Assignment Papers 2 Semister III

BHABHA UNIVERSITY
MEd - Semester - III, 2023

EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH – II – MED - 302
Assignments Paper-2
Q 1. What do you mean by descriptive research? Describe its main aims and steps.
Ans.
One of the basic functions of research is to understand the nature of the problem and to identify
various factors that contribute towards the occurrence of events. Descriptive Surveys are prominent
methods of conducting exploratory research around social sciences. Moreover, in the field of education
you will come across a large majority of descriptive studies / surveys conducted all over the world. This
unit will be devoted to the conceptual clarity of descriptive surveys and procedural details of
conducting different kinds of surveys in education viz., census survey, sample survey, cross section
survey, longitudinal survey, comparative survey, evaluation studies and document analysis.
The terminology of descriptive survey research is designed to obtain pertinent and precise information
concerning the existing status of phenomena and, whenever possible, to draw valid generalizations for
the facts discovered without making any interference or control over the situation. Such type of study
is restricted not only to fact finding but may often result in the formulation of important principles of
knowledge and solution of significant problems concerning local, state, national and international
issues.
Descriptive surveys collect and provide three types of information:
 of what exists with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

 of what we went by identifying standards or norms with which to compare the present
conditions or what experts consider to be desirable; and
 of how to achieve a goal, by exploring possible ways and means based on the experience of
others or opinions of experts.
Descriptive research surveys investigate phenomena in their natural setting. Their purpose is both
immediate and long range. They constitute a primitive type of research, and do not aspire to develop
an organized body of scientific laws. Such surveys, however, provide information useful to the solution
of problems and at times provide data to form the basis of research of a more fundamental nature.
Descriptive research survey is most popular in educational research. It provides a sound database for
other kinds of research. As discussed, in any kind of inquiry the researcher must have a clear
understanding of the situation. Such understanding is based on data based evidence on its present
status, the trend of its development, perception of affected population about the situation or event,
associated events concerned with the situation etc. We conduct an exploratory survey of the present
status of a phenomenon on different components, with a particular perspective and given context of
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events. For example, you may come across the problem of intense absenteeism in your village school.
In the process of arriving at a solution of the problem you will have to understand who are the
absentees? What are their family backgrounds? What are the different causes for their absenteeism?
What do their parents opine about solving the problem? What is the opinion of community members
about it? etc. Such type of problems needs to be understood with supportive empirical evidence.
Hence, understanding of complex problems concerning the education system through surveys are
helpful in generating an information data base, which can form the basis for identifying significant
factors, variables, and trends. Further, such an information base helps us to formulate hypotheses
about relationships of different variables there by leading to the theorization process. It may be
pointed out that descriptive surveys vary greatly in complexity. At one extreme, they constitute nothing
more than a frequency count of events to the study of local problems without any significant purpose.
At the other extreme, they attempt to ascertain significant relationships among phenomena.
Types of Descriptive research
There are different types of descriptive survey studies which can be classified from different angles
such as,
 Census Survey - Census survey means gathering pertinent information about all the units of
population li viz., people, institutions, householders, etc. As you know, population may consist
of persons, institutions, objects, attributes, qualities, families, etc. A population is a well-
defined group of many of these. For instance, the census survey of India, which takes place
once in ten years gathers benchmark data about every household of India. Since it
concentrates on every household it restricts its scope to certain surface level demographic
data like age, sex, income, education, lands possessed, cattle, nature of house, domestic
facilities available, etc. The studies are conducted through quick survey in a stipulated period.
However, coverage of units is very exhaustive.
 Sample Survey - Sample survey means gathering relevant information about a smaller
representation of the population under study. The data gathered through sample survey are
generalized to the population of the study. For example, opinion of a sample of distance
learners drawn from a particular district towards usefulness of media in open and distance b
education can be generalized as opinion of all the distance learners of that district.
Educational research invariably makes use of sample surveys.
 Cross Sectional Survey - Cross sectional survey can be understood as a kind of sample survey
where standardized information is gathered from a sample drawn from a cross section of pre-
determined population at one point of time. Hence, the sample respondents must represent
different distinct segments of population or stages of development of events. The segments
may indicate different stages of school education like primary, secondary and higher or
different modes of education like face-to-face mode and distance mode. It may cover the
schools covered under a specific scheme like mid-day meals and the schools yet to be covered
under the scheme. It may also cover a sample of trained teachers and in service teachers yet
to be trained etc.
 Longitudinal Survey - Through longitudinal surveys one explores the status of variables as
investigated on different points in time in order. Through such studies the changes in the
status of the variables over a period are explored. Time-ordered associations of one variable's
status at different period are also studied. Unlike cross sectional study where past data are
recollected by the respondents at one point in time, the longitudinal study deals with
gathering actual evidence at different points in time in order. Hence, it is assumed that
accuracy of data is ascertained to a higher level in longitudinal studies than that of cross-
sectional time-ordered study.
 Comparative Survey - In comparative survey the purpose is to compare the status of two or
more number of variables, institutions, strategies adopted or groups of respondents etc. In
other words, you may be interested in comparing the achievement level of students enrolled
in two different institutions assuming that the students of the two different institutions
belong to the same population. In another study, you may like to compare the reaction of
teachers serving in government and private management schools towards the leadership
behavior of their principals. Moreover, you may be interested to determine the superior
nature of an innovative teaching-learning strategy adopted in certain schools with a
traditional approach of teaching adopted in the same institutions in terms of achievement of
learners. In such type of studies, you will have to keep three points in mind.
 Evaluative Survey - Evaluative survey is conducted with the purpose of evaluating a program,
a curriculum, policy etc. As you know evaluation means making judgment using terns like
"Effective", "Fruitful", "Appropriateness", Suitability" etc. Hence, when you intend to conduct
empirical studies on identifying effectiveness of any program functioning or program output
you may undertake an evaluative survey. Evaluation studies lead towards arriving at a value
judgment about the worthwhileness of a program or policy or institution.
 Documentary Survey - Various research questions need to be answered through analysis of
data already available in the form of printed text viz., books, official records, research reports,
review articles, research papers, information bulletins, handouts, prospectus, annual reports,
periodicals, progress reports, experience of individuals, news items etc. For instance, the
researcher is interested in comparing the existing status of teacher education programs in
SAARC countries. The researcher makes an analysis of available literature on teacher
education programs of countries under investigation like policy documents on education in
general, and teacher education in specific, curriculum frameworks of teacher education, role
and functions of quality control bodies on education, planning documents on teacher
education, researches conducted on existing practices of teacher education, evaluation
reports on teacher education programs, committee reports, minutes of meetings,
recommendations of education commissions, guidelines and norms prescribed by statutory
bodies in education, recommendations of professional organizations and forums, seminar
reports and proceedings on teacher education etc. There can be innumerable sources of
obtaining 16 documentary evidence and conducting relevant studies.
Main aims of Descriptive research
Descriptive research is aimed at casting light on current issues or problems through a process of data
collection that enables them to describe the situation more completely than was possible without
employing this method.
To put it simply, descriptive studies are used to describe various aspects of the phenomenon. In its
popular format, descriptive research is used to describe characteristics and/or behavior of sample
population. It is an effective method to get information that can be used to develop hypotheses and
propose associations.
Descriptive studies have the following characteristics:
1. While descriptive research can employ several variables, only one variable is required to conduct a
descriptive study.
2. Descriptive studies are closely associated with observational studies, but they are not limited
with observation data collection method. Case studies and surveys can also be specified as popular
data collection methods used with descriptive studies.
3. Findings of descriptive research create a scope for further research. When a descriptive study
answers to the question “What?”, further research can be conducted to find an answer to “Why?”
question.
Steps of Descriptive Research:
The activities of researchers in descriptive studies are:

 Identify and define their problem.
 State their objectives and hypotheses.
 List the assumptions upon which their hypotheses and procedures are based.
 Choose appropriate subjects and source materials.
 Select or construct tools for collecting data.
 Specify categories of data that are relevant for the purpose of the study, and capable of
bringing out significant similarities, differences, or relationships.
 Describe, analyze, and interpret their data in clear and precise terms.
 Draw significant and meaningful conclusions.

Q 2. Explain the meaning and main types of variables and procedure of experimental research.
Ans.
Experimental research is a method of gathering information and data on a subject through observation
in controlled settings Understanding the benefits of experimental research design can help us in many
aspects.
Experimental research is a form of comparative analysis in which we study two or more variables and
observe a group under a certain condition or groups experiencing different conditions. By assessing the
results of this type of study, we can determine correlations between the variables applied and their
effects on each group. Experimental research uses the scientific method to find preferable ways of
accomplishing a task for providing a service.
Experimental research is a scientific method of conducting research using two variables: independent
and dependent. Independent variables can be manipulated to apply to dependent variables and the
effect is measured. This measurement usually happens over a significant period of time to establish
conditions and conclusions about the relationship between these two variables.
Experimental research is widely implemented in education, psychology, social sciences, and physical
sciences. Experimental research is based on observation, calculation, comparison, and logic.
Researchers collect quantitative data and perform statistical analyses of two sets of variables. This
method collects necessary data to focus on facts and support sound decisions. It’s a helpful approach
when time is a factor in establishing cause-and-effect relationships or when an invariable behavior is
seen between the two.
Characteristics Of Experimental Research Design:
The hypothesis is at the core of an experimental research design. Researchers propose a tentative
answer after defining the problem and then test the hypothesis to either confirm or disregard it. Here
are a few characteristics of experimental research:
 Dependent variables are manipulated or treated while independent variables are exerted
on dependent variables as an experimental treatment. Extraneous variables are variables
generated from other factors that can affect the experiment and contribute to change.
Researchers must exercise control to reduce the influence of these variables by
randomization, making homogeneous groups and applying statistical analysis techniques.
 Researchers deliberately operate independent variables about the experiment. This is
known as manipulation.
 Once a variable is manipulated, researchers observe the effect an independent variable has
on a dependent variable. This is key for interpreting results.
 A researcher may want multiple comparisons between different groups with equivalent
subjects. They may replicate the process by conducting sub-experiments within the
framework of the experimental design.
Experimental research is equally effective in non-laboratory settings as it is in labs. It helps in predicting
events in an experimental setting. It generalizes variable relationships so that they can be implemented
outside the experiment and applied to a wider interest group.
Types of experimental design
Pre-experimental research
The simplest type of experimental design is called a pre-experimental research design, and it has many
different manifestations. Using a pre-experiment, some factor or treatment that is expected to cause
change is implemented for a group or multiple groups of research subjects, and the subjects are
observed over a period of time.
Different types of pre-experimental research include:
 One-shot case study design

In this type of design, some type of treatment is applied to a single case study sample group. The group
is then studied to determine whether the implementation of the treatment caused change, by
comparing observations to general expectations of what the case would have looked like had the
treatment not been implemented. There is no control or comparison group.
 One-group pretest-posttest design

This type of design also involves observing one group with no control or comparison group. However,
the group is observed at two points in time: once before the intervention is applied and once after the
intervention is applied. For instance, if you want to determine whether concentration increases in a
group of students after they take part in a study skills course, you might employ this type of
experimental design. Any observed changes in the dependent variable are assumed to be the
consequence of the intervention or treatment.
 Static-group comparison
This type of design compares two groups. One that has experienced some intervention or treatment
and one that has not. If any differences are observed between the two groups, it is presumed to be
because of the treatment.
True experimental research design

A true experimental research design involves testing a hypothesis to determine whether there is a
cause-effect relationship between two or more sets of variables. Although there are a few established
ways to conduct experimental research designs, all share four characteristics:
 There is a treatment group which experiences some treatment or intervention.

 There is a control group, which is not subject to any treatment.
 Subjects are randomly distributed to either the treatment or control group.
 The independent variables (e.g. the treatment or intervention) are manipulated by the
researcher
This type of approach might be used in concept testing, such as comparing the impact of changes of
packaging design among a treatment group and a group that receives the original packaging.
Quasi-experimental research design
Finally, a quasi-experimental research design follows some of the same principles as the true
experimental design, but the research subjects are not randomly assigned to the control or treatment
group. This type of research design often occurs in natural settings, where it is not possible for the
researcher to control the assignment of subjects. An example of a quasi-experimental research design
is a researcher presenting Saturday shoppers at a grocery store with a welcome banner and comparing
their perceptions of how welcoming the store was to those visiting the store on a Tuesday when the
banner was not present.
Steps of experimental research

Now that you know what kinds of experimental designs are available, let’s focus on the steps you
should take to set up your design.
Step 1: establish your question and set variables
In the first stage, establish your research question, and use it to distinguish between dependent and
independent variables.
Independent vs. dependent variables
Independent variables are the variables that will be subjected to some kind of manipulation, and which
are expected to impact the outcome. In contrast, the dependent variables are not manipulated, but
represent the outcome and are expected to be impacted by the independent variables. For instance, if
you are performing ad testing, you might have a research question like this:
 What is the impact of different marketing messages on product appeal among viewers of a
television advert?
From this research question, the independent variable will be different marketing messages, while the
dependent variable will be product appeal.
Step 2: build your hypothesis.
Next, you should state your hypothesis. This should be a specific and testable statement that outlines
what you expect to find, should emerge from your research question, and should be informed by the
results of any previous research. For example, if you are comparing the impact of two different
marketing messages on product appeal, you might state a hypothesis like this:
 Marketing message A will yield higher product appeal among TV ad viewers compared to
marketing message B.
 When stating hypotheses, there are several best practices to follow. The hypothesis:
 Should describe the change you are testing (in our example, “marketing messages”)
 Should describe the impact you expect the change to have (“will yield higher product appeal”)
 Should outline who you expect to be impacted (“TV ad viewers”)
 Should be appropriate and testable for the kind of experimental research design you are
carrying out.
Step 3: designing experimental treatments.
How to manipulate your independent variables

Third, design your experimental treatments. This means manipulating your independent variable(s) in
such a way that different groups of research subjects are exposed to different levels of that variable, or
the same group of subjects is exposed to different levels at different times. For instance, if you’re
interested in learning about whether trying a new eco laundry detergent impacts people’s views
towards sustainability, you might provide some subjects (the treatment group) with the laundry
detergent to use for a certain period of time, while a control group continues to use their regular
detergent.
It is important to note that manipulation of the independent variable must involve the active
intervention of the researcher. If differences in the variable occur naturally (e.g., if a researcher
compares views on sustainability among households who already use eco detergents and those that
use regular detergents), then an experiment has not been conducted. In this case, observed differences
between the two groups might be because of some third, unknown variable that could impact the
cause-effect relationship. For instance, households that contain one green activist may already use eco
detergent, which makes it impossible to determine whether using the eco detergent impacts views on
sustainability (or whether the relationship is in fact, the other way around). In some experiments, the
independent variable can only be manipulated indirectly or incompletely, and in this case, it may be
necessary to perform a manipulation check prior to testing the results: a statistical test that shows that
the manipulation worked as expected.
Internal vs. external validity
When manipulating your variables, you should be aware of the impact on internal validity and external
validity. Internal validity can be understood as credibility and is largely concerned with answering
questions such as, “Do the findings of the study make sense?” and “Are the findings credible?” External
validity, on the other hand, is designed to examine whether the research findings can be transferred to
another setting or context in which data collection did not take place. In other words, research findings
that are externally transferable are generalizable beyond the parameters of the research setting.
How broadly should you test your variables? How finely should you test your variables?
A key question that you will need to address when constructing your variables is how broadly or finely
you should test them. For instance, if you are measuring the appeal of a product, you could ask survey
respondents to assess appeal on a three-point measure, like Appealing, Neither Appealing,
Unappealing, or on a finer tuned 10-point Likert scale measure. Both approaches have benefits and
drawbacks and the approach you should take will depend on what you want to get out of the research.
If you are only interested in whether a product is appealing (or not) and not by how much, it makes
sense to use a broader approach.

Step 4: categorize into treatment groups.
In the next stage of the experimental research design, you should categorize your survey subjects into
appropriate treatment groups. There are many ways that you can do this, but you should be aware that
the approach you use can impact the validity and reliability of the results.
Randomization
There are two main approaches to randomization: a completely randomized design and a randomized
block design.
Completely randomized design
A completely randomized design places random subjects into the treatment or control group. The
reason for randomization is that the experimenter assumes that on average, potentially confounding
variables will affect each condition equally; so that any observed significant differences between the
treatment and control conditions can probably be attributed to the independent variable.
Randomized block design
Using the randomized block design, the researcher first looks for confounding variables, then assigns
subjects to blocks based on that variable, before randomizing subjects to different groups. In our
product appeal study, men and women might find a product appealing for different reasons, so a group
of participants might first be assigned to gender-based blocks, and then randomly assigned to different
treatment groups to ensure gender parity.
Subject design
There are two ways of assigning your research participants to different conditions.
Between-Subjects design
Using the between-subjects research design, different people test each condition, so that each person
is only exposed to a single treatment or condition.
Within-Subjects design
Using the within-subjects, or repeated-measures design, the same group of individuals tests all the
conditions, and the researcher compares the results across each condition.
Control group
For all true experimental research designs, there will be a control group: a set of individuals who are
not subjected to any treatment, or who are instead given a placebo treatment, which enables the
researcher to compare the impact of a treatment or intervention against a neutral group.
Types of Variables in Research
 Qualitative Variables - Qualitative variables are those that express a qualitative attribute, such
as hair color, religion, race, gender, social status, method of payment, and so on. The values of
a qualitative variable do not imply a meaningful numerical ordering.
 Quantitative Variables - Quantitative variables, also called numeric variables, are those
variables that are measured in terms of numbers. A simple example of a quantitative variable is
a person’s age.

 Discrete Variable - Variables such as some children in a household or the number of defective
items in a box are discrete variables since the possible scores are discrete on the scale.
 Continuous Variable - Other variables, such as ‘time required to complete an MCQ test’ and
‘waiting time in a queue in front of a bank counter,’ are continuous variables.
 Independent Variable - The variable that is used to describe or measure the factor that is
assumed to cause or at least to influence the problem or outcome is called an independent
variable.
 Dependent Variable - The variable used to describe or measure the problem or outcome under
study is called a dependent variable.
 Background Variable - These variables are often related to many independent variables, so
they indirectly influence the problem. Hence, they are called background variables.
 Moderating Variable - In any statement of relationships of variables, it is normally

hypothesized that in some way, the independent variable ’causes’ the dependent variable to
occur.
 Extraneous Variable - Most studies concern the identification of a single independent variable
and measuring its effect on the dependent variable. But still, several variables might
conceivably affect our hypothesized independent-dependent variable relationship, thereby
distorting the study. These variables are referred to as extraneous variables.
 Intervening Variable - An intervening variable theoretically affects the observed phenomena

but cannot be seen, measured, or manipulated directly; its effects can only be inferred from
the effects of the independent and moderating variables on the observed phenomena.
 Suppressor Variable - The suppressor variable suppresses the relationship by being positively
correlated with one of the variables in the relationship and negatively correlated with the
other. The true relationship between the two variables will reappear when the suppressor
variable is controlled for.

Q 3. What are the various tools and techniques of data collection? Discuss any two in detail.
Ans.
To get relevant and adequate data it is necessary to use appropriate data collection device(s). The data-
gathering devices that have proven useful in educational research include tools e.g. psychological tests
and inventories, questionnaires, opinionnaires, checklists, rating scales and techniques, namely,
observation, interview, sociogram, content analysis and guess-who technique. A researcher depending
upon the nature of the research may select one of these devices or may employ several of them in
combination. But before selecting the devices, it is also necessary for a researcher to develop skill in
constructing the required devices and using them effectively.
For acquisition of the required data many procedures have been developed to construct different types
of tools. Depending upon the nature of the required data the researcher must decide which tool will be
appropriate under the circumstances. Some tools help in getting descriptive /qualitative data and some
in getting quantitative data.
Following are the major tools for data collection. Afterwards, we will discuss about two of them in
details.
 Questionnaire
 Rating Scale
 Attitude Scales
 Check List
 Tests
 Inventory
Discuss any two in detail.
A: Questionnaire:
A questionnaire is an important instrument in normative-survey research, being used to gather
information from widely scattered sources and used when factual information is desired.
Types or Forms of Questionnaire
1. Structured Vs. Non-structured Questionnaire - A structured questionnaire contains definite,
concrete and directed questions, whereas non-structured one may consist of partially completed
questions or statements. A non-structured questionnaire is often used as the interview guide, which is
nondirective.
2. Closed form Vs. Open form - The questions that call for short check responses are known as
restricted or closed form type. They provide for marking a ' yes or no' short response. It restricts the
choice of response for the respondent. The open form including open end or unrestricted type of
questions calls for a free response in the respondent's own words. No clues are provided. It probably
provides for greater depth of response.
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire
1. A good questionnaire deals with a significant topic so that it enthuses respondent to
give response. Its significance is carefully stated on the questionnaire itself or on its
covering letter.
2. It seeks only that data which cannot be obtained from the resources like books, reports
and records.
3. It is as short as possible, though comprehensive, and clear enough for securing all the
essential information.
4. It is attractive, neatly arranged and clearly duplicated or printed.
5. It contains directions which are clear and complete. Important terms are clarified and
each question deals with a single idea in unambiguous terms, so that it is valid and
reliable.
6. Items are arranged in categories to ensure easy and accurate responses.
7. The questions are objective, with no clues, hints as to the responses desired. Heading
questions are carefully avoided.
8. Questions are presented in good psychological order proceeding from general to more
specific responses.
9. Double negatives and putting two questions in one question are also avoided.
10. The questions carry adequate number of alternatives.
11. It is easy to tabulate and interpret, based on a preconstructed tabulation sheet and a
visualized final analysis of data.
Advantages
1. As an instrument of data collection, the questionnaire has great potentialities when it is
properly used.
2. It is economical both for the sender and for the respondent in time, effort, and cost.
3. It is easy to plan, construct and administer.
4. When the subjects of the study are scattered far and wide, it will be a better tool as compared
to the tools like interview. It permits nationwide or even international coverage.
5. It permits group administration and is adaptable to any objectives.
6. It is generally regarded as dependable when used to obtain statement of fact.

7. Information of a personal nature often may be obtained more readily by means of
questionnaires.
8. It places less pressure on the subject for immediate response.
9. It helps in focusing the respondent's attention on all the significant items. It does not permit
much of variation.
10. It may be used as a preliminary tool for conducting in-depth study later by any other method.
11. The responses given by the subjects are available in their own language and version.
Limitations
1. Its reliability and validity are low. It seeks secondary information concerning facts when
primary evidence is not at hand.
2. Frequently questionnaire research simply constitutes a pooling of ignorance. It is compilation
of the opinions of many persons who may not know the answer.
3. It gives a biased sample. The matter of non-response is always a big question mark.
4. The respondents who return the questionnaires may not constitute a representative section of
the entire group.
5. If the subject misinterprets a question or gives an incomplete or indefinite response, nothing
can be done.
6. A questionnaire is rigid in its structure about complex emotional subjects.
7. Some respondents may not like to put their views on controversial issues in writing.
8. The behaviors, gestures, reactions, emotions of the respondent remain unnoticed.
9. Some of the research areas are so delicate, sensitive, and confidential in nature that it becomes
difficult to frame questions on them. 10. The questionnaire cannot be used with illiterate
subjects and children.
B. Attitude Scales
Attitude scales have been designed to measure attitudes of a subject or group of subject towards
issues, institutions and group of people.
Allport referred to attitude as 'the most distinctive and indispensable concept in contemporary
American Social Psychology'. Thurstone boldly asserted that 'attitude can be measured'. In view of
these two quotes, it is no surprise that attitude has become an important concept in the field of
education.
Allport attempted to gain from the various definitions and arrived at following common features –
a. preparation or readiness for favorable or unfavorable responses.
b. which is activated in the presence of all objects and situations with which the attitude
is related.
Types of Attitude Scales
The most prevalent means of measuring attitudes is providing individuals with a list of sentences or
adjectives and asking them to respond to each sentence or adjective in accordance with their true
feelings. These lists are called as 'Scales'. Various 'scaling techniques' have led to the development of
different types of attitude scales. The most frequently used scales are Linkert scale, Guttman scale,
Thurstone scale and Semantic Differential scale.

Likert Scale - Likert scale consists of a series of statements all of which are related to a person's attitude
towards a single object (e.g. -attitude toward school). Two types of statements appear on Likert scales.
 The first type of statements whose endorsement indicates a positive or favorable attitude
toward the object under consideration (called as favorable statements).
 The second type includes statements whose endorsement indicates a negative or unfavorable
attitude toward the object (called as unfavorable statements).
Equal number of favorable and unfavorable statements are included in a Likert scale.
Guttman Scale - Guttman scale includes a set of statements which relate to a person's attitude towards
a single object. Guttman scale possesses two characteristics,
 the statements included on such a scale represent increasingly positive feelings with respect to
the attitude toward an object.
 the endorsement of any statement implies the endorsement of each less positive statement.
Thurstone Scale - Thurstone's technique is also known as the technique of equal appearing intervals. If
attitude is accepted as a uni-dimensional linear continuum, then Thurstone's proposal to measure it by
statements scaled by the method of equal-appearing intervals would apply.
Semantic Differential Scale - It is a method for measuring aspects of the meaning of various concepts.
It is widely used as an attitude measurement technique. It consists of a set of seven-point-bipolar scales
and a set of concepts. Each concept is rated on each scale.
Uses of Attitude Scale

 Attitude scales are used in educational research, especially for finding the attitudes of persons
on issues like co-education, religious education, international cooperation etc. depending upon
the need of the situation.
 To obtain the measure of the belief of an individual or a group of individuals towards some
phenomenon the inquiry form attitude scale is used.
Characteristics of a Good Attitude Scale
1) It provides for quantitative measure on a uni-dimensional scale of continuum.
2) It uses statements from the extreme positive position to extreme negative position.
3) It generally uses a four-point scale as Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), Strongly
Disagree (SD). The individual gets the score as the sum of items credits.
4) It is usually standardized, and norms are worked out.
5) It disguises the attitude object rather than directly asking about the attitude on the subject.
It may require the judges to pile up the given statements and compute the scale values according to
the percentage of judges who place each statement in the score based on the median scale values of
the statements he has endorsed.
Limitations of Attitude Scales
1. As already stated, an individual may express socially acceptable opinions and conceal his real
attitude.

2. An individual may not be a good judge of himself and may not be clearly aware of his real
attitude.
3. He may not have confronted with a real situation to discover what his real attitude towards a
specific phenomenon was.
4. There is no basis for believing that the five positions indicated in the Likert Scale are equally
spaced.
5. It is unlikely that the statements are of equal value in 'far' or 'against' a proposition.
6. It is doubtful whether equal scores obtained by several individuals would indicate equal
favorableness towards a given position.
7. It is unlikely that a respondent can validly react to a short life-qualifying situation.
8. Despite anonymity of response, individuals tend to respond according to what they should feel
rather than what they really feel.
Validity of Attitude Scales
The attitude as denoted by the test score is compared with observable behavior in a corresponding
situation, and the extent to which they agree is taken as a measure of the validity of the scale.
Reliability of Attitude Scale
Most attitude scales have quite high reliability often between +0.75 and +0.90. The more varied the
items included in a scale, the greater is likely to be its reliability, because variations in opinions about
individual items are more likely to cancel out in this case than when the items are all very similar.
The reliability of a test also depends on the heterogeneity of opinions expressed by the individuals
being tested, for greater the range of scores obtained, the higher will be the correlation between sets
of scores obtained on different occasions.
Q 7. What are the primary and secondary sources of historical research?
Ans.
A historian is concerned with the recreation of the significant features of the past with the help of
numerous fragmentary evidence, usually called the sources. The necessary material is not to be found
in book alone. It can as well be available in archaeological, epigraphic, and numismatic materials. All
the material which has a direct bearing or can be of any assistance in constructing the history of a
particular period, are termed as his sources.
The historical sources can be of two types named,
1. Primary - A primary source is the testimony of an eyewitness or mechanical device which was
present at the time of the occurrence of an event. A primary source is closest to the event,
person, idea, or period that you are studying. It is the job of the historian to convert the
difficult primary sources into a coherent, intelligible secondary sources. No historian, who has
not himself worked in primary source materials, can be regarded as a competent historian.
2. Secondary - The secondary source on the other hand is the testimony of someone who was not
present at the time of occurrence of the event but discuss and analyze primary sources; they're
called secondary sources because they are at least one step removed from the primary source.
The book written by a historian is a ‘secondary source’, on which many people, interested in
problem with which it deals, rely. The secondary source is also of great historical importance to
the historians. A historian embarking on some topic of research should master all the existing
secondary material (books and articles of other historians). In short, the secondary source is
itself dependent on primary sources.
Drawing a distinction between primary and secondary sources Prof. Marwick says : “ The primary
source is the raw material, more meaningful to the expert historians than to the layman; the secondary
source is the coherent work of history, history, article, article, dissertation or book, in which both the
intelligent layman and the historian who is venturing upon a new research topic, or keeping in touch
with new discoveries in his chosen field or seeking to widen his general historical knowledge, will look
for what they want.”
A primary source may contain a secondary data. For example, a communiqué written by a general may
be for most part a primary source, but most of the details contained in the communiqué may be
secondary because most of the information provided by the communiqué may come from his
subordinates. Similarly, the newspapers are usually considered primary source, but the information
provided by the newspapers is not all based on primary sources. For example, certain incidents
reported by the paper may be such which the correspondent saw or in which he took part, while
certain other information may be based on ‘official sources or sources usually considered reliable It can
be said that the sources, whether they are primary or secondary, are important to the historian
because they contain primary particulars.
Details on the Sources:
 Contemporary records - ‘A contemporary record’ according to Gottschalk is “a document
intended to convey instructions regarding a transaction or to aid the memory of the person
immediately involved in the transaction.” The instruction document may be in the form of an
appointment notification, a command in the battlefield, a direction from foreign office to the
ambassador, etc. Usually, such documents have little chance of deceit or error. However, it is
essential to ascertain their authenticity before accepting their contents. The business and legal
papers like bills, journals, orders, lease, wills, tax records give an insight into the working of the
legal papers are highly reliable because they are prepared by highly qualified and expert people
and there is no motive or deceit. Generally, the prominent persons maintain personal
notebooks and private memoranda for their day-to-day use. These notebooks and memoranda
are a credible source of history because they are very close to the events with which they deal
and are non- prejudicial.
 Confidential Reports - The confidential reports are not intended for the general audience and
are less reliable than the Contemporary records. Usually, they are written after the event to
create a particular impression. The military and diplomatic dispatches are an example of this
sort of reports.
 Public Reports - The Public Reports as distinguished from Confidential Reports, are meant for
public and are less reliable. Generally, there are three types of public reports, and each
possesses a different degree of reliability.
o Newspaper reports and dispatches - The newspaper reports and dispatches are very
reliable because the gap between the event and its recording is very short. The
reliability of a dispatch depends upon the agency from which it originates and the
newspaper in which it is published.
o Memoirs and autobiographies - This source of history is not very reliable even though it
is written for the large reading public. Most of the memoirs and autobiographies are
written towards the close of life, when the memory of the author is fading, fading, and
are therefore, therefore, untrustworthy. For example, when Winston Churchill
published his memoirs of the Second World War, protests were lodged by Americans,
Belgian and French that he had not done full justice to the facts. There is also a
possibility that the memoirs may be written by some ‘ghost-writer’.
o The official or authorized histories - The histories of the activities of a government or
business house, are also an important kind of public reports. Usually, such histories are
based on full official records. In India historians were engaged to write about the
history of freedom struggle. Although these official historians avoid propaganda and
avoid deliberate misrepresentation, they must be taken with caution. They are likely to
suppress embracing, and incriminating information.
o The Questionnaires - The Questionnaires are the recent method of eliciting information
and opinion on a particular issue. The Questionnaires enables to uncover a lot of
reliable information, provided it has been properly drafted and the confidential
relationship between the interviewer and the respondent is assured.
o Government Documents - Numerous government documents are compiled, which are
source of vital importance to the historians. For example, the government compiles
statistics about fiscal, census, and vital matters which can be made use of by the
historians. But properly speaking these compilations do not constitute a primary source
because they have been compiled by persons who are many steps removed from the
actual observation. Yet it cannot be denied that these reports are of firsthand
importance.
o Public Opinion - The public opinion as expressed in the editorial, speeches, pamphlets,
letters to editor, and public opinion polls are another important source available to the
historian. But the authenticity of this must be corroborated by other evidence because
the public opinion may not be always reliable.
o Literature - The literature of an age or generation can also be a source for the period in
which it was written. It provides the historian with an understanding of some local
conditions, and social customs etc. However, Prof. Marwick has taken the view that a
historian should not entirely depend for information on the literary works unless it can
be confirmed by other sources.
o Folklores and Proverbs - The folklores, which tell us the stories of legendary heroes are
also an important source of history in as much as they tell us about the aspirations,
superstitions, and customs of the people among whom the stories developed. The
example is the stories of Allah –Uddal the heroes of Rajputana in India. To make use of
these folklores the historian should also be able to distinguish between the legendary
and authentic elements.
Conclusion:
Both primary and secondary sources are used by historians for historical reconstruction of the past. The
primary sources can be of great help to the historian if he has acquired thorough knowledge of the
background through the study of secondary sources. On the basis of this basic knowledge, he can fit in
the contemporary documents at relevant places and can even correct the secondary account.

Q 9. What are the different steps in writing research paper?
Ans.
Research papers are highly recognized in scholar fraternity. In addition to that the published research
work provides a big weightage to career growth and helps to get admission in reputed universities.
Research Scholars doing Ph. D it has become mandatory to publish their research papers at
international level academic Journals or scholarly (Peer Reviewed) journals. And many of the students
who wish to apply for further studies in technical courses will discover that relevant published research
papers help during admission process. So, in this paper we will highlight and enlist the proven steps to
write the research paper for peer-reviewed journals.
What is a research paper:
What image comes into mind as you hear those words: working with stacks of articles and books,
hunting the "treasure" of others' thoughts? Whatever image you create, it's a sure bet that you're
envisioning sources of information--articles, books, people, and artworks. Yet a research paper is more
than the sum of your sources, more than a collection of different pieces of information about a topic,
and more than a review of the literature in a field.

A research paper is piece of academic writing based on its author’s original research work on a
particular topic and the analysis and interpretation of research findings.
In other words, a research paper is an expanded essay that presents your own interpretation or
evaluation or argument. When you write an essay, you use everything that you personally know and
have thought about a subject. When you write a research paper you build upon what you know about
the subject and make a deliberate attempt to find out what experts know. A research paper involves
surveying a field of knowledge to find the best possible information in that field. And that survey can be
orderly and focused if you know how to approach it. Don't worry, you won't get lost in a sea of sources.
To achieve supreme excellence in anything we do, we need more than just the knowledge. Like a
cricket player aiming for world cup, we must have a positive attitude and believe that we have the
ability to achieve it. That will be the real start for writing a research paper.
Steps to write a Research Paper:
If you are writing research paper for the first time, it may seem frightening, but with good organization
and focus of mind, you can make the process easier on yourself. Writing a research paper broadly it
involves four main stages: choosing a topic, researching your topic, making an outline, and doing the
actual writing. The paper won't write itself, but by planning and preparing well, the writing practically
falls into place. Essentially a narrower research paper consists of Ten major sections. The number of
pages may vary depending upon the topic of research work but generally comprises up to 8 to 10
pages.
These are:
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Review of Literature
4. Objectives
5. Methodology and database used.
6. Research Analysis or Research Discussion
7. Results or Finding
8. Recommendations / suggestions
9. Conclusions
10. References / Citations.
Graphical presentation

Abstract: An abstract is a brief summary of a research article, thesis, review, conference proceeding or
any in-depth analysis of a particular subject or discipline and is often used to help the reader quickly
ascertain the paper's purpose. When used, an abstract always appears at the beginning of a
manuscript, acting as the point-of-entry for any given scientific paper or patent application. By reading
the abstract the reader gets some idea about the research paper.
Introduction: It's the foremost preliminary step for proceeding with any research work writing. In this
section details about the topics are elaborated. In this section the reason for choosing this topic is also
mentioned. While doing this go through a complete thought process of your Journal subject and
research for its viability by following means:
 Read already published work in the same field.
 Goggling on the topic of your research work.
 Attend conferences, workshops, and symposiums on the same fields or on related
counterparts.
 Understand the scientific terms and jargon related to your research work.
Study area: it is one of the vital components in research as taking study area makes research narrower.
In this section details about the study area are written like, location (coordinates), geology (soil, terrain,
relief), Climate, etc. and most importantly map of the study area.
Objectives: This deals with why we are writing this research journal.
For Example:
 To study the change detection in land use and land cover of Madhya Pradesh.
 To study the socio-economic conditions of working women in Bhopal.
Methodology and Database used: In this section which method we are using for writing our research is
written like Primary which is personally going to field or through questionnaire method or by secondary
method, which is from census, books, journals, newspapers, grey literature, Ph. D thesis, Internet, etc.
Research Elaborations: Now it is the time to articulate the research work with ideas gathered in above
steps by adopting any of below suitable approaches,
 Bits and Pieces together: In this approach combine all your researched information in form of a
journal or research paper. In this researcher can take the reference of already accomplished
work as a starting building block of its paper.
 Jump Start: This approach works the best in guidance of fellow researchers. In this the authors
continuously receives or asks inputs from their fellows. It enriches the information pool of your
paper with expert comments or up gradations. And the researcher feels confident about their
work and takes a jump to start the paper writing.
 Use of Simulation software: There are numbers of software available which can mimic the
process involved in your research work and can produce the possible result. you can get the
simulated results of your paper and it eases the process of paper writing. Some of the
processing Software are: ArcGIs, Qgis, ILWIS, Erdas, Mapillary, etc.
Suggestions and Recommendations: In this suggestions for future studies and recommendations can
be given so that the problem is solved by any government or NGO.
For Example: better transport facilities should be provided to the rural villages.
Results or Finding: This section also has more details about your research in continuation with above
section. In this section all the research matter will be summed up into points so that the reader can
understand easily.
Conclusions: This section will have conclusions about your research. As by adopting the above practices
all major constructs of a research paper can be written and together compiled to form complete
research ready for Peer review. Most research papers conclude with a restated thesis statement.
Present your thesis again but reword it. Briefly summarize the points you’ve made. Take a moment to
explain why you believe those points support your case. If your research is inconclusive, take a moment
to point out why you believe this topic bears further research.
References: This section will have all the citations which we have used in writing our research. The
major citation types used in research paper are;
 APA

 ASA
 CHICAGO MANUAL


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BHABHA UNIVERSITY

MEd - Semester - III, 2023

Descriptive surveys collect and provide three types of information:

 of what exists with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Types of Descriptive research

Main aims of Descriptive research

Descriptive studies have the following characteristics:

Steps of Descriptive Research:

The activities of researchers in descriptive studies are:

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Characteristics Of Experimental Research Design:

Types of experimental design

 One-shot case study design

 One-group pretest-posttest design

True experimental research design

 There is a treatment group which experiences some treatment or intervention.

Steps of experimental research

 Should outline who you expect to be impacted (“TV ad viewers”)

Step 3: designing experimental treatments.

How to manipulate your independent variables

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Types of Variables in Research

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 Moderating Variable - In any statement of relationships of variables, it is normally

 Intervening Variable - An intervening variable theoretically affects the observed phenomena

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Uses of Attitude Scale

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

Submitted by : Snigdha Tripathy

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