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Alexander and Nicholas, London, 1847, 2 vols.; L’Empire des Tsars
ou point actuél de la science, Paris, 1856-1869, 4 vols.; La Russie
en 1812, Rostopchine et Koutouzof, Paris, 1863; Les institutions de
la Russie depuis les réformes de l’empereur Alexander II, Paris,
1866, 2 vols.; Geschichte des russischen Reiches von der ältesten
Zeit bis zum Tode des Kaisers Nikolaus, Leipsic, 1874.—Schuyler,
E., Turkistan. Notes of a Journey in Russian Turkistan, Khokand,
Bokhara, and Kuldja, London and New York, 1876, 2 vols.; Peter the
Great, London and New York, 1884, 2 vols.—Ségur, P. P. Comte de,
History of Russia and Peter the Great, London, 1829.—Semyovski,
V. I., Gornozavodskie krestyane v vtoroi polovinye 18vo vyeka (The
Peasants in Metallurgic Works During the Second Half of the
Eighteenth Century), in “Russkaya Mysl,” 1900.—Sergeevitch, V. I.,
Vetche i knyaz: russkoe gosudarstvennoe ustroistvo i upravlyenie vo
vremena knyazei rurikovitchei (Folkmote and Prince: the Russian
Political System in the Days of the Rurik Princes), Moscow, 1867.—
Shilder, N. K., Imperator Alexandr I (The Emperor Alexander I), St.
Petersburg, 1897, 4 vols.; Tsarstvovanie imperatora Nikolaya I (The
Reign of Emperor Nicholas I), St. Petersburg, 1901.—Shoemaker,
M. M., The Great Siberian Railway, New York, 1903.—Shpilevski, S.
M., Drevnie goroda i drugie bulgarsko-tatarskie pamyatniki v
Kazanskoi gubernii (Ancient Cities and Other Bulgaro-Tatar
Monuments in the Government of Kazan), Kazan, 1877.—
Shtchebalsky, P., La régence de la tzarewna Sophie: épisode de
l’histoire de Russie, 1682-1689, translation by Prince S. Galitzine,
Carlsruhe, 1857; Tchtenie iz russkoi istorii (Readings from Russian
History), Moscow, 1861, 6 vols.—Shumakr, A. A., Tsar-Osvoboditel
(The Czar Liberator), St. Petersburg, 1901.—Skrine, F. H., The
Expansion of Russia, 1815-1900, Cambridge, 1903.—Soloviov, S.
M., Istorya Rossii s drevneyshikh vremyon (History of Russia from
the Earliest Times), Moscow, 1863-1875, 29 vols.
Sergei Mikhailovitch Soloviov was born May 17th, 1820. In 1850
he became a professor at the university of Moscow. In 1877 he came
into conflict with the reactionary policy of the government toward the
universities, and demanded and obtained his dismissal. He died
October 16th, 1879. Besides his monumental History of Russia he
was the author of numerous monographs. The Relations Between
the Russian Princes of the House of Rurik was of epoch-making
importance in Russian historical literature. His History of the Fall of
Poland has become the standard work on the subject and was
translated into German (Gotha, 1865). But all his other works are
cast into the shade by his stupendous History of Russia from the
Earliest Times, in which he proposed to himself a task excelling,
perhaps, the power of any single human being—the presentation of
the entire history of his country, based exclusively on original
research. The result has, therefore, been not wholly successful, and
the later volumes present the appearance of a mere aggregation of
materials hastily arranged. But the material is of the finest quality
and will serve as a rich quarry for all future historians. Soloviov’s
method of presentation is calm and dispassionate, his style tranquil
and somewhat dry, but admirably clear. From Karamzin to Soloviov
the gulf is wide indeed, and perhaps it will be well to present a few of
the latter’s ideas in order to show the indebtedness that all modern
historians of Russia owe to him. Russian society, like all primitive
society, was in its origin tribal and based on kinship. The introduction
of Varangian rule represents the beginnings of the dissolution of that
society and the introduction of political society, based on territory. But
society was still in a transitional stage. The warlike followers of the
princes were free to renounce their allegiance to one master and to
choose another in his stead, and the principle of kinship was still
dominant within the house of Rurik itself, thus counteracting the
separatist tendencies of the appanages. It was the colonisation of
the north and east and the removal of the center of Russian life to
the Volga, that first makes possible, as well as necessary, the
centralisation of power: for the colonists settle on land that belongs
to the prince and in cities founded by him, while the colonists
themselves come from different parts of Russia and are
unconnected by the bond of kinship. In the struggle that follows
between the prince and the refractory, unsubmissive elements—
whether of the common people or of the noble followers—the prince
is victorious and the irreconcileables flee to the forests of the north or
to the steppes of the south. Thus we have the origin of the robber
bands, and of the Cossacks—another name for the same thing. But
the removal of the centre to the Volga also implies the estrangement
of Russia from European influences, and the Tatar rule plays in this
only a subordinate and external part. The grand princes of Moscow
in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries are thus seen to be the
continuators of the policy of the grand princes of Suzdal in the twelfth
and thirteenth centuries, while the episode of the period of confusion
represents an abortive attempt at the establishment of a milder rule
by the Cossacks. Ivan III and Ivan IV, in their struggle with the
foreigner, begin to appreciate the superior potency of European
civilisation, and are the precursors of Peter the Great. But the new
tendencies work with unceasing force during the intervening period,
and those who resist the new tendencies become the
nonconformists or Raskolniki (Old Ritualists). This tendency finds its
parallel in Western Europe, where the task had been accomplished
two centuries earlier; but not so the effort to reach the sea, which is a
peculiar Russian phenomenon. Soloviov’s work reaches down to
1774.
Sorel, A., Histoire du traité de Paris, Paris, 1873; La question
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1885; King Log and King Stork, a Study of Modern Russia, London,
1896.
Stepniak, whose real name was Sergius Mikhailovitch
Kravtchinski, was born in South Russia, in 1852, of a noble family.
When he left school he became an officer in the artillery, but his
sympathy with the peasants soon led him into the revolutionary
agitation, and he became identified with the terrorist party. In 1880
he was obliged to leave Russia, and after a few years’ stay in
Switzerland and Italy he came to London, where he lived until 1895,
when he was killed by a railway engine at a level crossing at Bedford
Park, Chiswick. He was the author of numerous works on
contemporary Russia, dealing chiefly with the revolutionary agitation
and the condition of the peasantry.
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Central Asia, London, 1885.—Sugenheim, S., Russlands Einfluss
auf und Beziehungen zu Deutschland (1689-1855), Frankfort on
Main, 1856, 2 vols.; Geschichte der Aufhebung der Leibeigenschaft,
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vremyon (History of Russia from the very Earliest Times), Moscow,
1768.—Tchitchagov, L’Admiral, Mémoires de (1767-1849), Leipsic,
1862.—Tchitcherin, N., Oblastnyia utchrezhdenya Rossii v 17
vyeke (The Provincial Institutions of Russia in the Seventeenth
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Bewegungen in Russland, Leipsic, 1883; Landwirtschaft und
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Germans: translated from the French by S. L. Simon, London, 1882;
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York, 1888.—Tikhomirov, L., Russia, Political and Social, translated
from the French by E. Aveling, London, 1888, 2 vols.—Tolstoi, L. N.,
La Famine, Paris, 1893.—Tooke, W., Russia; or a Complete
Historical Account of all the Nations which Comprise the Russian
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proshlom i nastoyashtchem (The Russian Factory, Past and
Present), St. Petersburg, 1898.—Tyrrell, H., History of the (Crimean)
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Ustrialov, N., Skazanya knyazya Kurbskavo (The Accounts of

Prince Kurbski), St. Petersburg, 1868.
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translated from the Russian by J. and R. Mitchell, London, 1865.—
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London, 1874.—Vannovski, P. S., Doklad po povodu
studentcheskikh bezporyadkov 1899 g. (Report on the Students’
Disorders in the Year 1899), Publication of the “Rabotchnoe
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of Russian Literature, London and New York, 1900. (Short History of
the Literature of the World, vol. 8); L’héritage de Pierre le Grand:
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1900.—Wallace, D. M., Russia, London, 1877, 2 vols.
Donald Mackenzie Wallace was born November 11th, 1841.
Studied at the universities of Edinburgh, Berlin, Heidelberg, and the
École de Droit of Paris. Resided and travelled in various foreign
countries, chiefly in France, Germany, Russia, and Turkey, during
the years 1863-1884. From 1884 to 1889 he was private secretary to
Lords Dufferin and Lansdowne while they were viceroys of India, and
during 1890-1891 he accompanied the czarevitch during his tour in
India and Ceylon. In 1883 he published a work on “Egypt and the
Egyptian Question.” His work on “Russia” is universally regarded as
the best book on that country that has ever been issued from the pen
of an Englishman.
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und wirthschaftliche Zustände im heutigen Russland, Stuttgart, 1894.
—Wilson, R., Brief Remarks on the Character and Composition of
the Russian Army, and a Sketch of the Campaigns in Poland in 1806
and 1807, London, 1810.—Winckler, A., Die deutsche Hansa in
Russland, Berlin, 1886.—Windt, H. de, The New Siberia, London,
1896.—Witte, S. J., Samoderzhavie i zemstvo (Autocracy and Local
Representative Government. A Confidential Communication by the
Minister of Finance, S. J. Witte, in 1899), Stuttgart, 1901.—
Wolkonski, Prince S., Pictures of Russian History and Russian
Literature, Boston, 1897.—Wright, G. F., Asiatic Russia, New York,
1902, 2 vols.

Yozefovitch, T., Dogovori Rossii s Vostokom, polititcheskie i

torgovye (The Commercial and Political Treaties of Russia with the
East), St. Petersburg, 1869.
 A CHRONOLOGICAL SUMMARY OF THE
HISTORY OF RUSSIA
862 The Varangian chieftains Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor
settle at Ladoga, Bielo-ozero and Izborsk. This date is
purely conventional.
865 Askold and Dir, two Varangian chieftains who had
settled at Kiev, lead an unsuccessful expedition against
Constantinople.
879 Rurik dies, leaving the regency of the principality and
the guardianship of his son Igor to Oleg.
882 Oleg takes possession of Kiev after killing Askold and
Dir, and makes that city his capital.
907 Oleg leads an expedition consisting of eighty thousand
men and two thousand boats against Constantinople. A
treaty of peace and commerce is concluded.
911 Oleg renews the treaty with the emperor of
Constantinople securing valuable trading privileges for
the Russians.
913 Oleg dies, and is succeeded by Igor.
941 Igor leads an expedition against Constantinople. His
ships are destroyed by the Greek fire, and with great
difficulty he brings his troops back to Kiev.
944 Igor leads a second expedition against Constantinople.
The Byzantines rid themselves of the barbarians by
renewing the treaty that had been made with Oleg and
also paying a ransom. The treaty is given in full by
Nestor. Of the fifty names attached to it three are
Slavonic and the rest Norse, which shows that the two
races, the conquerors and the conquered, are beginning
to be fused.
945 Igor is killed by the Drevlians, a Slavonic tribe. His wife
Olga assumes the regency during the minority of his son
Sviatoslav.
955 Olga embraces Greek Christianity. Her subjects,
however, remain on the whole pagans.
964 Sviatoslav assumes the rule. He is the first of the
Varangians to bear a Slavonic name.
968 Sviatoslav, in the pay of the Byzantine emperor
Nicephoros, leads an army of 60,000 men against the
Bulgarians of the Danube.
970 Sviatoslav, after dividing the country among his three
sons, again marches to Bulgaria, this time on his own
account.
972 Sviatoslav is defeated at Silistria and compelled to
evacuate the Balkan peninsula.
973 On his retreat, Sviatoslav is surprised and killed by the
Petchenegs of the Dnieper.
977 Rout of Oleg by Iaropolk and his death.
980 Vladimir, after killing Iaropolk, becomes sole ruler.
988 Vladimir is baptized and makes Greek Christianity the
state religion. On the day of his baptism he marries a
daughter of the Byzantine emperor Romanos II.
1015 Vladimir dies and the country is divided among his
eight sons and a nephew.
1019 Iaroslav, prince of Novgorod and the youngest son of
Vladimir, finally becomes grand prince, and removes his
capital to Kiev.
1054 Iaroslav dies. The country is divided among his five
sons, one of whom, Iziaslav, is recognised as grand
prince of Kiev. The custom, first introduced by
Sviatoslav of breaking up the country into appanages,
has now reached its full fruition. Russia has become an
extremely loose federation of principalities. The central
authority has been reduced to a nullity, and the period is
filled with wars among the petty princes. This, of course,
weakened the power of Russia for resisting foreign
invaders, and made it an easy prey to the eastern
nomadic tribes, from the Polovtsi to the Tatars. The chief
events during this period are the foundation of Moscow
(1147), the rise of Suzdal in Vladimir, and the pillaging of
Kiev (1169) by Prince Andrew Bogoliubski of Suzdal.
The hegemony of Kiev comes to an end for all time. The
principal figures during this period are those of Vladimir
II, surnamed Monomakh (1113-1125), and of Andrew
Bogoliubski (1157-1175), who strove to re-establish
some sort of unity and was assassinated by his nobles.
1068 The people of Kiev liberate Vseslav and make him
grand prince.
1069 Iziaslav is restored by Boleslaw the Bold of Poland.
1073 Iziaslav is again expelled from Kiev by his brothers
Sviatoslav and Vsevolod. Sviatoslav becomes grand
prince.
1076 Death of Sviatoslav. He is succeeded by Vsevolod.
1077 Iziaslav is again restored to the grand princedom.
1078 Iziaslav dies and is succeeded by Vsevolod.
1084 Failure of Vsevolod’s attempt to conquer Tmoutorakan
(Tmutarakan).
1093 Death of Vsevolod and accession of Sviatopolk, the
second son of Iziaslav. The Polovtsi defeat the Russians
in the battle of Tripole.
1097 The congress of princes at Lubetz.
1100 The congress of princes at Uvetitchi.
1111 Defeat of the Polovtsi on the Sula.
1113 Death of Sviatopolk and accession of Vladimir
Monomakh.
1125 Death of Monomakh.
1147 Legendary date for the foundation of Moscow.
1157 Andrew Bogoliubski becomes prince of Suzdal.
1169 Kiev is captured and plundered by Andrew Bogoliubski.
1175 Andrew Bogoliubski is assassinated.
1221 Nijni-Novgorod is founded by Iuri, grand prince of
Suzdal.
1223 First invasion of Russia by the Mongols under Jenghiz
Khan. The Russians are defeated on the banks of the
Kalka, near where it flows into the Sea of Azov and
adjoining the present site of the town of Mariupol.
1237-38 The Mongols, under Jenghiz Khan’s grandson,
Batu, invade northern Russia, burn Moscow, defeat
twice the army of Suzdal (at Kolomna on the Oku and
on the Sit), and plunder Riazan, Suzdal, Iaroslavl, and
Tver. But Novgorod is spared.
1239-40 The Mongols ravage southern Russia, burn
Tchernigov and Kiev, and extend their conquests as far
west as Volhinia and Galicia. All Russia is now under
the yoke of the Mongols, except the territory of
Novgorod.
1240 Alexander, prince of Novgorod, defeats the Swedes on
the Neva; whence his surname Nevski.
1242 Batu establishes the Golden Horde of Kiptchak, with
Sarai, on one of the mouths of the Volga, as its capital.
It constituted one of the five divisions of the great
empire of Jenghiz Khan.
1245 Alexander Nevski defeats the German Sword-bearing
Knights on Lake Peipus, in the “battle of the ice.”
1260 Novgorod submits to the Mongols and consents to pay
tribute.
1263 Death of Alexander Nevski.
1303 Death of Daniel Alexandrovitch, founder of the
Moscow dynasty.
1320 Prince Michael of Tver is executed by order of the
khan.
1321 Vladimir in Volhinia is conquered by the Lithuanians.
Kiev and all west Russia soon become Lithuanian.
1404 Smolensk is annexed to Lithuania. A son of Alexander
Nevski, named Daniel, was the founder of the
principality of Moscow, to which he added the cities of
Kolomna and Pereiaslavl. He was succeeded by his son
Iuri Danilovitch (1303-1325), who annexed Mozhaisk.
In 1313 he marries a sister of Usbek Khan. In 1320 he is
appointed grand prince in place of his murdered rival,
Michael of Tver. Iuri is the initiator of the Muscovite
policy to dominate Russia with the aid of the Tatars, for
whom the Muscovite princes henceforth act as tax
collectors. In 1325 he was assassinated by Dmitri, son
of Michael of Tver, and Alexander, Michael’s second
son is appointed grand prince. But the grand princedom
soon reverts to Moscow, and Alexander is executed in
1329. Iuri is succeeded by his brother Ivan Kalita
(1328-1340), who receives from Usbek Khan Vladimir
and Novgorod together with the grand princedom, and
who also adds Tver to his dominions. He assures the
pre-eminence of Moscow in the Russian church by
 inducing the metropolitan to reside there, thereby also
securing the alliance of the all-powerful church in the
realisation of his political schemes. Simeon the Proud,
son of Kalita (1340-1353), Ivan II, (1353-1359), brother
of Simeon, and Dmitri Donskoi (1359-1389), son of
Ivan II, continue the policy of dominating Russia with the
aid of the Tatars, whom they conciliate with Russian
gold, while they gain the support of the nobles by
enhancing their power at the expense of the princes of
appanages. Towards the end of his reign Dmitri feels
himself strong enough to resist the Tatars, whom he
defeats in the battle of Kulikovo (1380); but two years
later the Mongol general, Toktamish, invades Russia,
burns Moscow and puts to death a great number of the
inhabitants. Dmitri was succeeded by his son Vasili
(1389-1425). On the death of the latter, first his brother,
and then his brother’s son, laid claim to the succession;
but the direct lineal succession triumphed twice in the
person of Vasili’s son, known as Vasili the Blind (1425-
1462).

THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY

1407 The river Ugra is made the boundary between Moscow

and Lithuania.
1408 Invasion of Moscow by the Tatars, who burn many
towns and villages, but fail to capture the Kremlin.
1412 Vasili Dmitrievitch goes to the Horde, pays tribute, and
the khan confirms to him the grand princedom.
1435 Vasili Vasilievitch blinds his cousin Vasili Kossoi.
1446 Vasili Vasilievitch is blinded by Dmitri Shemiaka of
Galicia.
1448 The archbishop Jonas is elected metropolitan by an
assembly of the Russian bishops, without regard to the
patriarch of Constantinople.
1453 Dmitri Shemiaka is poisoned.
1462 Ivan III, son of Vasili ascends the throne. He assumes
the title gossudar (lord, autocrat), and is regarded as the
founder of autocracy.
1463 The princes of Iaroslav cede their domain to Moscow.
1464 Ivan gives the hand of his sister to Vasili, prince of
Riazan, thus making sure of the approximate
annexation of that appanage.
1469 The khanate of Kazan becomes a dependency of
Moscow.
1472 Ivan conquers Perm. Marries the Byzantine princess
Sophia, niece of the last emperor of Constantinople,
Constantine Palæologus. Assumes the title of czar and
adopts the two-headed eagle as the symbol of his
authority. In consequence of this marriage many Greeks
come to Moscow, bringing with them Byzantine culture.
1474 The princes of Rostov sell their domain to Moscow.
1478 The republic of Novgorod is annexed. The principal
citizens are brought prisoners to Moscow, their property
is confiscated, the possessions of the clergy serve to
endow the boyar followers of Ivan. Ahmed, khan of the
Golden Horde, sends ambassadors demanding
homage. Ivan puts the envoys to death, except one,
who was to take back the news to his master. The reply
of Ahmed to this outrage is a declaration of war.
1479 Ivan issues Sudebnik, or Books of Laws, second
Russian code after the Russkaia Pravda of Iaroslav. A
comparison of two codes shows how much the Russian
character was lowered by Mongol domination; it is in the
reign of Ivan that we first hear of the use of the knout.
1480 The Mongols invade Russia. The two armies meet on
the banks of the Oka and flee from each other in mutual
 fear. On his retreat Ahmed is killed and his army is
annihilated by the Nogai Tatars.
1482 Cannon is used for first time at the siege of Fellin in
Livonia. It was founded by the architect and engineer
Aristotle Fioraventi of Bologna, the builder of the
Kremlin.
1485 The principality of Tver is annexed to Moscow.
1485 The last prince of Vereya leaves his domains by will to
Ivan.
1489 Viatka, a daughter of the city of Novgorod and Pskov,
and like them a republic, is annexed.
1489 Poppel comes to Moscow as the first German
ambassador.
1491 Mines of Petchora discovered. For first time silver and
copper money is coined at Moscow from produce of
Russian mines.
1492-1503 A large part of Little Russia is reconquered from
Lithuanians.
1494 Alexander of Lithuania marries Ivan’s daughter Helen.
1495 Ivan, considering himself to have been insulted by a
Hanseatic city, orders all merchants of all the cities of
that union at Novgorod to be put in chains and their
property confiscated. This marks the end of Novgorod’s
commercial greatness.
1499 The princes of Tchernigov and Novgorod-Seversk
come over to Moscow.

THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY

1501 Russians routed in the battle of the Siritza, near

Izborsk, by the grand-master of the Teutonic order,
Hermann von Plettenberg.
1503 A treaty is concluded with Lithuania. Moscow retains all
her conquests, and Ivan is granted the title of sovereign
of all Russia.
1505 Death of Ivan. Vasili, second son of Ivan, succeeds
him.
1508 The Russian army is defeated by the revolted people
of Kazan. The victors unite with the Tatars of the
Crimea, invade Russia and carry their ravages up to the
gates of Moscow. Vasili pays a large ransom for the
safety of his capital, and signs a treaty by which he
engages to become tributary to the khan. Thirty
thousand prisoners are carried off by the invaders, and
sold at Kaffa to the Turks.
1510 Pskov, last Slavonic republic, annexed.
1514 Smolensk is taken from the Lithuanians after being
held by them for 110 years. But in the same year the
Lithuanians defeat the Russian force at Orsha, on left
bank of the Dnieper. Thirty thousand Russians are said
to have fallen in battle.
1521 Riazan and Novgorod-Seversk, the last independent
principalities, are annexed. Crimean Tatars devastate
the country.
1523 A second expedition against Kazan, consisting of
150,000 men, fails of its object; one of its two divisions
is almost annihilated.
1530 Third expedition against Kazan. The city is surprised
by night and 60,000 inhabitants are massacred. But the
Russian commander, bribed, it is said, by the remaining
Kazanians, enters into a treaty of peace with them.
1533 Vasili dies. Regency of his wife, Helena Glinska, 1533-
37. Supremacy of the Shuiski, 1537-43. Ivan is under
the influence of the Glinski till 1547, when they were
torn in pieces by the infuriated Moscow populace. Such
was the youth of Ivan the Terrible.
1547 Ivan is crowned and takes the title of Czar.
1550 The Sudebnik of his grandfather Ivan III is revised.
1551 The Stoglav, or Book of the Hundred Chapters, by
which the affairs of the church were regulated, is issued.
1552 Kazan, which had freed itself during his father’s reign,
is annexed.
1553 Chancellor arrives at Archangel and proceeds to
Moscow. The English secure great trading privileges
and establish factories in the country.
1556 Astrakhan is annexed. The power of the Mongols is
now almost completely broken.
1558 Treaty with Elizabeth of England. A Russian army
invades Livonia and takes several towns. The Teutonic
Order thereupon makes an alliance with Poland.
1564 Ivan, with a few personal friends, retires to
Alexandrovskoe, near Moscow, and does not return until
after repeated supplications by his nobles. A printing
press established at Moscow.
1571 The Mongols of Crimea invade Russia, burn Moscow,
drag 100,000 Russians into slavery. Next year they
make another raid, but are defeated.
1580 Conquest of Siberia by the Cossack Iermak as far as
the Irtish river.
1581 Ivan kills his eldest son in a fit of fury.
1582 Peace of Sapolye. Ivan is forced to surrender to
Stephen Bathori (Battori) king of Poland all his
conquests in Livonia. The attempt to open for Russia a
passage in the Baltic fails for the present.
1584 Death of Ivan. Feodor, his weak-minded son,
succeeds Ivan. Boris Godunov, Feodor’s brother-in-law,
is the real ruler.
1587 A company of Parisian merchants obtains trading
privileges.
1590 War with Sweden.
1591 Dmitri, the younger brother of Feodor (Ivan’s son by his
seventh wife), and the only obstacle to Godunov’s
ambition, dies at Uglitch. The khan of Crimea makes
one of his periodical raids against Moscow, but is
repulsed with great slaughter.
1592 Godunov issues a ukase (edict) binding the peasant to
the soil, thus reducing him to unmitigated serfdom. As a
result, peasants emigrate in large numbers to the
Cossacks in order to preserve their freedom.
1597 An edict is issued prescribing the most vigorous
measures for the recovery of fugitive serfs.
1598 Death of Feodor, last of the Ruriks. Boris Godunov is
elected to succeed him, first by the Council of Boyars
(douma) and then by a General Assembly (Sobór).

THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

1601 A terrible famine, accompanied by pestilence,

devastates Russia. Boris causes immense quantities of
provisions to be distributed in Moscow, whither
multitudes flock from all the provinces. Five hundred
thousand are said to have perished in Moscow alone,
which had become a city of cannibals.
1604 Dmitri the Impostor invades Russia and is victorious on
the Desna.
1605 Dmitri is defeated on the plain of Dobrinitchi, not far
from Ord. Godunov dies. His son Feodor is proclaimed
his successor. Basmanov, commander of the army,
proclaims Dmitri. Feodor and his mother are strangled
and Dmitri enters Moscow.
1606 A rebellion breaks out under Vasili Shuiski. Dmitri is
killed. Shuiski is proclaimed emperor.
1608 A second false Dmitri defeats Shuiski’s army near
Volkhov, but fails in an attack on the Troitsa monastery,
near Moscow. He is murdered by one of his followers in
1610.
1609 The Poles invade Russia and lay siege to Smolensk.
1610 Shuiski is defeated at Klushino and Wladislaw, son of
the Polish king, is crowned czar.
1611 Revolt of the patriots led by Minin and Prince Pojarski.
1612 The Poles are driven out of Moscow.
1613 Michael Romanov is chosen czar.
1617 Wladislaw appears with an army under the walls of
Moscow, but is repulsed. The Treaty of Stolbovna is
brought about by the mediation of England and Holland:
the Russians give up Kexholm, Karelia and Ingria to
Sweden, and receive in return Novgorod, which was lost
during the Troublous Period.
1618 Wladislaw consents to abandon his claim to the
Russian throne, the czar gives up his claims to Livonia,
Tchernigov and Smolensk, and an armistice is
concluded for fourteen years.
1619 Philarete, the father of Czar Michael, comes back from
the Polish captivity, is elected patriarch, and becomes
his son’s associate in the government of the country.
1627 The Cossacks of the Don conquer Azov, which they
offer to the czar. After convoking a sobor, which shows
little enthusiasm for the enterprise, the czar orders the
Cossacks to evacuate it.
1633 War with Lithuania.
1634 Peace of Polianovka: the czar surrenders all claims to
Livonia and all the country that once belonged to the
 Order, as well as to Smolensk, Tchernigov and Seversk.
The Polish king abandons his claim to the Russian
throne.
1645 Death of Michael. He is succeeded by Alexis.
1648 Revolt at Moscow against misgovernment of the czar’s
favorites, particularly Morosov, and depreciation of the
coinage. This revolt led to a new codification of the laws
(the Ulozhenie), which was based on the preceding
codes of Ivan III and IV, and was sanctioned by a sobor
convoked at Moscow. A new police institution, the
“chamber of secret affairs,” is created for the prevention
and suppression of popular uprisings. The Cossacks of
the Ukraine revolt from Poland under the leadership of
Bogdan Chmielnicki.
1649-50 Khabarov occupies the course of the Amur.
1654 The Ukraine becomes a Russian protectorate. War
with Poland.
1655 Outbreak of war between Sweden and Poland. The
Russians occupy Vilna and join the Swedes in their
march upon Warsaw.
1656 Truce with Poland. The Russian arms are turned
against Sweden. At first they were successful, and
Narva, Dorpat and other places in Esthonia were taken,
Livonia was conquered, but Riga was besieged in vain,
and after many losses all the conquests are restored.
1655-56 The patriarch Nicon calls two councils of the church
for the purpose of revising the Bible and service-books.
In consequence of this change a great schism takes
place in the Russian church. The adherents of the old
books are known as Raskolniki, and are to this day
subjects of persecution.
1667 Peace of Andrussov with Poland: Little Russia east of
the Dnieper, including Smolensk, Kiev, Seversk, Vitebsk,
and Polotsk are acquired by Russia. Thus the territory
 which had been taken by the Lithuanians and annexed
to Poland by Treaty of Lublin (1569) became Russian
again.
1670 Rebellion of Stenka Kazin. He takes Tzaritzin,
Astrakhan, Saratov, Samara, Nijni-Novgorod, Tambov,
and Penza.
1671 Stenka Radzin is defeated near Simbirsk and executed
at Moscow.
1676 Death of Alexis. He is succeeded by his eldest son,
Feodor. During his reign the books of pedigrees
(razviadnie Knigi), which determines the rank of each
family and the office to which it was entitled
(mestnichestvo), were destroyed.
1682 Death of Feodor. After a sanguinary outbreak of the
Strelitz, which lasted three days, Ivan and Peter were
declared joint sovereigns, and their sister Sophia was to
act as regent during their minority.
1689 Treaty of Nertchinsk: the fertile region of the Amur,
conquered by a handful of Cossacks, is restored to the
Chinese, and the fortress Albazin is rased.
1696 Peter takes from the Turks the fort of Azov, situated at
the mouth of the Don, and converts it into a naval port.
In its vicinity he commences the building of the new
town of Taganrog.
1697-98 Peter makes his first journey through Europe.
1698 The Strelitz break out into open revolt, which is
suppressed with great bloodshed. Their corps is
dissolved.
1699 Peter forms a coalition with Poland and Denmark
against Sweden.
1700 Beginning of the Northern War. The Russian forces
sustain a severe defeat at Narva. The beginning of the