
b. Walls – taller walls allow more reflection of sound waves per surface
area. Application of sound-absorbing materials, especially in taller
rooms, will control the excess reverberation.
c. Flooring – carpet finish is commercially available and typically helps in
room noise reduction. (Notice how libraries and offices are often
designed with carpet flooring.)
2. Not all surfaces need sound absorption. Certain areas allow reflection of sound
which can be beneficial, as long as the materials’ sound absorption coefficient is
below 0.20. (Example: Ceiling in an auditorium, especially above the lectern/stage
to allow sound reflection towards the audience.)
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3. Mounting methods are important in the installation of sound-absorbing materials

for efficiency. Mechanical fasteners (nails, nuts, bolts, etc) are not recommended
as they are poor absorbers of low-frequency sound. Furring supports (often used
in suspended ceiling systems) are more recommended. On another note, it is best
to heed the recommendations of the materials’ manufacturers.
4. Practical room noise reduction limit is between 3 to 6 decibels from adding sound-
absorption materials. It is better to do more than have less in this case as it will
require more materials to achieve the minimum.

V. REVERBERATION TIME

Reverberation – persistence of sound. “Duration of audibility of residual sound.” –

Wallace Clement Sabine.

Formula:

RTReverberation Time = (0.161 * V volume in cu. m.) / (α1s1 + α2s2 + α3s3)

Or

RTReverberation Time = 0.161 (V volume in cu. m. / A room constant)

Where RT = Reverberation Time

V = volume of space in cubic meter

A = room constant

Or

α = coefficient of the material

s = surface area of the material

The result should be in seconds at 500Hz or 1000Hz (Hz may vary according to
the corresponding coefficients.

Pointers for reverberation time:

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1. Sound waves are reflected, refracted, diffused, absorbed, or affected by the

outermost (visible) surface they interact with. Use the area and coefficients of the
materials of these surfaces.
2. Precision in the calculation is only necessary according to the function of the room.
Proceed with accurate variables in spaces requiring amplified sound reflection or
improved noise reduction. Other spaces without such requirement may omit
variables of surfaces smaller than a door (such as lighting fixtures, handles, etc)
from the equation.
3. Substitution of material according to similar qualities is allowed especially in cases
where certain (sound absorption) materials were not provided with their respective
coefficients.
4. It is allowable to average two materials’ absorption data when identifying which is
best for substitution is uncertain.
5. Be accurate when calculating the room’s volume, regardless of the irrelevance of
certain surfaces’ absorption coefficients and areas.
6. Include miscellaneous surfaces, such as the edges of the seating blocks of the
audience, in the calculating the total audience surface area. In this regard, also
consider the length of the aisle between the seating blocks as they are surfaces
exposed to the sound waves.
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VI. ROOM ACOUSTICS

ORIENTATIONS

Front (at 0°): Audiences are preferred to be placed in front of the speaker for louder
speech sufficiency.

Sides (at 90°): Audiences at the sides or 90° of the speaker’s orientation have lower
speech sufficiency. Higher frequencies are diminished by 6dB.

Rear (at 180°): Audiences at the rear or 180° of the speaker’s orientation have lowest
speech sufficiency. Frequencies are diminished by 20dB.

AUDIENCE SEATING

• Sound falls lower in distance. The audience farthest from the speaker would find it
harder to hear them.

• Sound propagation in outdoor spaces, with no material sound reflectors within the
perimeter, will lower the sound’s energy. Installation of hard sound-reflecting
enclosures will help reflect sound from the speaker towards the audience and block
exterior noise away from the space, under the right orientation.
• Audience attenuation is when the sound loses energy from the seated audience
as the waves are refracted or absorbed by their material.
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• Overhead sound reflecting surfaces (such as ceilings) will help reflect sound
propagating from the speaker to the audience. An example would be the use of
sound-reflecting materials on auditorium ceilings with sloped seating for the
audience.
• Sloped audience-seating allows better audio and visuals.

SIGHT LINE BASICS

1. The audience should have a straight and unobstructed sight line from their seats
to the stage. This sight line can also be a reference for the propagation of sound.
2. Allow staggered audience seating to maximize open audio and visuals.
3. Eye height should be at least 44” or 112cm from the floor level.

SIGHT LINE LAYOUTS

1. View angle is measured from the perpendicular at the end of the proscenium
opening.
- Proscenium theaters normally have view angles of 30°.
2. Floor and balcony slopes should be designed to allow maximum (unobstructed)
view of the performance area (stage).
- Balconies should not have an excessive floor slope (>26°).
- Top balcony should not be more than 65 ft above the stage (to avoid
vertigo).
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RAY DIAGRAM

Ray Diagram – an acoustical analogy to the specular reflection of light where the
angle of incidence <i of an impinging sound wave equals the angle of reflection <r, with
angles measured perpendicular to the surface.

Limitations:

• Sound reflects in the manner indicated by ray diagrams only when surface
dimensions are large relative to the wavelength λ of sound being evaluated (> 4
λ).
• Sound sources in a room can be in multiple points rather than be in a fixed position.
It is best to design the room with a ray diagram that follows multiple areas of sound
sources.

SOUND PATH DIFFERENCE

Path Difference = reflected path – direct path

Formula:

X = (a + b) – c

Where X is the Sound Path Difference

a and b are the reflected paths

c is the direct path

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REFLECTION, DIFFUSION, DIFFRACTION

• Reflection – return of sound wave from a surface. It is when a

sound wave bounces from a reflective surface.
X > 4λ
Where X is the dimension of the surface
λ is the wavelength
• Diffusion – scattering of sound from a surface. It occurs when
the surface is comparable to the wavelength of the sound.
(Note: Diffusion is not the breaking up of sound. It simply
scatters or randomly redirects/redistributes the sound
elsewhere).
X=λ
• Diffraction – bending or flowing of sound waves around objects
or through (small) openings. This occurs when the dimension of
a surface is smaller than the wavelength. (Note: It is
recommended for surfaces to have dimensions larger than the
wavelength of sounds or noises to be minimized).
X<λ
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PATTERNS OF REFLECTED SOUND

1. Concave Reflector – surface is curved

inwards to focus reflected sound under a
concentrated path towards its focused area.
Note that these can poorly distribute sound.
(Keyword: Focus, least effective in sound
distribution).
Ex. Curved surfaces at the rear walls of an
auditorium.

2. Flat Reflector – a regular even (oftentimes

smooth) surface that effectively distributes
reflected sound. Note that flat reflectors can
be tilted at an angle to reflect sound towards
the target. (Keywords: Leveled, Even,
Smooth, generally effective in sound
distribution).
Ex. Lecture rooms with flat and regular walls
and tilted ceilings.
3. Convex Reflector – a surface curved outwards
to greatly reflect sound. Note that this is highly
desirable for spaces intended for musical
engagement as sound is evenly distributed at a
wide range of frequencies. (Keywords: Wide,
most effective in sound distribution).
Ex. Curved ceilings in a music room.
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ECHOES

Echoes – repetition of the original sound. Echoes in speech should have time
intervals of 60 ms (about 1/17 seconds) between the direct and reflected sound.
These are potentially produced by flat or concave rear walls focusing reflected
sound back to the audience and speaker, or high vaulted (concave) ceilings.

Echo Control Principles

The trick in auditoriums is to
allow sound to propagate from the
front (stage) to the rear (back of
audience). Reduce the sound
reflected from the rear back to the
front which causes echoes.
- Apply sound absorbing
materials on echo-
producing surfaces.
(Rear walls, high ceilings,
etc)
- Front portion of the ceiling
can be lowered and
reoriented to prevent or
reduce the delayed
reflections.
- Sidewalls can be reoriented to allow sidewall lateral reflections, which
add strength to direct sound.

Flutter Echo – repetitive interreflection of sound waves in a space between parallel

surfaces or with a concave sound-reflecting surface. This can be avoided by
installing sound-absorbing materials on the surfaces, or by designing them with
bumps, holes, and other irregularities to break the smooth surface.

Ex. Noise in corridors, domes, etc.

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Pitched-Roof Flutter Echo – flutter echo in rooms with non-parallel surfaces.

Resonance – a phenomenon where a sound produced vibrates at the same rate

of another sound wave (typically from another source), making the sounds louder.
This commonly occurs in small rooms with highly sound-reflecting surfaces (such
as bathrooms).

Notes:

▪ You can minimize sound-reflecting surfaces in a room by applying

sound-absorbing materials on two (2) adjacent walls. This is
commonly used in small music rooms.
▪ You can use full curtains as alternatives to sound-absorbing
materials. Fabric curtains are fibrous and help in absorbing sound.
▪ You can put airspaces/air pockets between sound-absorbing
surfaces and the wall behind them to increase low-frequency
absorption. (Reduces “boominess”).
▪ Irregular shaped sound-reflecting surfaces (cylindrical, triangular,
etc) help in sound-diffusion.
▪ In irregular-shaped rooms, you can follow the application of two (2)
adjacent walls with sound-absorption, or resort to application on the
ceiling and floors.

VII. LIGHTING
1. Daylighting – excellent light source for almost all interior spaces. Natural light/ing.
Sunlight – solar light emitted by the sun which travels from East to West
from the Earth’s perspective. The sun’s path travels through the southern
sky as seen from the northern hemisphere.
Skylight – sunlight scattered in the atmosphere.

Notes:

o Stimulates human visual system.

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o Allows better performance in tasks through enhanced visual access in

interior spaces.
o Excessive daylight can lead to discomfort. Minimize glares, distracting
lights, and the likes as they can lead to medical complications such as eye
strains. Exercise proper limitations for best results.
o Certain openings (doors and windows) can prevent excessive ultra-violet
rays from harming the skin.
Problems and issues of daylighting include:
o Glares from direct lighting. (Which can lead to health concerns).
o Permitting daylight into a given space also allows heat load, leading to
thermal discomfort.
o Windows allow visual access from exterior to interior and vice versa. This
can cause privacy issues concerning the safety of the users.

CONCEPTS:
a. Top Lighting – daylighting that behaves like electric lighting by radiating light
downward.
Examples:
▪ Skylight – a horizontal (sometimes diagonal) glazing that allows
direct solar and sky radiation into an interior space. These
fenestrations are typically overhead.
▪ Single Clerestory – can produce both direct and indirect lighting by
introducing light through a vertical overhead window (usually at the
upper area of a wall).
▪ Sawtooth Single Clerestory - can produce both direct and indirect
lighting but reflecting majority of the light on an adjacent slanted
ceiling.
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▪ Monitor or Double Clerestory – allows abundant daylight through

overhead vertical fenestrations on two or more sides. This is
recommended for permitting natural lighting from multiple directions.

b. Side Lighting – allows natural light into an interior space through vertical
fenestrations. It permits brighter and a more direct lighting into a room. Side
lighting windows also allow visual access (view).
External Shadings:
▪ Soffit – an overhanging element (typically a roof) that provides
shade. This is similar to an awning, but this is an extension of the
roof.
▪ Low-e glazing – has two or more glass panels, with one reflecting
infrared and ultra-violet rays while allowing visible light to enter
through.
▪ Awning – extension from the wall to provide shading. These are
typically added along the faces of a building that receives direct
sunlight, such as the East and West sides.
▪ Light shelf – an extension that provides both shading at the bottom
of the space, and indirect lighting at the ceiling.

Internal Shadings:

▪ Blinds – structured window treatment with slats that can be tilted

open or closed to block excess external light.
▪ Curtains – window covering made of thin fabric.
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▪ Drapes – window covering made of thicker fabric to fully cover the

fenestration.
▪ Shades – single solid window covering usually made of softer
textiles.

TYPES OF DAYLIGHTING:

a. Windows – provides access to both natural lighting and view.

▪ Rule of thumb – daylight can reach a depth of up to twice the height
from the window’s sill to its head.
b. Clerestories – narrow strip of windows at the higher parts of a wall. Provides
more access to daylight, but minimal for view out.
c. Rooflights – glazed opening in the roof of a building. Recommended for
allowing natural light into a large indoor space. (Typical example is skylight).
d. Atria – used to light a central circulation or social area of a building with
natural lighting through a glass roof or wall. (Atrium is singular term).
(Keyword: circulation- like the heart of a human body’s circulatory system).
e. Remote Distribution – provides daylight into spaces having no direct access
to windows or rooflights. (This is recommended for underground spaces
with no windows opening to the surface).
f. Borrowed Light – phenomenon where an interior space is illuminated with
daylight from an adjacent space having windows.
2. Artificial Lighting
o Flame of fire – first artificial light source. (Fire pits, flaming torches, candles,
furnaces, oil lamps, gas lit lamps).
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o Incandescent Gas Light – lamps emitting incandescent light, or the light

emitted by a material due to its high temperature. (19th Century)
o Halogen Light – similar to an incandescent light but is filled with halogen
gas.
o Discharge Lamps – tubes of glass or other suitable materials that contains
gas which produces light when charged by an electric current. (Fluorescent
lamps).

3. Light Sources
Natural Light Sources – occur within nature and are beyond human control.
▪ Sunlight – solar light radiated from the sun.
▪ Moonlight – solar light reflected from the surface of the moon.
▪ Starlight – illumination from clusters of stars in a clear night sky.
▪ Bioluminescence – emission of light from a living organism. (Glowing
plankton, fireflies, deep sea creatures).
▪ Radioluminescence – production of light from the interaction of
ionizing radiation with matter such as alpha particles, beta particles,
and gamma rays.
▪ Fire – result of the combination of enough heat in a fuel with oxygen.

Man-made Light Sources – light sources which can be controlled by people to a

desirable extent.

▪ Man-made fire – burning of flammable materials such as wood, oil,

and the likes.
▪ Electric Lamps – light sources powered by electricity through hollow
tubes with gas.
▪ Photochemical reactions – a chemical reaction through the
absorption of light.

Radiation – energy that travels from a source through a given space at the speed
of light.

▪ Incandescence – radiation from heated atoms.

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▪ Electric Discharges – electric current that flows through gas.

▪ Electroluminescence – emission of light of a semi-conducting
material in an electrical field.
▪ Luminescence – material absorbing radiation then re-emitting it as
light. Also known as fluorescence or photoluminescence.
▪ Radioluminescence – illumination from the activation of energy
through particles or gamma rays emitted by a decaying nucleus of a
radioactive atom.
▪ Cathodoluminescence – an electron, that has been accelerated
away from a cathode, drives a phosphor.
▪ Chemiluminescence – illumination from chemical reactions.
▪ Thermoluminescence – emission of light from heated materials due
to black body radiation.

Electric Light

▪ Incandescent – lamp emitting light from a heated filament.

▪ Tungsten Halogen – give off whiter light and last longer than the
standard incandescent lamps.
▪ Fluorescent – most commonly used form of discharge lamp. Works
by generating ultraviolet radiation in a discharge of low pressure
mercury vapor.
▪ High Pressure Mercury – discharge in a tube of mercury gas at high
pressure.
▪ Metal Halide – developed to improve high-pressure mercury lamps.
Works with the introduction of salts of other metals in the arc tube.
▪ Low Pressure Sodium – similar to fluorescent lamps, but sodium
replaces the mercury discharge of the tube.
▪ High Pressure Sodium – generates light through sodium vapor at a
high pressure.
▪ Induction Lamps – gas discharge lamps that do not have electrodes.
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▪ Light Emitting Diodes (LED) – available in a wide variety of sizes,

color, and power ratings. LEDs have a long life and could last up to
100000 hours.

VIII. Perceptual Psychology

- Lighting allows perception of a shape based on the shadow formation of
an illuminated object or space.
- Lighting highlights details of an object or space.
- Consider light distribution that blends with the architectural structure of
a space to highlight suitable patterns.

• Direct Lighting – illumination of an area or object directly from the source.

• Indirect Lighting – light spread on reflecting surfaces from the source to illuminate
an area or object.
• Semi-Direct Lighting – majority of the light directly illuminates an area or object
from the source, while partial light is also reflected outwards.
• Semi-Indirect Lighting – majority of the light is reflected onto other surfaces before
illuminating a space, while partial light is directed towards the area.
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• Diffused Lighting – light that is softened by reducing or eliminating the intensity

and glare that is usually present in direct lighting.

• Symmetrical Light Distribution – light is evenly distributed in all directions.

• Asymmetrical Light Distribution – light is distributed in a target area or directed
sideways (in an asymmetrical pattern).

Types of Lighting:

1. Ambient Lighting – provides overall lighting in a room. Also known as general

lighting.

2. Task Lighting – provides increased lighting in certain areas of a room where

specific tasks require further illumination.
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3. Accent Lighting – emphasizes objects by directing light towards the area or

object, also called highlighting.

IX. LIGHTING SYSTEMS

• Luminous Flux (Φ) – quantity of light emitted. Unit: lm (Lumen).
• Luminous Efficiency – ratio of luminous flux to the electrical power consumed
(lm/W).
• Luminous Intensity (I) – quantity of light radiated in a particular direction. It is used
to quantify the distribution of light from a luminaire. Unit: cd (Candela).
Formula:
I = Φ (Luminous Flux) / Ω (Solid Angle in sr)
Where I is Luminous Intensity
Φ is Luminous Flux
Ω is Steradian
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Steradian (sr):
Ω = A (area) / R2 (Radius or distance)
Deriving Luminous Flux from Luminous Intensity formula:
I = Φ/ Ω = Φ/4π
Φ = 4 πI
• Illuminance (E) – quantity of luminous flux falling on a surface. Unit: lx (Lux).
Formula:
E = Φ/A
Where E is Illuminance
Φ is Luminance Flux
A is Area
Or
E = I (Luminous Intensity) / R2 (Radius or Distance)
• Luminance (L) – only basic lighting parameter that is perceived by the eye. Unit:
cd/m2
Formula:
L=I/A
Where L is Luminance
I is Luminous Intensity
A is Area
For a diffuse surface:
L = (E x reflectance) / π
Where L is Luminance
E is Illuminance