Criticism and Theory II Past Papers Solved Long

Questions

Past Paper 2014

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 How formalists perceived literature? Discuss keeping in mind Terry

Eagleton’s “Introduction to Literary Theory”?

A: 1 Formalists, as discussed by Terry Eagleton in "Introduction to Literary

Theory," perceive literature primarily as a self-contained and autonomous
work of art. They focus on the formal aspects of literary texts, such as
language, structure, and literary devices, rather than considering external
factors like authorial intent or historical context.

According to formalists, the meaning of a literary work is derived solely from

its internal elements and how they interact with one another. They believe
that the form and structure of a text are integral to its meaning, and that the
reader should analyze and interpret the work based on these formal qualities.
Formalists emphasize the importance of close reading and textual analysis.
They argue that by examining the language, imagery, symbolism, and
narrative techniques employed in a literary work, one can uncover its
inherent meaning and aesthetic value. They view literature as a self-sufficient
entity that exists independently of its author or the reader's interpretation.

Eagleton also discusses how formalists reject the idea of literature as a means
of conveying moral or social messages. They prioritize the aesthetic experience
and the unique qualities of the literary text over any extrinsic meaning or
purpose.

However, it is important to note that formalism is just one of many literary

theories, and other approaches, such as historical, feminist, or postcolonial
criticism, consider factors beyond the formal aspects of a text. These theories
explore the social, cultural, and political implications of literature, offering
alternative perspectives on its meaning and significance.
Q: 2 Why Wollstonecraft wishes that women may not have power over men
but they should have power over themselves. Elaborate?

A: 2 Wollstonecraft's perspective on women having power over themselves

but not over men stems from her belief in individual autonomy and self-
determination. She argued that women should have the freedom to make
choices, pursue their own interests, and develop their own identities, rather
than being subjugated to the authority or control of men.

Wollstonecraft believed that true empowerment for women comes from

within, through the ability to exercise their own agency and control over their
lives. She advocated for women to have access to education, economic
independence, and the right to participate in public life. By having power over
themselves, women can shape their own destinies, make decisions that align
with their own values and desires, and contribute to society as equal and
active participants.

However, Wollstonecraft did not advocate for women to have power over men
in a hierarchical or oppressive sense. Instead, she sought to challenge the
existing power imbalances and promote a more egalitarian society where both
men and women have equal opportunities and rights. By emphasizing self-
empowerment for women, she aimed to create a society where individuals,
regardless of gender, have the freedom to fulfill their potential and live
meaningful lives.
Wollstonecraft's ideas were revolutionary for her time and laid the
groundwork for feminist movements that followed, emphasizing the
importance of women's autonomy and self-determination as essential aspects
of gender equality.

Rejection of Power Imbalance:

Wollstonecraft recognized the harmful consequences of power imbalances,

particularly those based on gender. She opposed replacing male dominance
with female dominance, as this wouldn't solve the underlying issue of
inequality.

Focus on Inner Strength:

Wollstonecraft believed that true power comes from developing intellectual

and moral autonomy. By gaining access to education and critical thinking,
women could become self-sufficient individuals who can make their own
decisions and contribute meaningfully to society.
Importance of Self-Reliance:

Wollstonecraft argued that relying on men for economic and intellectual

support perpetuates dependence and hinders personal growth. She advocated
for women's economic independence through education and work
opportunities, empowering them to stand on their own.

Breaking Free from Social Constraints:

Wollstonecraft challenged the social norms that confined women to domestic

roles and limited their intellectual development. She believed that women
could rise above these limitations and achieve their full potential by taking
charge of their own lives and pursuing their own aspirations.

Promoting Equality, not Superiority:

Wollstonecraft's ultimate goal was equality, not female superiority. She

believed that both men and women could benefit from a society where
everyone had equal access to education, opportunities, and respect.
Creating a Just Society:

By advocating for women's self-power, Wollstonecraft envisioned a more just

and equitable society where individuals were valued for their intellect,
character, and contributions, regardless of their gender.

Key Points:

* Wollstonecraft sought self-governance, not dominance, for women.

* She believed in developing inner strength through education and critical

thinking.

* She advocated for economic independence and breaking free from social
constraints.

* Her ultimate goal was equality, not female superiority.

* Self-empowered women were seen as key to a just society.

Wollstonecraft's ideas were revolutionary for their time and continue to

inspire generations of individuals who believe in equality and self-
determination for all.
Q: 3 Taste in art might be relative to the individual but on the whole. It is not
arbitrary. Discuss with reference to “Of the Standard of Taste”?

A: 3 In "Of the Standard of Taste," philosopher David Hume argues that

while individual tastes in art may vary, there are certain objective criteria
that can be used to evaluate and judge the quality of artworks.

David Hume explores the idea that while individual taste in art may vary,
there are objective criteria that can be used to evaluate artworks. Hume
suggests that a true judge of taste possesses qualities like sensitivity,
discernment, and an ability to appreciate the finer nuances of art. This
judgment is not entirely subjective, as there are shared sentiments and
principles of taste based on common human emotions. While personal
preferences play a role, there is a collective understanding of what makes an
artwork successful in terms of its ability to evoke emotions and convey
meaning. This shared understanding forms the basis for establishing a
standard of taste.

Hume acknowledges that personal preferences play a significant role in how

we perceive and appreciate art. What one person finds beautiful or
meaningful, another person may not. This subjective aspect of taste is
influenced by factors such as cultural background, personal experiences, and
individual sensibilities.
However, Hume suggests that there are general principles and standards that
can be applied to assess the merit of artworks. He proposes that a true judge
of taste possesses qualities such as delicacy, sensitivity, and an ability to
discern and appreciate the finer nuances of art. These individuals have a
refined sense of aesthetics and can recognize qualities like beauty, harmony,
and creativity in artworks.

Furthermore, Hume argues that the judgment of taste is not entirely arbitrary
or subjective. He suggests that there are certain principles of taste that are
based on common human sentiments and emotions. For example, a work of
art that evokes feelings of admiration, awe, or joy in many people might be
considered to have aesthetic value.

While individual tastes may differ, there is a shared understanding of what

makes an artwork successful or unsuccessful in terms of its ability to evoke
certain emotions or convey a particular message. This shared understanding
forms the basis for establishing a standard of taste.

In conclusion, while taste in art is relative to the individual, there are objective
criteria and shared sentiments that can be used to evaluate and judge the
quality of artworks. The notion of a standard of taste allows for a collective
understanding of what constitutes good art, even amidst the diversity of
individual preferences.
 Past Paper 2016

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 How does Terry Eagleton introduce literary theory?

A: 1 "Terry Eagleton's 'Introduction to Literary Theory: An Introduction'" is

a seminal work that offers a nuanced exploration of literary theories. Eagleton
guides readers through key concepts, historical contexts, and the application
of various theoretical frameworks to literary analysis. The book not only
introduces structuralism, psychoanalysis, Marxism, feminism, and
postcolonialism but also critically engages with these theories.

Key Points:

1. Historical Context: Eagleton contextualizes literary theories within

historical periods, highlighting their emergence and evolution.

2. Marxism: The book extensively discusses Marxist literary theory,

examining how socioeconomic factors influence literature and vice versa.
3. Ideology and Power: Eagleton emphasizes the role of ideology and
power dynamics in shaping literary works, drawing from Marxist and
postcolonial perspectives.

4. Deconstruction: The text explores deconstruction, a theory associated

with Jacques Derrida, and its impact on challenging traditional notions of
language and meaning.

5. Postmodernism: Eagleton delves into postmodernist ideas, questioning

traditional notions of authorship, narrative, and reality.

Critical Analysis:

Eagleton's approach is lauded for its accessibility and engaging style, making
complex theories understandable to a broad audience. Critics, however, note
that the book's Marxist emphasis might overshadow other perspectives,
potentially limiting its scope. Additionally, some argue that the later editions
could incorporate more recent developments in literary theory.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, Eagleton's "Introduction to Literary Theory" is a valuable

resource for those entering the realm of literary analysis, providing a solid
foundation while encouraging critical thinking. The book's Marxist focus,
while enriching, prompts readers to supplement their study with a broader
range of perspectives for a comprehensive understanding of literary theory.
Q: 2 Discuss the right of women in Mary Wollstonecraft?

A: 2 "Vindication of the Rights of Woman" is a seminal work by Mary

Wollstonecraft, published in 1792. Here are key points and a brief critical
analysis:

1. Introduction to Women's Rights: Wollstonecraft argues for the equal

education and rights of women, challenging societal norms that restrict their
opportunities.

2. Education Equality: Emphasizes the importance of education for women

to enable them to contribute meaningfully to society.

3. Intellectual Development: Advocates for the intellectual development of

women, asserting that they possess the same reasoning abilities as men.

4. Marriage and Equality: Criticizes the notion of women being treated as

property in marriage and calls for a more egalitarian relationship.

5. Economic Independence: Encourages women to strive for economic

independence, reducing dependence on men for financial support.
Key Points:

1. Reason and Education: Wollstonecraft argues that reason and

education are the foundations of virtue and that women should be educated to
contribute effectively to society.

2. Critique of Rousseau: Criticizes Rousseau's views on women and

education, asserting that they perpetuate inequality.

3. Equality in Marriage: Advocates for a partnership model in marriage,

where both partners contribute equally to the relationship.

4. Political Rights: While not explicitly calling for women's suffrage,

Wollstonecraft emphasizes the importance of women having a voice in
political matters.

5. Social Reform: Links the improvement of women's condition to broader

social reforms and the enlightenment of both men and women.
Critical Analysis:

1. Impact on Feminism: Considered a foundational text for feminist

philosophy, Wollstonecraft's work laid the groundwork for later feminist
movements.

2. Relevance Today: Many of Wollstonecraft's arguments remain relevant

today, particularly in the ongoing pursuit of gender equality and women's
rights.

3. Intersectionality: Critics argue that Wollstonecraft's perspective is

limited, primarily focusing on the rights of middle-class, white women without
addressing issues of intersectionality.

4. Historical Context: Understanding the historical context is crucial for

appreciating the radical nature of Wollstonecraft's ideas during the late 18th
century.

In summary, "Vindication of the Rights of Woman" is a landmark text that

challenges societal norms, advocating for the intellectual and social equality of
women. While it reflects some limitations of its time, its impact on feminist
thought cannot be overstated.
Q: 3 Explain Hegel’s theorization of idea and its relationship with art?

A: 3 According to Hegel, art is a means through which the idea or the spirit of
a particular culture or society manifests itself. He believed that art serves as a
vehicle for the expression of the absolute spirit, which is the highest form of
consciousness or self-awareness.

Hegel viewed art as a form of sensory representation that allows the idea to
become visible and tangible. He argued that the artist, through their creative
process, gives form to the idea and presents it in a way that engages the senses
and emotions of the viewer.

For Hegel, the idea is not just an abstract concept but a living and evolving
entity that seeks to manifest itself in the world. Art, therefore, becomes a
crucial medium for the idea to realize itself and communicate with humanity.
Through art, the idea finds embodiment in various forms such as paintings,
sculptures, music, literature, and theater.

Hegel also emphasized the historical development of art. He believed that art
evolves over time, reflecting the changing consciousness and spirit of different
historical periods. Each stage of art represents a particular stage in the
development of the idea, and as history progresses, art moves closer to its
ultimate realization.
However, Hegel saw art as only one stage in the evolution of the idea. He
believed that art would eventually give way to philosophy as the highest form
of expression. While art captures the idea through sensory representation,
philosophy aims to grasp the idea through rational understanding and
conceptual thought.

In summary, Hegel's theorization of the idea and its relationship with art
highlights the role of art in giving form and expression to the absolute spirit.
Art serves as a medium through which the idea manifests itself and
communicates with humanity, reflecting the historical development of
consciousness.
 Past Paper 2017

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Why should the English Departments be abolished according to Ngugi?

A: 1 According to Ngugi wa Thiong'o, the renowned Kenyan writer and

scholar, the argument for abolishing English departments is rooted in the
history of colonialism and its impact on language and literature. Ngugi
advocates for the decolonization of education and the promotion of indigenous
languages and literatures.

Ngugi's perspective is rooted in the history of colonialism and its impact on

language and literature. He advocates for the decolonization of education and
the promotion of indigenous languages and literatures. By abolishing English
departments, Ngugi suggests that universities can create space for the study
and celebration of diverse languages and literatures. This would challenge the
dominance of English and promote a more inclusive and equitable approach
to education.

Ngugi argues that English, as a language imposed by colonial powers,

continues to perpetuate cultural and linguistic domination. English
departments, in his view, prioritize the study of Western literature while
marginalizing and undervaluing the rich literary traditions of non-Western
cultures.

By abolishing English departments, Ngugi suggests that universities can

create space for the study and celebration of diverse languages and
literatures. This would not only challenge the dominance of English but also
promote a more inclusive and equitable approach to education.

By embracing a more diverse range of literary traditions, Ngugi argues that

universities can foster a greater understanding and appreciation of different
cultures. This approach promotes a more inclusive and equitable educational
environment, where the voices and narratives of marginalized communities
are given the recognition they deserve.

Ngugi's perspective is part of a broader movement that seeks to decolonize

education and elevate marginalized voices and narratives. It encourages a
reevaluation of traditional literary canons and a recognition of the importance
of cultural diversity in academia.

It's important to note that this is just one perspective, and there are varying
opinions on this topic. The discussion around the role of English departments
and the decolonization of education is ongoing and invites dialogue and
critical engagement.
Q: 2 Write a detailed note on Terry Eagleton’s argument in the essay in your
course?

A: 2 Terry Eagleton's argument in the essay "An Introduction to Literary

Theory." In this essay, Eagleton explores the field of literary theory and its
significance in understanding and interpreting literature.

Eagleton argues that literary theory is not just an abstract academic discipline
but a practical tool that helps us engage with literature in a more meaningful
way. He emphasizes that literary theory allows us to uncover the underlying
assumptions, ideologies, and power dynamics that shape literary texts.

One of Eagleton's central arguments is that literature cannot be studied in

isolation from its social, historical, and political contexts. He contends that
literature reflects and responds to the broader societal issues and challenges of
its time. By analyzing literature through various theoretical lenses, such as
Marxism, feminism, post-colonialism, and psychoanalysis, Eagleton suggests
that we can gain deeper insights into the complexities of human experience
and the ways in which literature both reflects and shapes society.
Eagleton also emphasizes the importance of understanding the role of
language in literature. He argues that language is not a neutral medium but a
site of power and contestation. Literary theory helps us unpack the ways in
which language constructs meaning, identities, and social hierarchies within a
text.

Furthermore, Eagleton discusses the relationship between literature and

ideology. He posits that literature is not a mere reflection of reality but an
active participant in shaping and challenging dominant ideologies. Through
literary theory, we can critically examine the ideological underpinnings of
literary works and explore how they reinforce or subvert societal norms and
power structures.

Overall, Eagleton's essay highlights the significance of literary theory in

deepening our understanding and appreciation of literature. By employing
various theoretical frameworks, we can uncover the complex layers of
meaning, engage with the social and political dimensions of literary texts, and
ultimately develop a more nuanced and critical approach to reading and
interpreting literature.
Q: 3 Write a note on any of your favorite theorist / critic?

A: 3 Oscar Wilde is indeed a fascinating figure in the world of literature and

criticism. As a writer, playwright, and critic, Wilde's wit, charm, and unique
perspective have made him a favorite among many readers and scholars.

Wilde's critical writings, such as "The Critic as Artist" and "The Decay of
Lying," are known for their cleverness and unconventional approach. He
believed that art should not merely imitate life but should surpass it,
advocating for the importance of imagination, aestheticism, and the pursuit of
beauty.

One of the aspects that make Wilde a favorite critic and theorist for many is
his ability to blend humor and intellect in his writings. His sharp wit and
playful style make his works engaging and enjoyable to read, even when
tackling complex ideas. Wilde's critiques often challenge societal norms and
conventions, offering fresh perspectives and encouraging readers to question
established beliefs.

Furthermore, Wilde's ideas on art and criticism continue to resonate today.

His emphasis on the value of individualism, self-expression, and the artist's
subjective vision has influenced subsequent generations of writers and critics.
Wilde's belief in the power of art to transform and elevate the human
experience remains relevant, as it encourages us to seek beauty, imagination,
and authenticity in our own lives.

Overall, Oscar Wilde's contributions as a critic and theorist have left a lasting
impact on the field of literature. His wit, unconventional ideas, and ability to
challenge societal norms make him a favorite among many readers and
scholars, including myself. His writings continue to inspire and provoke
thought, reminding us of the importance of art, imagination, and the pursuit
of beauty in our lives.

But, some of the critics also criticized his works and writings.

Here are the names of some famous critics of Oscar Wilde:

1. Walter Pater

2. Robert Ross

3. Max Beerbohm

4. George Bernard Shaw

5. William Archer

These individuals, among others, have offered their insights and critiques on
Oscar Wilde's works, contributing to the ongoing discussion and analysis of
his writings.
 Past Paper 2018

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Discuss the idea of spirit in Hegel relying on the essay in your course?

A: 1 Hegel, a German philosopher, believed that spirit, or Geist in German,

plays central role in understanding reality and human existence. For Hegel,
spirit encompasses the collective consciousness, values, and ideals of a society
or culture. It is not just an individual's mind but also the shared spirit that
shapes history and drives progress.

In his philosophy, Hegel explored the idea of dialectics, which is the process of
thesis, antithesis, and synthesis. He argued that the development of spirit
occurs through this dialectical process, where ideas clash and evolve into
higher forms of understanding. This progression of spirit is seen in various
realms, including art, politics, and religion.
Regarding the specific essay "Lectures on Fine Arts," I don't have access to it,
but it's likely that Hegel discussed the role of art in expressing and embodying
the spirit of a particular time and culture. Art, according to Hegel, is a
medium through which the spirit manifests itself, allowing individuals to
connect with the universal and timeless truths.

Overall, Hegel's concept of spirit is a complex and integral part of his

philosophical system. It encompasses the collective consciousness, values, and
ideals of a society, and plays a crucial role in the development of history and
human understanding. While I couldn't provide a detailed analysis of Hegel's
ideas from the specific essay mentioned, I hope this overview gives you a
glimpse into his philosophy of spirit.
Q: 2 Discuss feminism as theorized in Mary Wollstonecraft?

A: 2 Mary Wollstonecraft's "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" is a

significant work in feminist theory. In this book, Wollstonecraft argues for the
equal rights and education of women, challenging the prevailing societal
norms and gender inequalities of her time.

Wollstonecraft's central argument is that women are not inherently inferior to

men, but rather their perceived inferiority is a result of limited education and
societal constraints. She advocates for women's access to education, arguing
that it is essential for their intellectual and moral development. Wollstonecraft
believes that educated women can contribute to society as rational beings and
equal partners in marriage.

One of the key ideas in "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" is the notion
of women's rights being grounded in reason. Wollstonecraft argues that
women should not be seen solely as objects of beauty or domesticity but as
individuals capable of reason and independent thought. She criticizes the
prevailing view of women as mere ornaments or objects of desire, advocating
for their active participation in public life.
Wollstonecraft also addresses the importance of women's economic
independence and the need for equal opportunities in the workforce. She
argues that women should have the right to pursue careers and financial
independence, rather than being solely dependent on men for their livelihood.

Overall, Wollstonecraft's "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" is a

groundbreaking feminist work that challenges the prevailing gender
inequalities of her time. Her ideas on women's education, reason, and
economic independence laid the foundation for future feminist movements
and continue to inspire discussions on gender equality today.

In summary, "Vindication of the Rights of Woman" is a landmark text that

challenges societal norms, advocating for the intellectual and social equality of
women. While it reflects some limitations of its time, its impact on feminist
thought cannot be overstated.
Q: 3 Write a note on any of your favorite theorist / critic?

A: 3 Oscar Wilde is indeed a fascinating figure in the world of literature and

criticism. As a writer, playwright, and critic, Wilde's wit, charm, and unique
perspective have made him a favorite among many readers and scholars.

Wilde's critical writings, such as "The Critic as Artist" and "The Decay of
Lying," are known for their cleverness and unconventional approach. He
believed that art should not merely imitate life but should surpass it,
advocating for the importance of imagination, aestheticism, and the pursuit of
beauty.

One of the aspects that make Wilde a favorite critic and theorist for many is
his ability to blend humor and intellect in his writings. His sharp wit and
playful style make his works engaging and enjoyable to read, even when
tackling complex ideas. Wilde's critiques often challenge societal norms and
conventions, offering fresh perspectives and encouraging readers to question
established beliefs.

Furthermore, Wilde's ideas on art and criticism continue to resonate today.

His emphasis on the value of individualism, self-expression, and the artist's
subjective vision has influenced subsequent generations of writers and critics.
Wilde's belief in the power of art to transform and elevate the human
experience remains relevant, as it encourages us to seek beauty, imagination,
and authenticity in our own lives.

Overall, Oscar Wilde's contributions as a critic and theorist have left a lasting
impact on the field of literature. His wit, unconventional ideas, and ability to
challenge societal norms make him a favorite among many readers and
scholars, including myself. His writings continue to inspire and provoke
thought, reminding us of the importance of art, imagination, and the pursuit
of beauty in our lives.

But, some of the critics also criticized his works and writings.

Here are the names of some famous critics of Oscar Wilde:

1. Walter Pater

2. Robert Ross

3. Max Beerbohm

4. George Bernard Shaw

5. William Archer

These individuals, among others, have offered their insights and critiques on
Oscar Wilde's works, contributing to the ongoing discussion and analysis of
his writings.
 Past Paper 2019

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 How does Terry Eagleton theorize literature in the essay in your

syllabus?

A: 1 "Terry Eagleton's 'Introduction to Literary Theory: An Introduction'" is

a seminal work that offers a nuanced exploration of literary theories. Eagleton
guides readers through key concepts, historical contexts, and the application
of various theoretical frameworks to literary analysis. The book not only
introduces structuralism, psychoanalysis, Marxism, feminism, and
postcolonialism but also critically engages with these theories.

Key Points:

1. Historical Context: Eagleton contextualizes literary theories within

historical periods, highlighting their emergence and evolution.

2. Marxism: The book extensively discusses Marxist literary theory,

examining how socioeconomic factors influence literature and vice versa.
3. Ideology and Power: Eagleton emphasizes the role of ideology and
power dynamics in shaping literary works, drawing from Marxist and
postcolonial perspectives.

4. Deconstruction: The text explores deconstruction, a theory associated

with Jacques Derrida, and its impact on challenging traditional notions of
language and meaning.

5. Postmodernism: Eagleton delves into postmodernist ideas, questioning

traditional notions of authorship, narrative, and reality.

Critical Analysis:

Eagleton's approach is lauded for its accessibility and engaging style, making
complex theories understandable to a broad audience. Critics, however, note
that the book's Marxist emphasis might overshadow other perspectives,
potentially limiting its scope. Additionally, some argue that the later editions
could incorporate more recent developments in literary theory.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, Eagleton's "Introduction to Literary Theory" is a valuable

resource for those entering the realm of literary analysis, providing a solid
foundation while encouraging critical thinking. The book's Marxist focus,
while enriching, prompts readers to supplement their study with a broader
range of perspectives for a comprehensive understanding of literary theory.
Q: 2 Write a detailed note on the work of condensation as theorized by
Freud?

A: 2 In Sigmund Freud's work on condensation as discussed in his essay "The

Interpretation of Dreams." In this influential work, Freud introduces the
concept of condensation as one of the key mechanisms of dream formation.

Freud considered that "dreams are brief, meagre and laconic in comparison
with the range and wealth of the dream-thoughts." Images and chains of
association have their emotional charges displaced from the originating ideas
to the receiving one, where they merge and "condense" together.

According to Freud, condensation refers to the process by which multiple

thoughts, ideas, and emotions are compressed or condensed into a single
dream image or symbol. In dreams, different elements from our conscious and
unconscious mind blend together to create a symbolic representation. These
symbols often have multiple meanings and can be open to interpretation.

Freud argues that condensation allows the dream to express complex and
often repressed desires, conflicts, and emotions in a disguised form. By
condensing various thoughts and feelings into one symbol or image, the dream
can protect the dreamer from directly confronting uncomfortable or
unacceptable material.
Condensation also plays a role in the distortion of dreams. Freud suggests that
during the process of condensation, elements of the dream are altered or
transformed. This distortion can make it challenging for the dreamer to
recognize the true meaning of the dream content.

Overall, condensation is a significant concept in Freud's theory of dream

interpretation. It highlights the complex and symbolic nature of dreams, as
well as the ways in which our unconscious mind processes and expresses our
deepest desires and conflicts.
Q: 3 Write a detailed note on the relationship between Idea and Sublime in
Hegel?

A: 3 In the relationship between the idea and the sublime in Hegel's "Lectures
on Fine Arts." In these lectures, Hegel explores the connection between art
and philosophy, particularly focusing on the concept of the sublime.

According to Hegel, the sublime represents the highest form of aesthetic

experience, where the limitations of the sensory world are transcended, and
the viewer is confronted with the infinite and the absolute. The sublime evokes
a sense of awe, grandeur, and overwhelming power, often surpassing our
ability to fully comprehend or articulate it.

Hegel sees the idea, or the concept, as central to the sublime. He argues that
art should not merely represent external appearances but should also express
the inner essence or idea behind those appearances. The idea is the spiritual
content or meaning that art seeks to convey.

In the context of the sublime, Hegel suggests that the idea manifests itself
through the artistic representation of nature, history, and human emotions.
The sublime artwork, through its form and content, aims to evoke a profound
emotional response in the viewer, leading to a heightened awareness of the
spiritual and the universal.
Hegel believes that the sublime has the power to elevate the human spirit, to
expand our understanding of the world, and to connect us to something
greater than ourselves. It is through the encounter with the sublime that we
can glimpse the infinite and the absolute, transcending our individual
subjectivity.

Overall, in Hegel's "Lectures on Fine Arts," the relationship between the idea
and the sublime is intertwined. The sublime serves as a vehicle for the
expression and realization of the idea in art, enabling us to experience the
profound and the transcendent. I hope this gives you a good overview of
Hegel's thoughts on this topic.
 Past Paper 2020

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Discuss how Ngugi theorize English language and literature with

reference to African consciousness?

A: 1 Ngugi wa Thiong'o' gave theories on the English language and literature

in relation to African consciousness. Ngugi is a renowned Kenyan writer and
scholar who has made significant contributions to African literature and
postcolonial studies.

Ngugi's ideas revolve around the concept of decolonizing language and

literature, reclaiming African identity, and promoting African languages. He
argues that the English language, which was imposed during colonial rule, has
been used as a tool of cultural domination and alienation. He believes that
African writers should challenge the dominance of English and prioritize the
use of African languages in their literary works.

Ngugi emphasizes the importance of African languages in expressing African

experiences, cultures, and worldviews. He argues that African writers should
write in their native languages to give voice to their own people and to break
free from the linguistic and cultural hegemony of the colonizers. By doing so,
he believes that African literature can become a powerful medium for
asserting African consciousness and identity.

Additionally, Ngugi criticizes the Eurocentric nature of the literary canon,

which often marginalizes African writers and perspectives. He advocates for
the inclusion of African literature in the global literary discourse and the
recognition of African literary traditions as equal to those of the Western
canon. Ngugi believes that African literature has its own unique aesthetics,
themes, and storytelling techniques that deserve recognition and appreciation.

Ngugi's theories on language and literature are deeply rooted in his

commitment to decolonization, cultural revival, and the empowerment of
African people. His work has had a profound impact on African literary
studies and has inspired many writers and scholars to explore the complexities
of language, identity, and representation in postcolonial contexts.
Q: 2 The underlying basis of the standard of taste “the universal sentiments of
mankind”. Discuss in detail with reference to David Hume?

A: 2 “The standard of taste” written by David Hume. Hume, an influential

Scottish philosopher, explored the nature of aesthetic judgment and the
criteria by which we evaluate art and beauty.

According to Hume, the standard of taste is based on the "universal

sentiments of mankind." He suggests that there are certain qualities or
principles that are universally appreciated and agreed upon by people across
different cultures and backgrounds. These universal sentiments form the
foundation of our judgments about beauty, art, and taste.

Hume argues that although individual tastes may vary, there are underlying
principles that can be used to assess the merits of a work of art. He believed
that there are objective criteria that can be applied to aesthetic judgments,
even though individual preferences might differ. Hume proposed that the
standard of taste is not solely based on personal opinion but rather on shared
human experiences and emotions.

For Hume, the standard of taste is not fixed or rigid. It evolves over time as
societies and cultures change. He recognized that different historical periods
and cultural contexts can shape our perceptions of beauty and taste. However,
he believed that there are still universal principles that transcend these
variations and form the basis of aesthetic judgment.

Hume's emphasis on the universal sentiments of mankind highlights the

importance of considering the broader human experience when evaluating art
and beauty. By acknowledging the shared emotional responses and common
human nature, Hume suggests that aesthetic judgments can have a degree of
objectivity, even amidst individual subjectivity.

It's worth noting that Hume's ideas on the standard of taste have been subject
to critique and debate. Some argue that cultural and individual differences
play a more significant role in shaping aesthetic judgments than Hume
suggests. Nonetheless, Hume's exploration of the universal sentiments of
mankind has contributed to ongoing discussions on the nature of aesthetic
judgment and the criteria we use to evaluate art.
Q: 3 Write a detailed note on your idea of criticism and its importance in the
evaluation of a work of art. Think independently and critically. (You can refer
to the critics that you have read in your syllabus)?

A: 3 When it comes to the idea of criticism and its importance in evaluating a

work of art, there are various perspectives from notable critics throughout
history.

Oscar Wilde, a renowned writer and critic, believed that criticism should not
only analyze a work of art but also appreciate its beauty and aesthetic
qualities. He emphasized the importance of individual interpretation and
subjectivity, suggesting that criticism should be an art form in itself.

Plotinus, a philosopher from ancient Greece, had a more metaphysical

approach to criticism. He believed that art should inspire the soul and elevate
one's spiritual consciousness. According to Plotinus, the role of criticism is to
identify the transcendent qualities of a work of art and guide individuals
towards a deeper understanding of beauty and truth.

Mary Wollstonecraft, an influential feminist writer, argued that criticism

should not only assess the artistic merits of a work but also consider its social
and political implications. She believed that art can be a powerful tool for
social change, and criticism should address issues of gender, class, and
inequality.
Sigmund Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, introduced the concept of
psychoanalytic criticism. He believed that art reflects the unconscious desires
and conflicts of the artist and the audience. Freud argued that criticism
should explore the psychological dimensions of a work, uncovering hidden
meanings and symbols.

Terry Eagleton, a contemporary literary critic, emphasized the importance of

ideological criticism. He argued that art is not separate from society but
deeply embedded in it. Eagleton believed that criticism should analyze the
social, political, and economic contexts in which a work of art is created and
received.

Roland Barthes, a French philosopher and critic, introduced the concept of

semiotics in criticism. He believed that meaning is constructed through signs
and symbols, and criticism should unravel the layers of meaning in a work of
art. Barthes emphasized the role of the reader or viewer in interpreting and
creating meaning.

These are just a few examples of the diverse perspectives on criticism and its
importance in evaluating art. Each critic brings their unique insights and
approaches to the table, enriching our understanding of art and its
significance. Criticism helps us engage with art on a deeper level, fostering
dialogue, and expanding our perspectives.
In my View:

In my view, criticism plays a vital role in the evaluation of a work of art. It

allows us to delve into the complexities and nuances of artistic expression,
helping us appreciate the artist's intentions, techniques, and messages.
Criticism challenges us to think critically, question assumptions
 Past Paper 2021

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Write a detailed note on the concept of mythologies by Roland Barthes?

A: 1 The concept of mythologies is given by Roland Barthes. Mythologies is a

collection of essays written by Roland Barthes, a French philosopher and
critic, in which he explores the ways in which everyday objects, practices, and
cultural phenomena are imbued with hidden meanings and ideologies.

Barthes argues that myths are not just ancient tales or legends, but rather a
system of signs and symbols that shape our understanding of the world. He
suggests that myths are created and perpetuated by society to uphold certain
ideologies, often reinforcing dominant power structures and social norms.

In Mythologies, Barthes analyzes a wide range of topics, including

advertisements, popular culture, fashion, and even wrestling. He deconstructs
these seemingly trivial or mundane aspects of everyday life to reveal the
underlying messages and ideologies they convey.
One of Barthes' key insights is that myths naturalize and normalize certain
ideas or values, making them appear natural and unquestionable. For
example, he examines how advertisements use images of luxury and glamour
to create the myth of consumerism and the idea that happiness can be
achieved through material possessions.

Barthes also explores the concept of signification, highlighting how meaning is

constructed through signs and symbols. He argues that myths distort and
manipulate these signs, often creating false or misleading meanings. By
critically examining these myths, Barthes aims to expose the hidden ideologies
and challenge the dominant narratives that shape our society.

Overall, Barthes' concept of mythologies invites us to question the taken-for-

granted assumptions and meanings embedded in our culture. It encourages us
to be critical consumers of the signs and symbols that surround us, and to
recognize the power dynamics and ideologies at play.
Q: 2 Discuss the relationship between idea and beauty in Hegel?

A: 2 The relationship between idea and beauty is given by Hegel' in his work
"Lectures on Fine Arts." In these lectures, Hegel explores the philosophical
concept of art and its connection to the human spirit.

According to Hegel, art is not just about creating something visually pleasing;
it goes beyond aesthetics. He argues that true beauty in art arises when the
artist successfully manifests an idea or concept through their work. In other
words, the idea behind the artwork gives it its true beauty.

For Hegel, the idea represents the artist's intention, their vision, or the
concept they aim to convey. It is the driving force behind the creation of the
artwork. The artist's skill lies in their ability to translate this idea into a
tangible form, whether it be a painting, sculpture, or any other artistic
medium.

Hegel believes that when the idea is fully expressed in the artwork, it becomes
beautiful. The beauty of art, therefore, is not merely superficial or subjective,
but rather a reflection of the deeper meaning and purpose that the artist seeks
to communicate.
Furthermore, Hegel emphasizes that the idea in art is not limited to
intellectual concepts or abstract notions. It can also encompass emotions,
feelings, and the human spirit. Art has the power to evoke profound emotional
responses and connect with our innermost selves.

In Hegel's view, the relationship between idea and beauty is a reciprocal one.
The idea gives beauty its substance and depth, while beauty brings the idea to
life and captivates the viewer. It is through this interplay that art becomes a
powerful medium for expressing and exploring the complexities of the human
experience.
Q: 3 Write a detailed note on the idea of displacement of Freud?

A: 3 Sigmund Freud given the idea of displacement in his essay "The

Interpretation of Dreams." In this influential work, Freud explores the
complex nature of dreams and the hidden meanings they may hold.

According to Freud, displacement is a defense mechanism that occurs in

dreams. It involves the transformation of a person, object, or situation into
something else, often less threatening or more acceptable. This transformation
allows the dreamer to express their unconscious desires or fears in a symbolic
way, without directly confronting them.

In dreams, displacement operates through the process of condensation and

symbolization. Condensation refers to the merging of multiple thoughts,
emotions, or images into a single dream element. Symbolization, on the other
hand, involves the substitution of one object or person for another that is
connected through some underlying meaning.

Through displacement, the true meaning or significance of certain dream

elements is concealed or distorted. Freud believed that this distortion was a
result of the censorship imposed by the conscious mind, which aims to protect
the dreamer from experiencing overwhelming emotions or desires.
For example, a dream about a snake may not necessarily represent a literal
fear of snakes. Instead, it could be a symbol for something else, like a
repressed sexual desire or a feeling of danger in a particular situation.
Displacement allows these hidden meanings to be expressed indirectly,
protecting the dreamer's conscious awareness.

Freud's concept of displacement is an essential aspect of his psychoanalytic

theory and his understanding of the unconscious mind. It highlights the
complex and symbolic nature of dreams, suggesting that they offer valuable
insights into our unconscious desires, fears, and conflicts.
 Past Paper 2022

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Do we really need to abolish English Departments to decolonize?

A: 1 According to Ngugi wa Thiong'o, the renowned Kenyan writer and

scholar, the argument for abolishing English departments is rooted in the
history of colonialism and its impact on language and literature. Ngugi
advocates for the decolonization of education and the promotion of indigenous
languages and literatures.

Ngugi's perspective is rooted in the history of colonialism and its impact on

language and literature. He advocates for the decolonization of education and
the promotion of indigenous languages and literatures. By abolishing English
departments, Ngugi suggests that universities can create space for the study
and celebration of diverse languages and literatures. This would challenge the
dominance of English and promote a more inclusive and equitable approach
to education.

Ngugi argues that English, as a language imposed by colonial powers,

continues to perpetuate cultural and linguistic domination. English
departments, in his view, prioritize the study of Western literature while
marginalizing and undervaluing the rich literary traditions of non-Western
cultures.

By abolishing English departments, Ngugi suggests that universities can

create space for the study and celebration of diverse languages and
literatures. This would not only challenge the dominance of English but also
promote a more inclusive and equitable approach to education.

By embracing a more diverse range of literary traditions, Ngugi argues that

universities can foster a greater understanding and appreciation of different
cultures. This approach promotes a more inclusive and equitable educational
environment, where the voices and narratives of marginalized communities
are given the recognition they deserve.

Ngugi's perspective is part of a broader movement that seeks to decolonize

education and elevate marginalized voices and narratives. It encourages a
reevaluation of traditional literary canons and a recognition of the importance
of cultural diversity in academia.

It's important to note that this is just one perspective, and there are varying
opinions on this topic. The discussion around the role of English departments
and the decolonization of education is ongoing and invites dialogue and
critical engagement.
Q: 2 How does Freud interpret dreams as a pathway to human unconscious?

A: 2 In his essay "The Interpretation of Dreams," Freud explores the idea

that dreams provide a pathway to the human unconscious. He suggests that
dreams are not random or meaningless, but rather, they are expressions of
our deepest desires, fears, and unresolved conflicts.

According to Freud, dreams are a way for our unconscious mind to

communicate with our conscious mind. He believed that dreams contain
hidden symbols and meanings that can be deciphered through the process of
dream analysis. Freud introduced the concept of dream symbolism, suggesting
that certain objects or events in dreams represent hidden or repressed
thoughts and emotions.

Freud also proposed the existence of the "manifest content" and the "latent
content" of dreams. The manifest content refers to the literal and surface-
level elements of a dream, while the latent content represents the hidden,
symbolic meanings behind those elements. Through the interpretation of these
symbolic elements, Freud believed that we can gain insight into our
unconscious desires and conflicts.
Additionally, Freud emphasized the role of wish fulfillment in dreams. He
argued that dreams often fulfill our unconscious wishes and fantasies,
allowing us to experience and express desires that may be repressed in our
waking lives. Dreams provide a safe space for us to explore and process these
hidden desires, even if they may seem strange or irrational.

Freud's interpretation of dreams as a pathway to the human unconscious has

had a significant influence on the field of psychology. While his theories have
been subject to criticism and alternative perspectives have emerged over time,
his work has sparked ongoing discussions and exploration of the complex
nature of dreams and their connection to our innermost thoughts and
emotions.
Q: 3 Discuss the main argument in Charles Baudelaire?

A: 3 In his essay "The Painter of Modern Life," Charles Baudelaire presents

the main argument that the role of the modern artist is to capture and
represent the fleeting and transient aspects of contemporary urban life.
Baudelaire argues that the artist should be an observer and interpreter of the
modern world, capturing its essence through their artistic creations.

According to Baudelaire, the modern artist should focus on portraying the

everyday experiences, the crowds, the fashion, and the changing landscapes of
the city. He believes that these elements reflect the spirit of the times and hold
great artistic value. Baudelaire emphasizes the importance of capturing the
present moment and the unique aspects of modernity, rather than dwelling on
the past or imitating classical art forms.

Baudelaire also highlights the concept of "the dandy" in his essay. He

describes the dandy as an individual who embodies a particular attitude
towards life, characterized by elegance, refinement, and a sense of
detachment. The dandy is seen as an ideal figure who can navigate the
complexities of modern society with style and grace.
Furthermore, Baudelaire argues that the artist should not only observe the
external world but also delve into their own inner experiences and emotions.
He believes that the artist's subjective perspective and personal interpretation
are essential in capturing the true essence of modern life.

Overall, Baudelaire's main argument in "The Painter of Modern Life"

centers around the idea that the artist should embrace the present, observe
the modern world, and use their artistic skills to depict the fleeting nature of
contemporary urban life. By doing so, the artist becomes a vital interpreter
and chronicler of their time.
 Past Paper 2023

Q: 1 Answer the following questions?

Q: 1 Write a detailed note on main arguments in Terry Eagleton?

Terry Eagleton's essay "Introduction to Literary Theory: An Introduction"

provides a comprehensive overview of literary theory, its origins, and its
various approaches. Eagleton explores the fundamental questions of literary
theory and challenges traditional assumptions about literature and its
interpretation. Here are the main arguments presented in his essay:

1. Literary theory as a discipline: Eagleton argues that literary theory is

an indispensable field of study that helps us understand the complex nature of
literature. It provides frameworks, concepts, and tools to analyze and
interpret literary texts, going beyond mere personal opinions or subjective
interpretations.

2. Literature and ideology: Eagleton highlights the relationship between

literature and ideology. He argues that literature is deeply embedded in the
social and political context of its production, reflecting and perpetuating
certain ideologies. Literary theory aims to uncover and critically examine
these ideologies, revealing the power dynamics and social structures at play in
the text.

3. The role of language: Eagleton emphasizes the significance of language

in literary theory. He explores how language shapes meaning and
understanding, and how different literary theories approach the study of
language. Structuralism, for example, focuses on the underlying structure of
language, while poststructuralism challenges fixed meanings and explores the
complexities of language and representation.

4. Interpretation and meaning: Eagleton discusses the multiple ways in

which literary texts can be interpreted. He critiques the notion of a "correct"
interpretation and suggests that meaning is not fixed but is instead shaped
through various interpretations. He explores different approaches to
interpretation, including authorial intent, reader-response theory, and
deconstruction.

5. Literary history and tradition: Eagleton examines the role of literary

history and tradition in shaping literature and literary theory. He argues that
understanding the historical and cultural context of a text is crucial to its
interpretation. Literary theory helps us uncover the historical and social
forces that shape literature and allows us to analyze texts within their broader
literary traditions.
6. Literature and society: Eagleton asserts that literature is not an isolated
realm but is deeply intertwined with society. He argues that literature reflects
and engages with social, political, and cultural issues, and that literary theory
helps us understand these connections. It enables us to critically analyze and
challenge dominant ideologies and power structures.

In summary, Terry Eagleton's essay "Introduction to Literary Theory: An

Introduction" presents a wide range of arguments related to the study of
literary theory. He emphasizes the importance of understanding literature
within its social and historical context, challenges traditional assumptions
about interpretation, and explores the relationship between literature,
language, ideology, and society. Eagleton's essay serves as a thought-
provoking introduction to the complexities of literary theory and its relevance
in understanding and analyzing literature.
Q: 2 What is myth? And how does it serve the purpose of understanding
human life according to Ronald Barthes?

A: 2 Roland Barthes, a prominent French philosopher and literary theorist,

explored the concept of myth and its significance in understanding human life.
In his book "Mythologies," Barthes discusses the creation, function, and
dangers of myth, offering insights into its role in society. Here is an overview
of Barthes' understanding of myth and its purpose:

1. Definition of Myth: Barthes defines myth as a type of speech or a system

of communication. He emphasizes that myth is not an object, concept, or idea,
but rather a mode of signification, a form of expression. Myth transforms
language into a message, conveying meaning through symbolic references and
associations.

2. Creation of Myth: Barthes explains that myths are constructed by

attaching meaning to a form or a sign. The form itself may be empty or
neutral, but through myth, it acquires significance and conveys a particular
message. Myths often involve direct or implicit motivations, and they can be
created intentionally or unconsciously.

3. Function of Myth: According to Barthes, myths serve several functions

in society. They naturalize and depoliticize certain ideas, presenting them as
common sense or eternal truths. Myths simplify complex human acts and
relationships, reducing them to easily understandable and accepted
narratives. They also reinforce dominant ideologies and power structures,
shaping our thoughts and perceptions of the world.

4. Understanding Human Life: Barthes suggests that studying and

analyzing myths can provide insights into the cultural, social, and political
forces that shape human life. Myths reveal the hidden meanings and
ideologies embedded in everyday objects, practices, and discourses. By
critically examining myths, we can uncover the underlying power dynamics
and challenge dominant narratives.

5. Dangers of Myth: Barthes warns that myths can be dangerous as they

can perpetuate false or oppressive ideologies. They can mask the true nature
of social and political realities, making them appear natural and innocent. By
uncritically accepting myths, individuals may unknowingly reinforce
oppressive systems and ideologies.

In summary, Roland Barthes views myth as a form of communication that

transforms language into a message. Myth serves the purpose of naturalizing
and depoliticizing certain ideas, simplifying complex human acts, and
reinforcing dominant ideologies. By analyzing myths, we can gain insights into
the cultural and social forces that shape human life. However, Barthes also
cautions about the dangers of uncritically accepting myths, as they can
perpetuate false ideologies and mask oppressive realities.
Q: 3 What do dreams reveal about our subjectivities according to Freud?

A: 3 According to Sigmund Freud, dreams reveal important insights into our

subjectivities, desires, and unconscious thoughts. Freud proposed several key
ideas regarding the interpretation of dreams:

1. Dreams as the Fulfillment of Wishes: Freud argued that dreams are

the fulfillment of unconscious wishes and desires that are repressed in our
waking lives. Dreams provide an outlet for these repressed thoughts and allow
them to be expressed in symbolic and disguised forms.

2. Manifest and Latent Content: Freud distinguished between the

manifest content and latent content of dreams. The manifest content refers to
the actual storyline or images experienced in the dream, while the latent
content represents the hidden, symbolic meaning behind the dream. Freud
believed that the true significance of a dream lies in its latent content, which
needs to be interpreted to understand its underlying desires and conflicts.

3. Symbolism and Disguise: Freud suggested that dreams use symbolism

and disguise to express repressed thoughts and desires. The content of dreams
may be distorted or transformed to protect the dreamer from the potentially
disturbing or unacceptable nature of their unconscious wishes.
4. Unconscious Desires and Conflicts: Dreams provide a window into our
unconscious mind, revealing desires, conflicts, and unresolved issues that may
be influencing our thoughts and behaviors. Freud believed that by analyzing
dreams, individuals could gain insight into their unconscious motivations and
better understand their psychological states.

5. Interpretation and Psychoanalysis: Freud developed a method of

dream interpretation known as psychoanalysis. This approach involves
exploring the symbols, associations, and emotions present in dreams to
uncover their hidden meanings. Through the interpretation of dreams,
individuals can gain self-awareness and gain insights into their unconscious
thoughts and desires.

In summary, according to Freud, dreams serve as a pathway to understanding

our subjectivities by revealing repressed desires, conflicts, and unconscious
thoughts. By analyzing the symbolism and latent content of dreams,
individuals can gain valuable insights into their psychological states and
uncover hidden aspects of their inner lives.