Geography

Earth and Universe

• Big Bang Theory(e Hubble)=Uiverse is expanding but Galaxies are not

◦ Tiny ball exploded 13.7 Billion years ago, energ got converted to matter, after 300,000 years temp dropped to 4500K and gave
rise to atomic mateer and transparent universe.
◦ Nebula->large dense clouds->Stars

◦ Cluster of stars= nebulas/galaxy

• Light year measures distance and not time 1ly=9.4*10^12KM( distance between eart and sun in terms of lY=8.311 min)

• Plantesimals=Large number of small bodies which further combine to form Planets

◦ Planets were formed 4.6 billion years ago

• Comet=Chunk of ice from outer space

• Asteroid=between jupiter and mars

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• Meteroid= Rock bigger than dust grain and smallr than asteroid

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• meteor=Falling start, burning falls to earth

◦ metorite= unburnt lands on earth

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• Evolution of atmosphere

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1. Solar winds blew earths atmosphere of H2 and He
2. Degassing ensured release of gas, water vapor, N2, CH4,, NH3 and very less O2 from interior of earth due to cooling
3. Cooling led to water vapor into rain mixed with CO2 E
4. This led to life in Oceans(photosynthesis released O2 in atmosphere)3million years ago
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• Eons>Era>Period>Epoch

• Characteristics of Milky way

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◦ Venus is earths twin due to mass and density

◦ Jupiter has circular lights and dark bands

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◦ Saturn has 3 rings

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◦ SMALLEST= MERCURY; most dense=earth, mars; least dense= saturn

◦ Earth orbits/revolves around sun in ANTI CLOCKWISE direction ; Uranus in clockwise

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◦ Earth rotates West to East`pole fleeing force

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◦ Moon was formed due to Big Splat, when a body collided with earth, moon got separated

▪ revolves and rotates ANTI Clockwise

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◦ perihelion= closest; aphelion is farthest

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◦ In Summer Artic region is called LAND of Mid Night SUN

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◦ Earth>New Moon> Sun////// Full moon>Earth>Sun

Inside Earths Crust

 • Gravity Anomaly= uneven dstribution of mass within earrth
• Earths heat=Due to radioactive decay in crust and mantle~only NUCLEAR fission and not Fusion
◦ Primordial heat and Tidal Friction

• O2(OS CIA) most abundant in earth crust; Fe(iOSi) most abundant in Earth
• MOHOROVICIC discontinuity is boundary between crust and asthenosphere

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• GUTENBERG discontinuity between Mantle and Outer core

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• Lithsphere= Crust+ Upper Mantle~ tectonic plates
• Asthenosphere= Upper mantle and just below Lithosphere( main source of magma)
lithosphere float on asthenosphere

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•

Mantle= 83%earth volume and 67% mass

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•

• Outer core(liq)= convection cells

• inner core(solid)= rotates faster than surface 33%mass
• Crust= sial over sima E
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• mantle= olivine
• Core=knife
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Earth magnetic field
• Dynamo theory=convection in outer core+coriolis effect gives rise to magnetic field
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◦ diff in T,P,D within outer core causes convection current in molten iron this creates convergent and divergent boundaries
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◦ flow of liq iron generates electric curren -> magnetic field

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• Earths North and North Magnetic pole is South pole of magnetic field

• pole reveerse after some 100000 years; suns mag field reverses after every 11 years
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• Magnetic declination = angle between NP and Magnetic north

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• magnetosphere= region above IONOSPHERE extent of magnetic field; protects earth from SOLAR wind and COSMIC rays

• Sun's magnetic field= Heliosphere

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• Bow Shock= area where Solar winds slow abruptly

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• Auroras=produced by solar winds descending from magnetosphere

• Geomagnetic storms= coronal mass ejection above sun

◦ rapid drop in magnetic field of earth; ionosphere gets heated causes SATTELITE drag

• Venus lacks magnetic field; Jupiter has largest firld

• Earthquake =

◦ Energy Magnitude=Richter Scale(0-10);;;;; Damage Intensity=Mercalli(1-12)

◦ epicentre on surface and focus or hypocentre inside

◦ P and S are body waves; Land R are surface waves

◦ P>S>L>R in terms of velocity

◦ denser the material higher is velocity of wave

◦ BODY WAVES

▪ p waves (just like sound waves) parellel and longitudnal and S waves transverse and perpendicular to direction of wave

▪ p wave shadow zone=105-145; S wave shadow zon=105<

 ▪P waves are least destructive and high frequency can travel in all medium: they are first to reach earth
▪ s waves creat trough and crests and pass thru only SOLID

◦ Surface Waves

▪ Most destructive

▪ Long wavelength

▪ Love>Raleigh

◦ 103-142 deg shadow zone of P and S waves

◦ Tsunamis are result of tremors and NOT earthquake

Vulcanism
• Intrusive land forms

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◦ Batholith=Cools at greater depth, covers large area
◦ Lacolith= dome shape, coonected by pipe from below

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◦ sill=horizontal; dyke=vertical

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◦ dome shape=blister

◦ saucer shape=lapolith

◦ lens shape/wavy=phacolith

• Acid lavas form steep mountains ; viscous and high silica

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• basaltic lava is lesss viscous , hence vlcanoes are larger

• Igneous rock= plutonic=inside rock, magma(Large crystals); volcanic=surface rock(crystals) basalts,lava

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• Shield volcanoes are largest; Caldera volcano are most Explosive

• Flood Basalt=Deccan Traps (MH)

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• Active-> Dormant -> Extinct are phases of volcano

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• Lighthouse of Medeteranian= Mt. Stromboli

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• Caldera= enlarged depression in mountain tops

• lake Toba, indonesia= largest crater lake

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• Mantle Plume= convection of hot magma(mushroom shape)~result in flood baasalts

• NO active volcano in Himalaya

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• Geysers= Fountain of Hot water, EXPLOSIVE; Yellowstone

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• Hot Springs= not explosive

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• 70% earthquake in Pacific Ring and 20% in mediterranean- himalayan belt

Distribution of Oceans and Continents
• force for driftong=Polar Fleeing+tidal
• Convectional Current=due to thermal difference n MANTLE

• 7 major plates=antartica, north america, south america,pacific,ind-aus-new zealand, africa east atlantic, eurasia
• Fold Mountains= Himalaya, Alps, Rockies, Andes= have volcanic activity

• Block Mountain=Hunsruck, Vosges, Blac forest(rhineland), African rift valley

• Volcanic mountains=fuji,mayon(phillip), merapi(sumatra), agubg(bali), catopaxi(Ecuador)

• Residual Mountains= from denudation Manaodnock, highlands of Scotland, Scandinavia, Deccan plateau
• INTERMONT=Plateau enclosed by Fold Mountains , tibet,bolivian
Weathering
• aquafier=Permeable rock in which water is stored

• Springs form due to ground water reachig surface

 • Mega ocean=Panthalassa
• process of sedimentation= LITHIFICATIOn

• Metamorphic rocks= Foliation/Lineation(arrangement of grains in layers)///Banding=light and dark shade

Geomorphism=changes in earth surface configuration(by external or internal forces
• endogenic/diastrophism=deformation/land building;=Diastrophism, Vulcanism

◦ Diastrophism=Orogenic, epeirogenic(Continnt bulding), earthquake, plate Tectonics

• exogenic/denudation=land wearing/degradation of elevations and filling/aggradation of basins/depressions

◦ Gravity,chemical proceese, Temp, Rain

◦ Mass movement(not erosion) is result of gravity and not air, water or ice force

• Weathering is not always a pre condition to erosion

• Hardpans are salty crust formed due to high evaporation rate

• Andaman And nicobar are part of ARAKAN coast but separated due to subsidence
Landforms
• crescent shaped dunes=Barchans= points away from wind

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• Sandy surface covered with vegetation= Parabolic dunes(reverse barchans= points towards wind

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Rivers
1. gentler the river , greater is the deposition

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Erosional landforms Depositional landforms
1. Gorge=deep valley with steep STRAIGH 1. Alluvial Fans= Conical
sidesz(kaveri) deposits when river flows
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2. Canyons=stepped sides(at some angle) from higher to lower
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gradient sloped mountains
3. pothole =cylindrical, bowl-shaped, or irregular 2. Deltas=sediments by
hollow that is usually deeper than wide.
river dumped in sea plain-
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4. Plunge Pools=deep base of waterfall --leads to formation of

5. meandering=erodes the sediments of an outer, distributaries
convex bank and deposits sediments on an 3. Flod plains, natural
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inner, concave/cut-off bank levves, point

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6. river terraces bars(concave side of

meander)
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1. estuary=submerged mouth of river= ideal for fishing

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2. Antecedent Drainage: cuts through the newly formed landform and maintains the same path. E.g. Himalayan rivers, The soil formed
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is weak (mostly weak sediments), and the rivers easily erode it.
3. Superimposed Drainage: cuts deeper through the existing landform and maintains the same path. E.g. some medium scale rivers of
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the Northern and Eastern peninsular India. The rivers have high erosive power so that they can cut through the underlying strata.
eg=chambal, subarnrekha,damodar
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Groundwater
a. KARST Topography
Erosional Depositinal
1. Swallow holes=shallow depressions 1. Stalactites=Hanging
2. Sinkhole=Circular and funnel shaped on roof
3. Collapse sink=DOLINE 2. Stalagmite=attached
to ground
4. Uvalas/Valley
Sinks=Sinkholes+collapse
5. Ridges/lapies/limestone pavements
6. Caves
Galciers
Erosional Depositional
1. Cirque=deep , long, wide trough= leads 1. Till=fine debris dropped by melting
to cirque/tarn Lakes glacier
2. Horns=headward erosion of cirque walls 2. Moraines=Long ridges formed by Till
3. Serrated Ridges/Aretes=Narrowing of deposits
cirque side walls 3. eskers= boulders and blocks found
4. Glacial valleys/Troughs=U shaped beneath glacier
broad base, // 4. Outwash Plain=at foot of mountains
5. Fiords=sea water filled in Glacial valley 5. Drumlins=smooth oval shaped ridge=
give direction of glacial movement
Winds
Erosional Depositional

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1. Pediment=steep floor of mountains 1. Barchans=crecent shaped dunes, points

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2. Pediplain=high relief transformed to away from wind direction
featureless plains 2. Seif=one wingd barchan

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3. Playas=Shallow LAKES, with salts 3. Parabolic dunes=partial vegetation,
called alkali flats towards wind direction

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4. deflation hollow, cave,blow outs 4. Transverse and longitudnal dunes
5. mushroom, table,pedestal roscks
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Facts
• Mponeng gold mine= deepest mine in world
Latitude and Longitude
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• delhi=77E 28N

• Indian meridian =82.5deg E===Mirzapur(Allahbad) ; chaibagan time 1hr ahead of IST

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• International Date Line is 180 deg east to Greenwich/prime meredian

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• NORTH POLE is LATITUTDE

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• Linear distance of degree of latitude at pole is longer than equator due to flattening at poles

• Torrid=Tropical; frigid=polar zone

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• Mid day sun never shines overhead beyond tropics

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• in Summer sun is higher in Sky than in winter and days are longer==reason for summers
• At equator sun rises and sets more fast than at temperate latituted, due to vertical path of sun at equator
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• 15deg=1hr
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Motion o Earth
• Days are longer than night at equator AlWAYS due to refraction in atmosphere
• perihelion=sun(jan and A=July); Perigee=Moon

• in Summer sun is higher in Sky than in winter and days are longer==reason for summers
• At equator sun rises and sets more fast than at temperate latituted, due to vertical path of sun at equator

• Solar eclipse=sun-moon-earth; umbra is region on earth where moons shadow is casted

• Lunar eclipse= sun-earth-moon; blood moon=red light refracted from polluted atmosphere

• moon has a tilted orbit at 5deg hence not everyday is lunar

Atmosphere
• water vapour absorbs incoming(short wave) and refrlected terristerial radiation (long wave)
• dust= acts as nuclei for condensation in formation of clouds(reason for high rainfall in urban areas)
 • Troposphere=Important for Weather and climatic changes
◦ Temp at tropopause is -80 deg at Equator and -45 at Poles!!!!

• stratosphere=No clouds ; contains ozone(chemosphere)

• Mesosphere=most meteors burn; mesopause=coldest place on earth

• Thermosphere=ionosphere; auroras

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Solar Radiation, Heat Balance and Temp

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• Higher that latitude lesser is the angle made with sun rays
• Insolation Tropics>>>Equator

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• Insolation Continent>>>Ocean
• Radiation=no medium requirred

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• Conduction= molecular activity(prominent in Lower level of atmosphere)
• Convection=Transfer of matter vertically((confined to troposphere)

• Advection=Transfer of matter horizontally=Loo

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• Albedo of earth=35;;;Surplus radiation=40de N &S and beyond that Deficit(high albedo)

• Thermal Anomaly= Mean temp of place- mean temp of its latitude

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• diurnal range is highest in interior of continent

• No clouds in sub tropics due to Subsiding air hence highest temp as compared to equator
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• Latent heat of condensation = heat released ; evaporation= absorbed

• lapse rate= change in temp with altitude

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◦ Temp Inversion=Long winter night with clear sky re.sults in dense fog
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• Adiabetic lapse rate= change in temp with pressure

• 1 Atmospheric Pressure= weight of column of air in a unit area from mean sea level to top atmosphere(1013mb=101325Pa at sea level)
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• Pressure decreases with increasing height

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Loo Hot Harmful Plains of northern India and Pakistan

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Mistral Cold Harmful Rhine valley – Southern France

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Sirocco Hot Harmful Mediterranean wind that comes from the Sahara
Fohn Hot Beneficial Leeward side of Alps
Chinook Hot Beneficial Leeward side of Rockies
• Geostrophic winds= blow parellel to Isobars in absence of Friction(pressure gradient is balanced by Coriolis force)
• Evaporation is inversely proportional to salinity
• Valley Breeze=During day slope gets heated hence, air from valley move up
• Katabatic wind= during night slope gets cooled and air descends
• Absolute Humidity= Actual volume amount of vapour,, wt of vapor/unit volume atmosphere
• Relative= actual/full capacity (relative=100% at dew point~temp of saturated air)
• Specific=wt of vapour/wt of air (not affected by T,P changes)
• DEW=droplets on cooler surfave of objects and not air nuclei (dew point>Freezing point)
• WHITE FROST=cold surface when dew point<freezing point
 • FOG= temperature inversion leds to condensation in dust particles
• MIST=Mist has more moisture than fog
• smog=fog+smoke
• haze= smog with no condensation
Extra Tropical/wavy cyclones, Tropical
1. Cover larger area~sea and 1. Cover less area~sea
land 2. No frontogenesis
2. Clear frontal system 3. Higher wind velocity
3. Lower wind velocity 4. East to
4. West to east(westerlies) west(easterlies
• Thunerstorm occur on moist high temp of land and less on cold oceans cause by intense CONVECTION
• Lighting due to collision of ice crystals small and big which release electrons in cumulonimbus clouds(top cloud is +ve and bottom is -

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ve anions

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• Tornadoes occur in spring and summer in mid latitudes at convergence of warm and cold air mass
◦ Over sea they are called Water Spouts

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• Halo of sun due to refraction and reflection by ice crystals in cirrus clouds
• Jet streams are formed due to winds flowing from tropics to poles in upper atmosphere and Flow from W to E in BOtH

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HEMISPHERE(westerlies)
◦ polar jet= temperate to poles

◦ Sub tropical jet= subtropics to temperate

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◦ meander due to LOW temp contrast~rossby waves

◦ migrate with ITCZ

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◦ Trough is where cold air drops to warm air ; vice versa ridge

• Normal Conditions
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◦ • Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Cold Ocean Water == Good for Fishing.

◦ • Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Warm Ocean Water == Plenty of rains.
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• El Nino
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◦ • Eastern Pacific == Coast of Peru and Ecuador == Warm Ocean Water == Fishing industry takes a hit.
◦ • Western Pacific == Indonesia and Australia == Cold Ocean Water == Drought.
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Lakshadweep has 0% forest area

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India=23.85
Forest policy 1952=,1988= Forst area should be 33%
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Oceanography
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• continental slope is end of Continents; canyons and trenches here

• Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor that does not reach the surface of the ocean.

• Guyots: The flat-topped mountains (seamounts) are known as guyots.

• Canyon: a deep gorge, especially one with a river flowing through it.

• Gorge: a steep, narrow valley or ravine.

• Valley: a low area between hills or mountains typically with a river or stream flowing through it.

• biggest ocean=pacific>atlantic>indian>antartic>artic
• north point of pacific is bering strait=russia-alaska

• atlantic=most significant for trade

• LONGITUDNAL Variation in Ocean temp

◦ On shore winds blow towards land hence pile up WARM surface water towards coast
◦ OFF shore winds drive warm surface current away from coast

• Northerm Hemisphere Ocean is warmer than Southern Hemisphere ocean

 • Grand bank continental shelf is most productive
• TIDES
◦ Ebb=Falling water;;Flow/Flood=rising water m

◦ Semidiurnal=2Ht and 2Lt each day

◦ Diurnal= 1Ht and 1Lt

◦ Spring Tide=Sun ,moon,earth in same line=SYZYGY position= New Moon and full moon(Ht higher than usual; Lt lower than usual)
◦ Neap Tide= Sun, moon, earth at right angle;;Forces of sun and moon COUNTERACT=Quadrature position=(Ht lower than usual; Lt
HIGHER than usual
• Ocean Currents
◦ Warm current=found in east coast in mid latituds and west coast in higher latitude
◦ Cold current=found in west coast in mid latituds and east coast in higher latitude

◦ Ocean currents rotate clockwise in NH and anti clockwise in SH

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indian ocean
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◦ lakshadeep and maldives are coral island
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◦ A&N and SL, madagascar, zanzibar are Continental island

◦ mauritius and Reunion island are VOLCANIC islands
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• Bays= water body surrounded on three sides by land, fourth is mouth WIDE open
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▪ smaller and less enclosed than gulf

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• Gulfs=almost completely surrounded by land and has NARROW mouth(largest=mexico)

• Straits=narrow passage between continents,island,WATER Bodies

• Isthmus=strip of land connecting two larger land masses(panama,suez)

• Sargasso sea=no land bundary

• Coral
◦ zooxanthellea gives nutrient to polyp anf gets protected env to thrive and also give colration
Indian Geography
• 37N-8.4N(indra point=6.4N);;;;;;;;;;;;68E-97E

• 2.4%surface of earth
• Due to Himalayas India is tropicalExcept MP,CG,JH Delhi, HR,Telangana all states have International Border

• Indias shortest border with Afghanistan

• China=J&k, HP, UK, Sk, AP

• Nepal=UK,SK, UP, Bihar, WB

 • Pakistan=J&k, RJ, GJ
• Bangladesh=Assam, West Bengal, Mizoram, Meghalaya, and Tripura
• Myanmar=Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram

• Sri Lanka=Palk strait

• Afghanistan

• Bhutan=West Bengal, Sikkim, Assam and Arunachal Pradesh

• Diphu pass/Talu pass is tri junction of India,Tibet, Myanmar

• HIMALAYAS
◦ Souther slopes are steep as compared to Northern(tibet)

1. Shivaliks/Outer
a. Forest Cover decreases to west due to less rainfall
2. Lesser/Middle/HIMACHAL/Lower
a. Mahabhart lekh in Nepal is Continuation of Mussorie range
b. major hill stations in this range

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c. pir panjal(j&k), dhaola Dhar(HP)

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3. Greater/Iner/Central/Himadri
a. Mt. everest=sagarmatha in nepal and Chomulungma in China

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4. Trans /Tibetian Himalayas

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a. zaskar,ladakh,kailas,karakoram
5. Purvanchal/Eastern
a. Blue mountain is highest point
• Indo gangetic brahmaputra plain
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a. Bhabar=narrow,porous and Northernmost; alluvial fans; streams dissapear; not suitable for agriculture
b. Terai=marshy,thick forest; streams re emerge
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c. Bhangar=old alluviam; terrace formed; Kankar(lime nodules) southern

d. Khadar=new alluviam; MOST FERTILE
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e. Reh/Kollar=saline
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• ,Coromandel coast (Tamil Nadu) ➔ Coastline of emergence

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• kathiawad ,Malabar, coast (Kerala Coast) ➔ Coastline of emergence

Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa Coast) ➔ Coastline of submergence
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• Contribution of water=Brahmaputra>Ganga>godavari

• Length of river=Brahmaputra>Indus>Ganga
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• Longest river within boundary of India=Ganga>Godavari>Krishna>Narmada

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• West flowing rivers=Narmada, TApi, Indus,Sabarmati

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• Indus,sutlej,brahmaputra are older than HIMALAYas

• SOURCES
• Indus • Kailas Range (Close to Manasarovar Lake) •

• Jhelum • Verinag •
• Chenab • Bara Lacha Pass

• Ravi • Near Rohtang Pass •

• Beas • Near Rohtang Pass •

• Lngth=Indus>Sutlej>Chenab>Ravi>Jelum>Beas
• Sutlej • Manasarovar-Rakas Lakes
Monsoons
• march to may==As long as STJ is in position ; summer monsoon is inhibited as it limits HP belt to North India

• may to june==North movement of ITCZ shifts STJ to north of Tibet plateau

• Monsoon end=STJ shifts south of himalays and NE monsoon bring rainfall on TN coast
 • Western disturbances=Southern Branch of STJ from meditaranean sea and give rainfall in NW India
Indian Climate
• Highest diurnal temp ranges in Thar; highest annual temp range in Himalayan

• diurnal range lowest in coastal areas

Economic geography
• India energy=63% thermal, 13%hydro, 2%nuclear, 22%renewable
• Oil + Gas ➔ Associated Gas or Wet Gas,

• Only Gas ➔ Non-Associated Gas or Dry Gas,

• Hydrogen Sulphide in gas ➔ Sour Gas,

• Coalbed Methane ➔ Sweet Gas.

• Conventional reservoirs of oil and natural gas are found in permeable sandstone.

• Unconventional Gas Reservoirs occur in relatively impermeable sandstones,==tight,shale, coal bed methane

• Migration from plain to Mountains=Transhumance

• Quinary activity=gold collar/decision makers

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• Quaternary =Knowledge oriented=R&D

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Major NW
• National Waterway 1: Ganga-Bhagirathi – Hooghly River System (Haldia – Allahabad)

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• National Waterway 2: Brahmaputra River (Dhubri – Sadiya)

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• National Waterway 3: West Coast Canal (Kottapuram – Kollam), Champakara and Udyogmandal Canals

• NW4= Telangana, Andhra, TN, Krishna & Godaveri , Kakinada-Puducherry-Vijaywada

• National Waterway 73: Narmada river

• National Waterway 100: Tapi river

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• National Waterway 97 :or Sunderbans Waterways: Namkhana to AtharaBankiKhal in West Bengal.
NP and river
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• ASSAM

◦ Dibru, Mouling,Orang national park- Brahmaputra

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◦ Kaziranga national park – Brahmaputra

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◦ Manas national park – Manas, a tributary of Brahmaputra

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• Valmiki(Bihar)=Gandak

• Himachal=Great Himalayan national park – Tirthan, a tributary of Beas river

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• Kishtwar national park=Marwah river, Chenab

• City Forest(salim Ali),,Dachigam=Jhelum

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• Indrkilla=Beas/chenab origin
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• Kalesar, Simbalbara=Yamuna
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• Ranthambore=Chambal, Banas

• Bhtrakanika=Brahmani
• rajiv gandhi national park=Penner river(AP)

• Papikonda =Godaveri
• Kerala=Silent valley national park -kuntipuzha, a tributary of the Bharathapuzha

• Madhya Pradesh:
◦ Panna national park – ken, tributary of yamuna

◦ Pench national park – pench, a tributary of the river kanhan

◦ kanha, ghagua-Mandla= Narmada

• Uttarakhand:
◦ Gangotri national park – bhagirathi river, joins alaknanda river, a tributary of the ganges

◦ Jim corbett national park – ramganga, a tributary of ganga

◦ Sundarbans national park – Meghna river.
 ◦Rajaji=Ganga
States in India through which Tropic of Cancer and 82.5° longitude passes
ancer 23° 26' N Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal,
Tripura and Mizoram
dard Time 82.5° E Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh
Classification of Climate
Koppen's scheme= A, C,D,E are humid climates;;;;;B is dry

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Climate Weather Flora/Fauna Map
Equitorial
5N-5S
27deg C uniform temp
High temperature and
Hard Wood hence Timber
industry underdeveloped
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abundant evening High Diversity, Dense
rainfall(150cm+). //Single Forest~Epiphytes
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season throughout the Tall Trees=mahogany, ebony,

year// no winter//diurnal greenheart, cabinet wood
and annual range of
temperature is small. Plantation crops -- Malaysia and
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Indonesia are the leading

producers of rubber, palm oil
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Hunters/Collectors/Shifting
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Cultivation
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Tropical Deset 30deg+ temp//rain less xerophytes or drought-resistant

15-30NS than 25cm//Deserts in scrub/.grass, scrub, herbs,
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west Coast(Offshore weeds, roots or bulb//dormant

easterlies, Cold untill rain
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Current),//dry
descending air//no cold
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season//

Continental Interior of
Desert continent//leeward
side//Arid but no
SAND//Gobi/patagonia
(s America)
Tropical distinct wet and dry tall grass(elephant grass) and
Grassland/Sava seasons short scattered trees//'parkland'
nnah/Sudan// Mean High or 'bush-veld' perhaps describe
Between temp=28de//Annual the landscape//shedding their
equitorial and range=3-8deg//The leaves in the cool, dry
Tropical Desert extreme diurnal range of
 temperature i.e Days are season//aracia-Broad trunk store
hot and nights are water-BAOB trees//grass fires
cold//Rain=100-150cm big game country’=Big
in summer//Trade winds carni/omni wildlife
prevail
Masai/Haua Tribe
Temperate 19deg very warm TRELESS, Shorter and nutritious
Grasslands Summer and very cold grasses//less animal
winters//45cm rainfall// diversity//Graneries of the
Chinook winds in N worldRanches-dairy,animal
america husbandry//mechanization
Westerlies
Known as Praires in N
America;; Pampas in S
AMerica;;
Steppes in Eurasia;;Veldt

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in S Africa;

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;Downs in Australia;;
Cantebary in NZ

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Tropical 27-32deg avg Decidous Tree=sal and teak,
Monsoon temp//250cm+ rain shed leaves in dry cold

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5-30deg Distinct dry and wet period//high population
season density//Subsistence farming is
the main occupation, shiftin E
on-shore wet monsoons cultivation//rice, sugar, cotton,
in the summer and off-
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jute, spices,
shore dry monsoons in
the winter
BH

Tropical Marin eastern coasts of

tropical lands, receiving
steady rainfall from the
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Trade Winds//without
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any distinct dry period.

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Meditarranean 18deg//35 – 90 cm. e absence of shade is a distinct

/Western Margin Climate is not extreme feature of Mediterranean lands,
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30-45deg because of cooling from //also known as the world's

water bodies//dry warm orchard lands. A wide range of
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summer//RAINFALL in citrus fruits such as oranges,

winter(others have in lemons, limes, citrons and
H

summer) Influence of grapefruit are grown. Wine

production
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Easterlies in summer
season ITCZ in North,,
but Influence of
Westerlies in WITER ,
hence rainfall ITCZ
South//Under influence
of SUB TROPICAL JET
STREAM
(China 5-25deg//maritime China type=Evergreen type
Type)Warm influence on temp//60 forest--Bamboo, cotton, RICE
Temperate cm to 150 Bowl, Sericulture
Eastern Margin cm.//RAINFALL Gulf type=Cotton(forst free),
throughout Year//Under tobacco ,maize
influence of TROPiCAL
CYCLONES Natal=Sugarcane
S America=Coffee and Maize
 pines and cypresses which are
important softwoods.
British Type 5-15deg//adequate Decidous, leaves shed in cold
Cool rainfall throughout the dry season/FALL
Temeperate yea oak, elm, ash, birch, beech,
Western Margin poplar, and hornbeam//Trees
Small annual range have greater lumbering
value//conifers and soft
Under Influence of wood//Market Gardening//Food
Temperate cyclones and crop IMPORTED//Highly
Westerlies that cause INDUSTRIALISED region
rain
Best climate for Human
Habitation
Laurentian Oak, beech, maple and birch a
Cool Temperate Coniferos Forst/Soft Wood--

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Eastern Margin Rainfall throughout Timber/MEchanized economical

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New England year//Westerlies FISHING//Low agriculture
States(usa) and Dominate(pick moisture // fertile Annapolis valley in Nova
Japan, from Great Lakes) Scotia is the world’s most

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Manchuria Absent in Southern renowned region for apples.

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Hemisphere due to less
landmass
Taiga//Cool
temperate
rain 38-63cm
throughout year
Coniferous Forest//Softwood E
EL
Continental- , paper and pulp, rayon and other
High Annual range branches of the chemical
Siberia,Scandavi blizzards of Canada and industry,Pine, Fir, Spruce, Larch
BH

a,canada buran of Eurasia are Fur Bearing Warm Blooded

NOT in Southrn local winds Anima-
Hemisphere muskrat,mink,fox///Limited
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economic activity
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Tundra/Arctic -35deg to 10 deg mosses, lichens and sedges NO

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TRees,,, Subsoil frozen hence nt

suitable for construction
IJ
IT
H
KS

Mineral World reserves World producers India reserves india prduction

Iron Australia China Odissa hametite; karnataka
magnetite
Coal USA China Jharkhand odissa
 Petroleum Venezuela USA Rajasthan
Natural gas(methane+ethane) Russia(urengo USA Assam
lpg=btane+propane y)
Shale gas China
Bauxite Guinea Australia Odissa Odissa
Lead Australia China Rajasthan Rajasthan
Zinc Australia China Rajasthan Rajasthan
Gold Australia China Bihar KArnataka
Silver Peru Mexico Rajasthan

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Manganese South africa South africa Odissa MP

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Tungsten China China Karnataka

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Copper Chile Chile Rajasthan MP

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Nickel Indonesia Indinesia Odissa
Molybednum China China TN E
EL
Chromitte KAzakhistan South Africa
Cobalt Congo Congo Odissa
BH

Lithium Chile Australia

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Graphite Turkey China Arunachal Pradesh

U

Diamonds Russia Russia MP MP

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Limestone Karnataka Rajsthan

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Dolomite MP Odissa
IT

Uranium Australia Kazakhstan Andhra

H

pradesh
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Thorium INDIA Andhra Pradesh

Test series
the Karbi Anglong and the Meghalaya Plateau in the northeast and Rajasthan in the west are also extensions of this block.
• An ocean gyre is a large system of circular ocean currents formed by global wind patterns and forces created by Earth‘s rotation. The
movement of the world‘s major ocean gyres helps drive the ocean
conveyor belt. The ocean conveyor belt circulates ocean water around the entire planet.  The Kuroshio Current is the warm western
boundary current of the North Pacific's subtropical gyre. five major gyres
◦ North Atlantic Gyre=Gulf stream, North Atlantic current, Canary Current and North Equatorial current
◦ North Pacific Gyre=North Pacific current, California current, North Equatorial current as well as Kuroshio current /// no alaska
◦ Indian Ocean Gyre=South Equatorial Current as well as West Australian Current
• Green hydrogen is produced by splitting water into hydrogen and oxygen using an electrolyzer powered by renewable energy
sources such as wind and solar.
 • decrease of temperature with the increasing depth, but the rate of decrease is not uniform throughout. in OCEAN
• Mizoram is also known as the 'Molasses basin'. It is made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.
• The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) is a low pressure zone located at the equator where trade winds converge, and so, it is a
zone where air tends to ascend.
• Meandering is a result of Old/Mature river and not Youth river0
• excessive cold in north India during the winter season=Himalayas, Continentality, COLD WINDS FROM CASPIAN SEA
• The Mahi river in India passes through the Tropic of Cancer twice.
•
• Peatlands(3%) are a class of wetlands, which are ecosystems flooded with water. Waterlogged conditions limit microbial decay of
dead plant materials rich in carbon dioxide. This prevents the reintroduction of the gas into the atmosphere. Frozen under of Alaska,
Canada, Russia and parts of northern Europe.
• Methane Hydrate is a cage-like lattice of ice inside which are trapped molecules of methane,chief constituent of natural gas.found in
a sea-bed that forms at low temperatures and high pressure. It is found in onshore deposits in the permafrost of northern Canada
and Russia.
• Major Industrial Regions (There are 8 such regions) o Mumbai-Pune Region, o Hugli Region, o Bangalore-Tamil Nadu Region, o Gujarat

1
Region, o Chota Nagpur Region, o Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region,o Gurugram-Delhi-Meerut Region, and o Kollam-Thiruvantapuram
Region.

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• Golden Quadrilateral cities=Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Baleshwar (Balasore), Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Berhampur, Durgapur, Jaipur,
Kanpur, Pune, Kolhapur, Surat, Vijayawada, Ajmer, Vizag, Bodhgaya, Varanasi, Allahabad, Agra, Mathura, Dhanbad, Gandhinagar,

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Udaipur, and Vadodara.
National commission on agriculture (1971) classified the country into 127 agro-climatic zones. The planning commission, VII plan

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•
(1985 - 90) divided the country into 15 broad agro-climatic zones based on physiographic and climate.
• Lagoon water is generally brackish in these water bodies, it is used for fishing and irrigating certain varieties of paddy crops,
coconut, E
EL
• Lake Jipe is the transboundary lake between Kenya and Tanzania//called a dying lake because of extinction threats due to massive
siltation and other environmental challenges
Triple Dip’ La Niña is a period where the La Niña period extends for up to three consecutive winters
BH

• : Iron and steel industries, iron ore and Coal and Sugarcane industries, Aluminum industries are weight-losing raw materials.
• FROST=low moisture (dry weather) and clear skies, along with calm wind// dehydration of the cells and tissues when cellular water
R

freeze//various measures to protect crops from frost—from watering the fields in the evening, to shielding the plants with straw,
polythene or gunny bags e
U

• Makhana (Foxnut):==from LOTU Seed//commercially cultivated only in Bihar in Wetlands and LAKES//also grown in MP, JK,
G

• When crossing this date line from the west to east, a day is deducted or the time is fixed backward by one day i.e a day will be
gained. o When crossing the IDL from east to west, a day is added, or the calendar is fixed one day ahead i.e. a day will be lost///IDL
IJ

has no legal international status

Indian Desert=the northern part is sloping towards Sindh and the southern towards the Rann of Kachchh.
IT

• They are the Himalayas, the Western Ghats, the Indo-Burma region and the Sundaland. The part of India that falls in the Sundaland
Hotspot is the Nicobar Islands
H

Sankosh River divides DUARS into Eastern(ASSAM) and Western(BENGAL) Duars.

KS

• Umngot River, or Dawki River as it is popularly known, is in the border town of Dawki, and is said to be one of the cleanest rivers in
the Indian Subcontinent//between the Jayantia and Khasi Mountain ranges as a natural divider
• Subansiri River is also known as the “Gold River” is the biggest tributary of the upper Brahmaputra River
• Break in Monsoon=During July and August, there are certain periods when the monsoons become weak
◦ but heavy rainfall occurs over the sub-Himalayan regions
◦ northward shifting of the monsoon trough (minimum low-pressure cells in ITCZ)

◦ can occur due to tropical cyclones which originate in the Bay of Bengal

Population
1. Growth rate=Natural growth+Migratory
2. The crude birth rate (CBR) is expressed as number of live births in a year per thousand of population
3. demographic transition theory can be used to predict furture Population of an area
a. 1st stage=High BR/DR;;LOW POPULATION GROWTH;;;low life expectancy (Bangladesh)
 b. 2nd stage=The death rate falls but the birth rate remains high, leading to faster population growth.(Peru)
c. Stage 3=he birth rate reaches the same low level as the death rate, so population growth slows to zero.(DEVELOPED STATES)
d. Working Age(15-59) is more than non working Indian=DD for India2018-2055
4. sex ratio is worked out using the formula: Female Population/ Male Population × 1000
5. AGE pyramid
a. Expanding Populations triangular shaped pyramid with a wide base /
b. Constant Population pyramid is bell shaped and tapered towards the top.
c. Declining Populations a narrow base and a tapered top showing low birth and death rates.
6. Asia has highest population; Africa has highest Population Growth

1
Literacy

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1. a person aged seven and above who can both read and write
2. Crude literacy rate : It considers total population of India while effective literacy rate considers only population above 7 years.

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Migration Urban to rural=includes higher study and higher opportunity led migration

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Push factors=Climate, Natural disaster
Pull factors=employment, peace,security of life
Sectors of Economy E
EL
1. Primary activities are directly dependent on the environment as • It includes hunting and gathering, pastoral activities, fishing,
forestry, agriculture, and mining and quarrying
a. Hunting and gathering :Central/NE Indian ~ PVTGs;;(High Altitude-artic and Extensive jungle areas)
BH

b. Pastoralism=Transhumance by Himalayas, Gujjars, Bakarwals, Gaddis and Bhotiyas(Mid china,North africa,Mid east, Artic)
c. Commercial Livestock Rearing :: New Zealand, Australia, and the United States of America a, India underdeveloped
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d. Types of Agriculture=
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i. Subsistence agriculture is one in which the farming areas consume all, or nearly so, of the products locally grown. It can be
grouped in two categories — Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and Intensive Subsistence Agriculture.
G

1. Primitive subsistence = shifting cultivation /Tropics/Primitive Tools

a. Jhuming in India, Milpa in central America and Mexico and Ladang in Indonesia and Malaysia., ‘Conuco’ in Venezuela,
IJ

‘Roca’ in Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa,‘Ray’ in Vietnam.

IT

b. called ‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya Pradesh, ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh, ‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in
Odisha, ‘Kumari’ in the Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’ in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the Himalayan belt, ‘Kuruwa’
H

in Jharkhand, and ‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region

KS

2. Intensive= small land/Family Labor/Limited machinery/yield per unit area is high but per labour productivity is low/ RICE is
Dominating=India
ii. Plantation=tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, cotton, oil palm, sugarcane, bananas and pineapples./MONOCULTURE/Large
Capital/Scientific Methods/Cheap Labor/TRansprtation/less mechanisation
iii. Mixed Farming= wheat, barley, oats, rye, maize, fodder and root crops//Crop rotation/ANIMAL HUSBANDRY/Highly
DEVELOPED STATES
iv. Co-operative Farming:=Benefits smal farmer/ access credit
v. Collective Farming:model of Kolkhoz~USSR /Social Ownership of land/livestock
vi. Mediterranean Agriculture:specialised commercial agriculture/Viticulture,Citrus
vii. Market Gardening and Horticulture:cultivation of high value crops/small lands
2. Secondary Sector=Process natural raw material
a. declining rate of employment
b. • Sunrise industry: NITI Ayog has identified Food processing industries as sunrise industry
c. Heavy and light industry on th basis of weight
 d. • Ancillary Industries: The industries which manufacture parts and components to be used by big industries are called ancillary
industries
e. 1991 reforms=Abolition of industrial licensing, free entry to foreign technology, foreign investment policy, access to capital
market, abolition of phased manufacturing programme, liberalised industrial location programme.,o atomic energy and Railways
have remained under the public secto
i. negatives=low agri growth,
3. Tertiary Sector=service/white collar jobs=mangement jobs
a. include both production and exchange.
4. QUATERNARY SECTOR / KNOWLEDGE BASED INDUSTRIES:
5. QUINARY SECTOR: jobs higher post/ s Gold Collar professions
Job Collars= Black=mining//Blue=seconday/Manual Labor//Gold collar=doctor,scientist//Green=non conventional energy//Open
=WFH//Pink=low paid jobs librarion, receptionist//White=management jobs, tertiary
Minerals
1. ferrous minerals are Manganese (Mn), Chromite, Nickle, and Iron(Fe)
2. Non-ferrous minerals are Gold(Au) copper (Cu), Silver, tin, and Zinc (Zn), Aluminium

1
3. The North-Eastern Plateau: iron ore coal, manganese, bauxite, mica. •

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4. The South-Western Plateau Region: ferrous metals , bauxite and iron ore, manganese and limestone ,etc. Kerala has deposits of
monazite and thorium, bauxite clay. •

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5. The North-Western Region Dharwar system of rocks. Copper, zinc, building stones i.e. sandstone, granite, marble, Dolomite and
limestone. Gujarat for Petrol deposit

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6. The Himalayan belt== copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and tungsten etc.Assam= mineral oil deposits. , Anthracite in JK
7. India is poorly endowed with non-ferrous metallic minerals except bauxite. /It is not specifically a mineral but a rock consisting mainly
E
of hydrated aluminum oxides./Odisha happens to be the largest producer of Bauxite. Kalahandi and Sambalpur are the leading
producers.
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Energy
1. Hybrid renewable energy=energy from 2 or more renewable sources
BH

2. M-Sand: Manufactured sand (M-Sand) is a substitute of river sand for concrete construction. Manufactured sand is produced from
hard granite stone by crushing. The crushed sand is of cubical shape with grounded edges,
Ports
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a. Inland Port=located away from sea coast,//Out port=Deep water port built away from actual ports
U

b. Ports of call=Ships achor and refuel//Packet/Ferry=Passenger short distance//Entrepot=Exports

G

Conurbation=Fusion of seperated Towns

Bihar is most densely populated state; Delhi is most dense UT
IJ

types of rural settlement=Clusttered=Compact, Living area seperated from Farming areas, fertile areas
IT

Hamleted =Fragmented due to social and ethnic factors, =Ganga,CG,Lower himalayas

Dispersed=isolated huts near sloped farms=Himalayas, UK,HP
H
KS
KS
H
IT
IJ
G
U
R
BH
EL
E
AI
R
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1