Revision Notes

Class - 11 Biology

Chapter 18 – Body Fluids and Circulation

Blood

It's a type of fluid connective tissue made up of liquid plasma (which serves as the
matrix) and cellular components (RBCs, for example).WBCs and the platelets).

Diagram of Blood Plasma Elements

Plasma

The matrix of blood is a plasma-based fluid. It's a viscous, straw-colored fluid that
accounts for around 55% of the total volume of the blood.

Plasma contains a variety of proteins, including fibrinogen, globulins, and albumins.

Fibrinogens aid in the clotting of blood.

Albumins serve to keep the body's osmotic equilibrium in check. Globulins are anti-
inflammatory proteins.

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Minerals like sodium ions, calcium ions, magnesium ions, and bicarbonate ions aid
in maintaining equilibrium as well as nutrient transport and uptake. In addition to
these, plasma contains amino acids and glucose.

Formed Elements

Erythrocytes, leucocytes, and blood platelets are examples of formed elements.

These are many blood cell kinds that play various roles. RBC’s (Red Blood Cells)
are also known as erythrocytes. They make up the majority of the blood cells. The
production of red blood cells takes place in the bone marrow. They are present in
biconcave form and are enucleated (no nucleus). RBC's graveyard is known as
Spleen.

White blood cells are also known as leucocytes. Because they lack haemoglobin,
they appear colourless. They have a three-to-four-day lifespan. Granulocytes and
agranulocytes are the two categories.

Granulocytes include neutrophils, basophils, and eosinophils. Agranulocytes include

lymphocytes and monocytes.

Polymorphonuclear leukocytes are the same as neutrophils. Neutrophils are the most
numerous of the three granulocytes. They're called phagocytic cells because they eat
other cells. In comparison to other granulocytes, basophils are the smallest.They
secrete serotonin, histamine, and basophils. So, basophils are involved in
inflammatory reactions.Eosinophils are involved in allergic reactions.

Platelets, commonly known as thrombocytes, are blood platelets. Megakaryocytes

manufacture them in the bone marrow.They play a role in the coagulation of blood.
Any drop in platelet count might result in blood loss from the body.

Groups of blood

ABO and Rh blood groups are the two types of blood groups.

The ABO blood grouping system

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The presence or absence of specific antigens on the surface of RBCs determines
ABO blood grouping. The two main surface antigen present on the red blood cells
are A and B. There are 4 types of blood group are A, B, AB and O group.

Diagram of Blood groups and antigen on red blood cells

The above table depicts blood groups and donor compatibility recipients.

Because the O blood group has no surface antigen, they are called universal donors,
but the AB blood group is considered universal recipients because they have both
surface antigens. Blood transfusion is done safely based on the blood group of the
donor and recipients.

Rhomboid classification

Rh is an antigen that is comparable to that found in Rhesus monkeys. Individuals

who have Rh antigen on their RBCs are Rh positive, while individuals who do not
have Rh antigen are Rh negative. If a Rh -ve person receives Rh +ve blood, the Rh
-ve person will begin to produce antibodies against the Rh +ve blood. As a result,

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before a blood transfusion, the Rh group should be evaluated as well.When a Rh -ve
pregnant mother carries a Rh +ve foetus, an important case of Rh mismatching has
been discovered.

Due to a barrier known as the placenta, the foetus' Rh antigens are not exposed to
the mother's Rh-ve blood during the first pregnancy. However, there is a chance that
the mother's blood will mix with the kid's during birth of the first child.Mother
begins to manufacture antibodies against the Rh antigen as a result of this. The Rh
antibodies from the Rh -ve mother can leak into the blood of the Rh +ve foetus and
damage the foetal RBCs if the mother conceives again.Agglutination of red blood
cells occurs as a result of this. Erythroblastosis foetalis is the name for this condition.

The foetus will be anaemic and have jaundice. To avert this, the mother should be
injected with anti-Rh antibodies as soon as the first kid is born.

Coagulation of blood

It is a condition in which blood clots.Blood coagulation is another term for blood

clotting. Any type of injury or trauma causes blood clotting.This helps to prevent
excessive blood loss. When a person is hurt, a reddish brown scum forms at the site
of the injury after a period of time. Clot is the medical term for this. Fibrils are a
network of threads that make up a clot.

This network comprises blood that has been created but is dead or damaged. Fibrils
are generated when inactive fibrinogen is converted in the presence of the enzyme
thrombin.Platelets release certain substances that cause blood to clot. During blood
coagulation, calcium ions play a critical function.

Lymph

Lymph, in addition to blood, is another fluid found in the body. In tissues, blood
circulates through blood capillaries.Some water, as well as some water-soluble
compounds, leaks into the interstitial spaces. Tissue fluid, also known as interstitial
fluid, is a type of fluid found in the body.The lymphatic system is a collection of
tubes that collect interstitial fluid and discharge it to main veins.

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Lymph is a fluid found in the lymphatic system. Lymph contains lymphocytes,
which are an essential type of immune cell.

Diagram of Lymph Node

Pathways of circulation

The open circulatory system and the closed circulatory system are the two types of
circulatory channels found. When blood flow in lacunae and sinuses, it is known as
open circulatory system. It is found in molluscs, arthropods, etc.

The heart is a muscular, pumping organ found in vertebrates. Fishes' hearts are
divided into two chambers. Except for crocodiles, all amphibians have three
chambered hearts (4 chambered heart). Humans, birds, and reptiles all have four
chambered heart.

The circulatory system of the human body

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The heart, blood arteries, and blood make up the human circulatory system. The
heart is a mesodermal organ. It is located between the two lungs in the thoracic
cavity.

The heart is surrounded by a double membrane called the pericardium. The

pericardium is a tissue ring that surrounds the pericardial fluid and protects it. There
are four chambers in the heart: two atria and two ventricles. A small wall separates
the left and right atria. The intra-atrial septum is what it's called. The left and right
ventricles are separated by a strong intraventricular septum.

Diagram of Human heart

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The tricuspid valve protects the entrance between the right atrium and the right
ventricle. The mitral valve, also known as the bicuspid valve, protects the entrance
between the left atrium and the left ventricle. Semilunar valves are found at the
entrances of the right and left ventricles into the pulmonary artery and aorta,
respectively.

The heart is a musculoskeletal organ. Cardiac muscles are the muscles that make up
the heart. The heart also contains specialised cardiac muscle known as nodal tissue.
The sinoatrial node, or SA node, is located in the top right corner of the right atrium.
The atrio-ventricular node, or AV node, is located in the upper left corner of the right
atrium.

The atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle) extends from the AVN and divides into a
right and left bundle after passing through the atrio-ventricular septa. Purkinje fibres
are tiny fibres that grow from these branches. Because it has the ability to get excited
and generate an action potential, the SA node is known as the heart's pacemaker.

Cycle of the heart

The cardiac cycle is the sequence of electrical and mechanical events that occur
throughout each heartbeat. Diastole and systole are the two stages of the heartbeat.
The heart ventricles relax during diastole, allowing blood to flow into them. The
ventricles contract during systole to pump blood into the arteries. The Contraction
of the right and left atria is followed by electrical stimulation in atrial systole.The
blood pressure in both the left and right atria rises as a result of this. In order for
blood to be pushed into the ventricles.

AV valves are open while semilunar valves are closed during this time. It takes
roughly 0.1 seconds to complete.

Ventricular systole is characterised by the contraction of both the right and left
ventricles, followed by electrical stimulation. During ventricular systole, the AV
valves close and the semilunar valves open. It takes roughly 0.3 seconds to complete.

Cardiac diastole occurs when the heart relaxes in order to fill the blood vessels.
Complete cardiac diastole occurs when the atria and ventricles relax together. The

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pressure in the ventricles decreases below the left atrial pressure during ventricular
diastole, the mitral valve opens, and the left ventricle fills with blood.

When the pressure in the right ventricle falls below that in the right atrium, the
tricuspid valve opens, allowing blood to flow into the right ventricle. During
diastole, the pressure inside the left ventricle is lower than in the aorta, allowing
blood to circulate within the heart via the coronary arteries.

When the pressure in the right ventricle falls below that in the right atrium, the
tricuspid valve opens, allowing blood to flow into the right ventricle. During
diastole, the pressure inside the left ventricle is lower than in the aorta, allowing
blood to circulate within the heart via the coronary arteries.

The sound of the heart

The heartbeat is said to as a "lubb-dubb" sound. When the mitral and tricuspid valves
collapse at the start of ventricular systole, the first heart sound lubb is produced.
When the aortic and pulmonary valves seal at the conclusion of ventricular systole,
the second sound dubb is produced.

ECG

ECG stands for electrocardiograph and is a graphical representation of the electrical

activity of the heart during the cardiac cycle.

Various peaks are denoted by letters P through T in a typical ECG.

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• P-Wave: Represents atrioventricular electrical stimulation. The atrial
depolarization is visible.

• QRS Complex: The ventricular depolarization is represented by this complex.

Ventricular contraction begins as a result of this. Soon after Q, the contraction
begins.

• T-Wave: The T-Wave represents the repolarization of the ventricles. After

excitation, it denotes the restoration of ventricles to their natural state. The end of
the T-Wave indicates that the ventricular systole has ended.

Double Circulation: This is a circulation system in which blood circulates twice

through the heart in a single cycle. It is divided into two parts: pulmonary and
systemic circulation.

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Blood circulation between the heart and the lungs is referred to as pulmonary
circulation. The heart's deoxygenated blood enters the lungs for oxygenation, and
the oxygenated blood returns to the heart.

A circulation system in which blood passes twice through the heart in a single cycle
is known as double circulation. It is split into two sections: pulmonary circulation
and systemic circulation.

Pulmonary circulation is the exchange of blood between the heart and the lungs. The
deoxygenated blood from the heart is oxygenated in the lungs before returning to the
heart.

The Autonomous Nervous System (ANS) regulates heart activity through the neural
centre in the medulla oblongata. The sympathetic nervous system raises heart rate
and ventricular contraction strength, increasing cardiac output.

Certain adrenal medullary hormones can also affect cardiac output.

Circulatory system disorders:

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Hypertension, often known as high blood pressure, is a condition in which a
person's blood pressure is higher than usual. Blood pressure should be 120/80 mm
Hg. The systolic pressure is 120 mm Hg, while the diastolic pressure is 80 mm Hg.

Coronary heart disease, also known as artherosclerosis, is characterised by a

narrowing of the artery lumen due to calcium, fat, cholesterol, and fibrous tissue
deposition. It has an effect on the heart muscle's blood supply.

Angina: Also known as angina pectoris, angina is a type of chest pain caused by a
lack of oxygen reaching the heart muscles.

Heart failure is the inefficient pumping of blood by the heart, which is mainly
caused by heart congestion. As a result, it's also known as congestive heart failure.

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