WORK STUDY THE SYLLABUS

(demonstrated in your project reports)

INTRODUCTION TO WORKSTUDY APPLICATIONS & TECHNIQUES

SECTION 1 SECTION 2

- Intro to Work Study - Work Measurement

- Productivity - PMTS – MTM
- The Human Factor - Synthesis, Analytical Estimation &,
- Working Conditions & Activity Sampling
Environment - MODAPTS
- Method Study - Ergonomics
- Time Study - Value Analysis
- Work Study and Management
- Possibility Guides
 WORK STUDY 203

ACTIVITY SAMPLING
ACTIVITY SAMPLING ( or WORK SAMPLING)
1. Introduced for the first time by L.Tippet in England in 1927, but coined
Work Sampling for the first time by C. L. Brisley in 1952.

2. By Definition:

• Activity sampling is a work measurement technique,

• whereby a number of successive observations are made

• at random intervals over a period of time.

• In taking the observations, the state / condition of one or a group of

workers, machines or processes, is noted.

• This state is classified under categories pertinent to the particular

work situation.

• Inferences are then drawn based on the proportion of time taken by

each resource observed.
ACTIVITY SAMPLING: FOCUS AREAS (AIMS)
1
1. WORKING TIME AND NONWORKING TIME

• The main aim of AS is to determine how long, or how much of

the workday, is spent on specific types of work

2
2. PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT

• Work sampling may identify the fact that certain operators

spend a large portion of their time doing nonproductive work
(e.g., waiting for work, performing paperwork tasks,
performing activities not included in their job descriptions)

3
3. WORK MEASUREMENT

• Establish standard time

 ACTIVITY SAMPLING: ELEMENTS
These are the important components that make up Activity Sampling:

1. The ACTIVITIES BEING STUDIED

2. The REPRESENTATIVE PERIOD

3. The CONFIDENCE LEVEL

4. The ACCURACY

5. The NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS

6. The SPREAD (STRATIFICATION)

7. The OBSERVATION TIMES

ACTIVITY SAMPLING: What are we studying?
▪ Before making our actual observations, decide on:
What the objective of the work sampling is i.e., either:
1
▪ Determining whether a given machine is idle or working i.e.,:

▪ Then extend the above further to find cause of stoppages i.e.,:

1. Machine may have been idle due to?

2. Machine may have been working due to?

 2
ACTIVITY SAMPLING: Example
1
• DATA :
▪ Observed recording of Man working = 36 observations
▪ Observed recording of Man idle = 04 observations
▪ Total observed recording of activity = 40 observations
2
• Solution :
Percentage of;
1. Idle time = (4/40 x 100) = 10%
2. Working time = (36/40 x 100) = 90%

 in an 8hr working day;

1. Operator was idle = (480 x 0.10) = 48 min.,
2. Operator was working = (480 x 0.90) = 432 min.

• What else can you do with the data from the solution? (Costing etc.,?)
ACTIVITY SAMPLING: A Statistical Principle
• Sampling is mainly based on probability. Probability has been defined as
“the degree to which an event is likely to occur”.

• Principle states that the probability of an occurrence actually happening

is higher the more the occurrence happens.
“Imagine the chance of bumping into a model at Saxonwold,
assuming you are not too drunk to notice.”
“But wait do models frequent Saxonwold? You will ask. But of
course, not as often as you, though.”
“But if, over a period of time, you visited Saxonwold as many
times as possible, without actually sleeping there, you are
bound to meet a few ‘hundred’ models, right?”
“If you are lucky that is ☺.”
• Thus, size of a sample is important, and

• We can express our confidence in whether the sample is representative

by using a certain confidence level.
 ACTIVITY SAMPLING: A Statistical Principle
Establishing confidence levels (CL) using the normal distribution (bell) curve:

▪ 68% confidence level (68.27%) of the

area under the curve = 1 σp

▪ 95% confidence level (95.45%) of the

area under the curve = 1.96 σp

▪ 99% confidence level (99.73%) of the

area under the curve = 2.58  3 σp

Example:
Using the 2nd CL, we can say that if we take a large sample at random we can be confident
that in 95 per cent of the cases our observations will fall within ± 1.96 σp
ACTIVITY SAMPLING: Accuracy & Sample size
▪ As well as defining the confidence level for our observations we can also
determine the accuracy (margin of error) that we can allow for these
observations i.e., +/- (5%, 10%, etc…)

▪ Example: Productive time and the idle time of machines in a factory.

▪ There are two methods of determining the sample size that would be
appropriate for this example:

(accurate but tedious & lengthy)

1. the statistical method and

(fastest but less accurate)

2. the nomogram method
ACTIVITY SAMPLING: Accuracy & Sample size
1. Statistical Method (the formulas used in this method are):

𝒑(𝟏−𝒑) 𝒑𝒒
𝑺= or 𝒁. 𝜹𝒑 = (if Z ≈ 1.96 ≈ 2; then)
𝑵𝒑 𝒏

𝒑(𝟏−𝒑)
𝑺=𝟐
𝑵

𝟒𝒑(𝟏−𝒑)
𝑺=
𝑵

▪ Where:
• S is desired accuracy
• δp is standard error
• p is percentage of idle time
• q is percentage of working time
• N  n = Number of observations desired (sample size)
 ACTIVITY SAMPLING: Statistical Example
▪ Assuming 100 random observations were recorded as a preliminary study.

▪ We choose to use a confidence level of 95% with a 10% margin of error.

▪ Data showed:
1. the machine to be idle in 25 per cent of the cases (p = 25), and

2. machine to be working 75 per cent of the time (q = 75).

▪ We now have approximate values for ‘p’ and ‘q’; needed to determine value of ‘n’.

▪ Choosing a confidence level of 95%

with a 10% margin of error @ 2 (or 1.96)
standard deviations,

▪ “Means we are confident that 95% of

the sampled 100 observations will give
us the accuracy we need to ± 10%
margin of error when compared to the
real values.” Is this right or wrong?
Formulas in Activity Sampling Calculations
(Refer to notes on Blackboard)
 ACTIVITY SAMPLING: Nomogram Example
2. Nomogram method

Easier way to
determine sample
size is to simply read
off number of
observations
needed directly
from a nomogram
as shown here in
figure 91 (extract
from your notes).
 ACTIVITY SAMPLING: Use of Random Nos.
(Refer to Table 12)

▪ To ensure that our observations are in fact made at random, we can

use a random table such as the one in table 12.

▪ Example: Assume that our observations are during a day shift of eight
hours, from 7 a.m. to 3 p.m. An eight-hour day has 480 minutes. These
may be divided into 48 ten-minute periods.

▪ We can start by choosing any number at random from our table, for
example by closing our eyes and placing a pencil point anywhere on
the table. Let us assume that in this case we pick, by simple chance,
the number 11 which is in the second block, fourth column, fourth row.

▪ We now choose any number between 1 and 10. Why?

= 11 38 45 87 68 20 11 26 49 05
ACTIVITY SAMPLING: Use of Random Nos.
(Refer to Table 13)

▪ We must discard 87, 68 and 49 because they are too high (since we have only 48 ten-minute
periods, any number above 48 must be discarded).

▪ The second 11 must also be discarded since it is a number that has already been picked out.

▪ We redo selection to replace the four numbers we discarded; we now have 14 15 47 22.

▪ Now re-arranged our final selection. Thus, our smallest number (05) represents the fifth ten-
minute period after the work began at 7 a.m. Thus, our first observation will be at 7.50 a.m. etc.

[(05 – 00) x 10 min.] + 7.00 am =

[(11 – 05) x 10 min.] + 7.50 am =
[(14 – 11) x 10 min.] + 8.50 am =
Etc. …
EXAMPLE OF A WORK SAMPLING SHEET
EXAMPLE OF A WORK SAMPLING SHEET
ACTIVITY SAMPLING: APPLICATION AREAS
Applied in areas where:

1. Improving arrangement of duties & general work organization

2. Identifying areas of improvements & assessing value of

proposed changes

3. Of value in introducing group incentive schemes.

4. Assessing labor requirements to machine utilization

5. Examining the causes of unsatisfactory performance/efficiency

6. Assessing resource (machine) utilization

 ACTIVITY SAMPLING: CHARACTERISTICS
The following are features that distinguishes AS:

1. Work sampling study usually requires a substantially lengthy

period of time to complete. Why?

2. Work sampling is commonly used to study the activities of multiple

resources rather than one. Why?

3. Work under study usually have relatively long cycle times. Why?

4. Mainly applicable where non-repetitive work cycles exist. Why?

 ACTIVITY SAMPLING: ADVANTAGES
1. Can be used to measure activities that are Other lesser-known advantages

impractical to measure by direct observation include:

7. It gives an unbiased result

2. Multiple subjects can be included
since workmen are not under
3. Requires less time and lower cost than close observation.
continuous direct observation
8. The study may be interrupted

4. Training requirements are less compared to at any time without affecting

other PMTS techniques the results.

9. Teamwork can be studied by

5. Less tiresome and monotonous on observer
work sampling and not by the
than continuous observation
time-study.
6. Being a subject in work sampling is less
demanding than being watched continuously
for a long time
 ACTIVITY SAMPLING: DISADVANTAGES
1. Not as accurate for setting time standards as Other lesser-known disadvantages

other work measurement techniques include;

6. Working men may change

2. Usually not practical / economical to study a
normal method of working
single subject or short job cycles
when they see an observer.
3. Work sampling provides less detailed Therefore, the results from the

information about work elements than other work study may not be

PMTS techniques accurate.

7. The sampling observations

4. Since work sampling deals with multiple
are limited / insufficient thus
subjects, individual differences are missed
inaccurate.
5. Workers may be suspicious because they do
8. It normally does not record
not understand the statistical basis of work workers' speed of working.
sampling
 STOP-WATCH
SIMILARITY: TIME STUDY
STOP-WATCH TIME STUDY
Subject to both observer and worker biases
Many trials must be recorded to obtain reliable results
Easy to understand
Hawthorn effect (we tend to behave differently when observed) is
likely to influence results
Accurate timing figures are obtained
Expensive to perform
One on one (observer worker ratio) and therefore labour intensive
Study is continuous uninterrupted process
Tedious to perform
Creates a systematic understanding of job tasks, facilitating setting
of best methods which aids in the development of training programs
The quality of the work produced can be taken into consideration
If more than 1 observer is used, different rating may discredit results
Cyclic variations are not as well compensated for
Helps to identify labour costs
Analyst does not move between workers
Requires extensive knowledge and understanding of the task
to ACTIVITY SAMPLING
ACTIVITY SAMPLING
The effect of biases is limited because it is only present when
performance ratings are selected
Many observations are required for accurate results
Statistical basis of the study may be difficult for workers &
management to comprehend
Hawthorne effect is less likely to influence results due to the large
number of observations made
Enough samples need to be made to ensure that the desired
accuracy of the final results is achieved
Far less expensive to perform
One observer can perform studies of different workers. Fewer
observers required
Study can be interrupted any time with small effect on the results
It is not as tedious to perform as the observer moves between
workers to make observations
Provides no specific information about the job
AS does not give any measure of the quality of the work performed
If > 1 observer is used, different levels of detail may weaken results
Observations can be made over an extended time period which
decreases the effects of cyclic variations
Helps to identify labour costs
Not an economical solution if workers are spread over a wide area
Does not require an understanding of the task
 STEPS TO ACTIVITY SAMPLING: Summary
1. DEFINE THE PROBLEM
1
• Resource comparison
2
• Resource time proportions
2, 3
• Assess resource utilisation
2. DESIGN OBSERVATION SHEET
• (Refer to lecture 11 pg. 4)
3. SELECT FREQUENCY OF JOB (repetitive / non repetitive)
• Is it a day-to-day observation or
• Job / activity related observation
4. DETERMINE THE PERIOD OF OBSERVATION (observation times)
• i.e., if a day = 480 min, job cycle = 5 min.  a day = 480/5 = 96 obs.
• Use random tables to determine random times (lect. 10 pg. 10-13)
 STEPS TO ACTIVITY SAMPLING: Summary
5. ESTIMATE THE NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS NEEDED
• State your confidence level (95%) & your accuracy level (+/- 5%)
• Collect a preliminary (test) sample of 50 observations
• Populate probability of occurrences ‘p’ or ‘q’ (whichever is applicable)
• Use minimum or maximum ‘p’ depending on your problem statement.
• Set expected no. of observations to complete the study
• Using formulae N = [4(1-p)] / S2p
(Note: use min. or maximum ‘p’ depending on your problem statement)
6. STATE YOUR EXPECTED PROJECT COMPLETION TIME
• (Refer to lecture 11 pg. 17-26)

7. TEST YOUR SAMPLE ACCURACY

• Using total ‘N’, start study subtracting and testing every day's study to
ensure samples are accurate.
• Using formulae s=square of {[4(1-p)] / Np}
 ACTIVITY SAMPLING: ELEMENTS
To summaries, these are the important components that make up Activity
Sampling:

1. The ACTIVITIES BEING STUDIED

2. The REPRESENTATIVE PERIOD

3. The CONFIDENCE LEVEL

4. The ACCURACY

5. The NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS

6. The SPREAD (STRATIFICATION)

7. The OBSERVATION TIMES

 Self Study Example (Refer to Blackboard)
Question:
“There has been a long-standing argument that a large percentage of nurses’ time in a – hospital is spent
on non-nursing activities. The problem here is that this, creates an apparent shortage of well-trained
nursing personnel, a corresponding loss of efficiency, and increased hospital costs because nurse’s wages
are the highest single cost in the operation of the hospital. Further, pressure is growing for hospitals and
hospital administrators to contain/control costs. With that in mind, let us use activity sampling to test the
hypothesis that ‘a large portion of nurses’ time is spent on non-nursing duties’.”
The following assumptions will apply:
1. At the outset that we have made a list of all the activities that are part of nursing and will make our
observations in only two categories: nursing and non-nursing activities. (NB: An expanded study
could list all nursing activities to determine the portion of time spent in each.) Therefore, when we
observe nurses during the study and find them performing one of the duties on the nursing list, we
simply place a tally mark/tick in the nursing column. If we observe a nurse doing anything besides
nursing, we place a mark in the non-nursing column.
2. Assume that the nursing supervisor estimate that nurses spend 60% of their time on nursing
activities. Meaning, if our study shows nurses spend 60 percent of their time on nursing duties, we
are 95 percent confident that the true percentage lies between 57 and 63 percent. Using the
formulas, we derived earlier; determine what the ‘N’ number of observations are required for 60
percent activity time and 5% error.
 RECAP

What have we learnt today

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