CONSUMER

(The Consumer Protection Act, 1986)

1) Explain the concept of ‘Consumer’ under the Consumer

Protection Act. (June
2022)
2) Write shot note on Consumer. (Dec
2021)
3) Write short note on Complaint. (Dec
2021)
4) Discus briefly the rights of Consumer. (Dec 2022)
5) Write a short note on defective goods.
(Dec 2022, Apr
2021)
6) Write a short note on ‘defect in goods’.
(Apr 2021, June
2022)
7) Write a note on deficiency in service.
(Dec 2021, Dec 2019)
8) Write a short note on ‘Product Liability’ (Dec
2021)
9) Write a note on Restrictive Trade Practice. (Dec
2019)
10) Write a short note on National Consumer Commission.
(Dec 2022)
11) For the purpose of promoting the sale, the tradesman
adopts unfair trade practices. What are those practices? Explain.
(Jun
2019)
12) Explain the composition and jurisdiction of the
National Consumer Commission under the Consumer Protection
Act 1986.
(Jun 2019)
 13) Explain the jurisdiction of the ‘District Commission’
(June
2022)
14) State the procedure to be followed by the District
Forum / Commission on receipt of a complaint.
(Apr 2021)
15) Explain the composition and jurisdiction of the State
Consumer Commission under the Consumer Protection Act 2019.
(Dec 2021, Dec 2019)

–2–

Introduction
Tremendous growth and increase in production of goods and
commodities leads to decline in quality. As the products of inferior
quality do not serve the purpose, the consumer resorts to approach
the Court for relief. In order to protect the interests of consumers
from the spurious goods, the Indian Parliament passed legislation
entitled "The Consumer Protection Act, 2019".
4) Consumer
According to Oxford Dictionary "A consumer is a
purchaser of goods of services”.
The expression Consumer in the common sense, means "all
of us may be called consumers, when we purchase some movable of
immovable property or hire services for various purposes”.
The term 'Consumer' in relation to goods means "any person
who might wish to be supplied with the goods for his own private use
of consumption”.
 E.g. A purchases a T. V. for personal use at home, A is the
consumer of the T.V. Similarly, he purchases a Bournvita for
personal use, he is the consumer of the Bournvita.

Definition
According to Sec 2 (7) of the Consumer Protection Act,
2019, 'Consumer' may be Consumer of Goods or Consumer of
Services. Sec 2 (7) (i) defines Consumer of Goods while Sec 2 (7)
(ii) defines Consumer of Services.

–3–

Explanation (b) to Sec 2 (7) clarifies that the expressions ‘buys

any goods’ and ‘hires or avails any services’ include offline or online
transactions through electronic means or by teleshopping or direct
selling or multi-level marketing.
(a) Goods (Sec 2 (21))
The term ‘Goods’ is defined in Sec 2 (11) of the Consumer
Protection Act, 2019 to mean goods as under, - ‘Goods’ means every
kind of movable property and includes ‘food’.
Sec 2 (7) of the Sale of Goods Act, 1930, defines ‘goods’ as
every kind of movable property other than actionable claims and
money. Moveable property, according to Sec 2 (7) of the Sale of Goods
Act, 1930, includes stock and shares, growing crops, grass, and things
attached to or forming part of the land which are agreed to be severed
before sale or under the contract of sale. Any property which is not
immoveable property is moveable property.
Sec 3 (1) (j) of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006,
“Food” means any substance, whether processed, partially processed
or unprocessed, which is intended for human consumption and
includes primary food.
Sec 3(1) (zk) of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006,
“Primary Food” means an article of food, being a produce of
agriculture or horticulture or animal husbandry and dairying or
aquaculture in its natural form, resulting from the growing, raising,
cultivation, picking, harvesting, collection or catching in the hands
of a person other than a farmer or fisherman.

–4–

(b) Consumer of Goods

The provision reveals that a person claiming himself as a
consumer of goods should satisfy that, -
1) He is –
(a) the buyer of the goods for consideration; or
(b) the user of the goods with the approval of the buyer; and
2) He has not bought the goods for ‘resale’ or for ‘commercial
purpose’.

Buyer of Goods for Consideration

For the application of the Act, the following conditions must
be satisfied:
1. There must be a sale transaction between a seller and a buyer.
2. The sale must be of goods
3. The buying of goods must be for consideration.

Dinesh Bhagat Vs Bajaj Auto Ltd;

A purchased a scooter which was in B’s possession from
the date of purchase. B was using it and taking it to the seller for
 repairs and service from time to time. Later on B had a complaint
regarding the scooter. He sued the seller.
The seller contended that since B did not buy the scooter,
he was not a consumer under the Act.
The Delhi State Commission held that B, the Complainant
was using it with the approval of A, the buyer, and therefore he
was consumer under the Act. This is an exception to the rule of
privity of contract, i.e., general rule of law that a stranger to a
contract cannot sue.

–5–

Smt. Pushpa Meena Vs Shah Enterprises (Rajasthan) Ltd., (1991);

The Appellant in the instant case purchased a jeep from the
Respondent Company and engaged the jeep for commercial
purpose i.e. for transportation of passengers for hire. When the
jeep started giving trouble, she sued the respondent company under
the Consumer Protection Act for compensation. It was held not
actionable on the ground that the Appellant could not be treated as
a Consumer within the meaning of the Act.
Purchase of a Jeep for Commercial Purpose –
Supply of Defective Machinery –
Laxmi Engineering Works Vs PSG Industrial Institute,
AIR 1995 SC
1428;
Facts of the Case
The Appellants Laxmi Engg. Co. paid the amount to the
Respondents, PSG Industrial Institute for supply of certain
machinery in May 1990. Against several reminders, the machine
 was supplied after six months in a defective condition. Owing to
inordinate delay and defects in the machine, the Appellants
sustained heavy loss due to non-production and other expenses.
The Appellants filed a complaint before the State Commission for
compensation of Rs 4,00,000/-, Partly allowing the complaint, the
State Commission directed the Respondent manufacturer to pay
Rs 2.48 Lakhs within 30 days.
On appeal, the National Commission held that the
complainant is not entitled to be regarded as a consumer within the
meaning of the Act and set aside the award of the State
Commission. Aggrieved by this decision, the complainant
preferred further, an appeal before the Supreme Court
–7–

Decision / Judgment
The Supreme Court affirmed / upheld the decision of the
National Commission and dismissed the appeal. The Court
directed the complainant/appellant to file an action before the Civil
Court, allowing the benefit under Sec 14 of the Limitation Act, i.e.
the exclusion of the period for prosecuting the proceedings under
the Consumer Protection Act.

(c) Consumer of Services (Sec 2(d) (ii))

Consumer of services is basically a person who hires or avails of
any service for his own benefit or for the benefit of some other person. A
person who hires or avails of services for any commercial purpose is not a
consumer.
According to Sec 2 (7) (ii) ‘Consumer of Service’ means any
person who hires or avails of any service for a consideration.
 The consideration may have been paid or promised or partly paid
and partly promised, or under any system of deferred payment.
Any beneficiary of such service other than the person who hires or
avails of the services is also a consumer for the purpose of the Act, if such
use is made with the approval of the person who has hired or availed of
such service. However, a person who hires or avails of such service for any
commercial purpose is not a consumer.
(d) Service (Sec 2 (42))
The definition provides a list of eleven sectors to which
service may pertain in order to come under the purview of the Act.
The list of these sectors is not an exhaustive one. Service
may be of any description and pertain to any sector if it satisfy the
following criteria –
–9–

1) Service is made available to the potential users, i.e., service not

only to the actual users but also to those who are capable of
using it.
2) It should not be free of charge, e.g., the medical service
rendered free of charge in Government hospital is not a service
under the Act;
3) It should not be under a contract of personal service.

The term ‘service’ is used under the Consumer Protection

Act to mean a regular commercial transaction. Thus the services
rendered under the contract of personal service are specifically
excluded from the definition.
The term ‘contract of personal service’ is not defined under
the Act. In common usage, it means ‘a contract to render service in
a private capacity to an individual’.
 For example, where a servant enters into an agreement with a
master for employment, or where a landlord agrees to supply water
to his tenant, these are the contracts of personal service.

Smt. Laxmiben Laxmichand Shah Vs Smt. Sakerben Kanji Chandan

A landlord neglected and refused to provide the agreed amenities
to his tenant. He filed a complaint against the landlord under the
Consumer Protection Act. The National Commission dismissed the
complaint saying that it was a case of lease of immovable property and
not of hiring services of the landlord.

– 10 –

16) The parent of a child who was ill, admitted a child to a

hospital due to administration of wrong medicine in the hospital,
the child became permanently disable. Advice parent.
(Apr 2021)
17) ‘A’ a lady underwent a ‘tubectomy’ operation at the
government hospital in thumkur. Later she developed serious
complications due to operation which reduced her to the condition
of a physically invalid person. The lady filed the case and demand
compensation against the government. Decide. (June
2019)

State of Punjab Vs Shiv Ram & Ors;

The Supreme Court has set aside the compensation
awarded to a woman who had a baby after having undergone
tubectomy surgery on two counts, since, failed tubectomy surgery
is not a case of medical negligence as the sterilized woman can
 become pregnant due to natural causes. Once the woman misses
the menstrual cycle, it is expected of the couple to visit the doctor
and seek medical advice, the court was told.
"The cause of action for claiming compensation in cases
of failed sterilization operation arises on account of negligence of
the surgeon and not on account of child birth. Failure due to
natural causes would not provide any ground for claim. It is for
the woman who has conceived the child to go or not to go for
medical termination of pregnancy. Having gathered the knowledge
of conception in spite of having undergone sterilization operation,
if the couple opts for bearing the child, it ceases to be an unwanted
child. Compensation for maintenance and upbringing of such a
child cannot be claimed”.

– 11 –

Education-Examinations –
Chairman, Board of Examination, Madras Vs M.A. Kader
(1997);
It was held in the case that 'student' is not a consumer
under Sec 2(d) of the Act.
Hire of Service
The Act provides relief of consumer of services, who
suffers loss due to deficiency of service. According to the Act, the
term service means "service of any description which is made
available to potential users” and includes the provision of facilities
in connection with banking, financing, insurance, transport
processing, supply of electrical or other energy, boarding or
lodging or both, housing construction, entertainment, amusement
or the purveying of news or other information (Sec 2 (0)).
Lucknow Development Authority Vs A.K. Gupta;
The Supreme Court has considerably expanded the scope of
the word 'service' and included many facilities in it. The Court has
held that the term "services" under Sec 2(0) includes the 'House
building activities of the public authorities and the power of National
Commission/Forum under Secs 11, 17 & 21 is not limited to awarding
price for goods or service but it includes power to award
compensation for mental harassment.
In this case, the Respondent had applied for registration for
allotment of a flat constructed by Lucknow Development Authority. A
flat was allotted to him on April 26, 1988 and he deposited the entire
money on July 29, 1988 but the possession of the flat was not given to
him because according to the LDA, the construction was not
complete. He filed a complaint before the District Forum. The State
Commission directed the appellant on February 15, 1990 to hand over
possession of the flat after completing the work and if it was not
possible to complete
– 12 –

the work refund the cost of construction. The appellant instead of

complying with the order, filed an appeal in the National Commission.
The Commission held that the action of the appellant amounted to
harassment, mental torture and agony of the respondent and therefore
directed the appellant to pay Rs. 10,000 to the respondent as
compensation. The appellant filed an appeal in the Supreme Court
against the order of the National Commission. The Supreme Court
upheld the decision of the National Commission and dismissed the
appeal.
The Court held that the house building work by public
authorities is a 'service' under the consumer protection Act and if there
is any deficiency in it which causes harm or injury to any person, it
will be liable to pay compensation. The court held that the test in such
 a case is to determine the nature of the duty and function performed
by the statutory authorities.

Beneficiary of Services with the Approval of Person Hiring or

Availing Thereof –
When a person hires services, he may hire it for himself or
for any other person. In such cases the beneficiary (or user) of these
services is also a consumer.
Example: A takes his son B to a doctor for his treatment.
Here A is hirer of services of the doctor and B is beneficiary
of these services. For the purpose of the Act, both A and B
are consumers.

– 13 –

(e) Consideration (Sec 2 (d) of the Indian Contract)

The term ‘Consideration’ is not defined in the Act, and the
definition under Sec 2 (d) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 is
applicable to the Consumer Protection Act.
Sec 2 (d) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 defines
‘consideration’ in the following terms –
1) “When at the desire of the promisor, promisee or any
other person has done or abstained or, does or abstains or promises
to do or to abstain from doing something such act, abstinence or
promise is called consideration for the promise”.
2) Sec 2(d) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 read with Sec 2
(1) (d) of the Consumer Protection Act, 1986 provides that
consideration may be one which has been (i) paid, (ii) promised, (iii)
partly paid and partly promised, and/or (iv) may be under any system
of deferred payment.
Consideration Must Be Paid or Payable
Consideration is regarded necessary for hiring or availing of
services. However, its payment need not necessarily be immediate. It
may be in instalments. For the services provided without charging
anything in return, the person availing the services is not a consumer
under the Act.
Examples
1) A hires an advocate to institute a suit. He promises to pay fee to
the advocate after settlement of the suit. A is a consumer under the Act.
2) A goes to a Doctor for treatment. The Doctor being his friend
gives him free treatment. A is not a consumer under the Act.

– 14 –

Byford Vs S. S. Srivastava
B issued an advertisement that a person could enter the
contest by booking a Premier Padmini Car. S purchased the car and
thus entered the contest. He was declared as winner of the draw
and was thus entitled to the two tickets from New Delhi to New
York and back. S filed a complaint alleging that the ticket was not
delivered to him.
The National Commission held that S was not a consumer
in this context. He paid for the car and got it. B was not liable so
far as the contract of winning a lottery was concerned.
The Direct and Indirect taxes paid to the State by a citizen
is not payment for the services rendered.
 Mayor, Calcutta Municipal Corporation Vs Tarapada Chatterjee
T was paying property tax for his house to the local
corporation. This corporation was responsible for proper water
supply to the premises under its work area. T raised a consumer
dispute over the inadequacy of water supply by the corporation.
The National Commission held that it was not a consumer
dispute as water supply was made by the corporation out of its
statutory duty and not by virtue of payment of taxes by T.

Unfair Trade Practice (Sec 2(47))

Definition
Sec 2 (47) of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 defines the
term “Unfair Trade Practices”. It states that “unfair trade practice
means a trade practice which, for the purpose of the promoting the
sale, use or supply of any goods or for the provision of any services,
adopts any unfair method or unfair or deceptive practice”.
– 15 –

1) False Representation;
2) False Offer of Bargain Price;
3) Free Gifts Offer and Prize Schemes;
4) Non-Compliance of Prescribed Standards;
5) Hoarding, Destruction, etc.
6) Manufacturing Spurious Goods
7) Not Issuing Bill, etc.
8) Refusing to Withdraw Defective Goods or to Discontinue
Deficient Service; and
9) Compromising Confidential Personal Information of the
Consumer.
1) False Representation
The practice of making any oral or written statement or
representation which –
(i) Falsely suggests that the goods are of a particular standard quality,
quantity, grade, composition, style or model;
(ii) Falsely suggests that the services are of a particular standard,
quantity or grade;
(iii) Falsely suggests any re-built, second-hand renovated,
reconditioned or old goods as new goods;
(iv) Represents that the goods or services have sponsorship, approval,
performance, characteristics, accessories, uses or benefits which
they do not have;
(v) Represents that the seller or the supplier has a sponsorship or
approval or affiliation which he does not have;
(vi) Makes a false or misleading representation concerning the need
for, or the usefulness of, any goods or services;
– 16 –

(vii) Gives any warranty or guarantee of the performance,

efficacy or length of life of the goods, that is not based on an
adequate or proper test;
(viii) Makes to the public a representation in the form that
purports to be –
(a) a warranty or guarantee of the goods or services,
(b) a promise to replace, maintain or repair the goods until it
has achieved a specified result, if such representation is
materially misleading or there is no reasonable prospect
that such warranty, guarantee or promise will be fulfilled.
 (ix) Materially misleads about the prices at which such goods or
services are available in the market; or
(x) Gives false or misleading facts disparaging the goods, services or
trade of another person.

2) False Offer of Bargain Price

Where an advertisement is published in a newspaper or
otherwise, whereby goods or services are offered at a bargain price
when in fact there is no intention that the same may be offered at that
price, for a reasonable period or reasonable quantity, it shall amount
to an unfair trade practice.
The ‘Bargain Price’, for this purpose means,
1. the price stated in the advertisement in such manner as suggests
that it is lesser than the ordinary price, or
2. the price which any person coming across the advertisement would
believe to be better than the price at which such goods are
ordinarily sold.
– 17 –

3) Free Gifts Offer and Prize Schemes

The unfair trade practices under this category are –
1) Offering any gifts, prizes or other items along with the goods when
the real intention is different, or
2) Creating impression that something is being offered free alongwith
the goods, when in fact the price is wholly or partly covered by the
price of the article sold, or
3) Offering some prizes to the buyers by the conduct of any contest,
lottery or game of chance or skill, with real intention to promote
sales or business.
 4) Withholding the information about final results of the scheme from
the participants, i.e., results are not published
(a) Prominently, and (b) within a reasonable time.

4) Non-Compliance of Prescribed Standards

Any sale or supply of goods, for use by consumers, knowing
or having reason to believe that the goods do not comply with the
standards prescribed by some competent authority, in relation to
their performance, composition, contents, design, construction,
finishing or packing, as are necessary to prevent or reduce the risk of
injury to the person using such goods, shall amount to an unfair trade
practice.

5) Hoarding, Destruction, Etc.

Any practice that permits the hoarding or destruction of
goods, or refusal to sell the goods or provide any services, with an
intention to raise the cost of those or other similar goods or services,
shall be an unfair trade practice.
– 18 –

6) Manufacturing Spurious Goods, Etc.

Sec 2 (43) of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 defines
only ‘Spurious Goods’. According to it, ‘spurious goods’ means
such goods which are falsely claimed to be genuine. Manufacturing
spurious goods or offering for spurious for sale is an Unfair Trade
Practice under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019. So also,
adopting deceptive practices in the provision of services is unfair
trade practice.
7) Not Issuing Bill, Etc.
Not issuing bill or cash memo or receipt for the goods sold or
services rendered in such manner as may be prescribed is unfair
trade practice.

8) Refusing to Withdraw Defective Goods or Refusing to

Discontinue Deficient Service
Where the trader has warranted that he will –
(i) withdraw the goods sold by him, if the same are found to
be defective, or
(ii) Discontinue the service, if found deficient, and has
mentioned the time within which the price or
remuneration, as the case may be, will be refunded, he
has to do so. If no such time is agreed, Sec 2 (47)(viii)
fixes the period at 30 days.
If the trader refuses to withdraw the goods and refund the
price, or to discontinue the service and refund the remuneration, he
will be liable for unfair trade practice.
– 20 –

9) Compromising Confidential Personal Information of the Consumer

Often, the seller of goods or provider of service need
sensitive personal information of the consumer as a requirement of
the trade, or as a requirement of law. Unless the consumer provides
the information, the goods may not be sold to him or service may not
be provided to him.
 Therefore, the consumer provides his personal information to
the trader. The trader is under a legal obligation of keeping such
information confidential.
If the trader discloses to or shares that information with some
other person without legal permission, he is liable for unfair trade
practice.

Mr Supriyo Ranjan Mahapatra Vs Amazon Centre Development

Centre India Pvt. Ltd, CC/42/2015 (SCC 2018)
In this case the Complainant has filed the complaint against the
Respondent before the District Consumer Commission, and held that
cancelling a confirmed order amount to unfair trade practice, and directed
Amazon to pay Rs 40,000 as the compensation.
Baglekar Akash Kumar Vs More Megastore Retail Ltd.,
In this case, the forum held that supermarkets which
charge for carry bags that have the logo of the company will be
considered Unfair Trade Practices.
Yash Raj Films (P) Ltd Vs Afreen Fatima Zaidi;
The commission held that it is unfair trade practice, if a
song included in trailer is excluded from the movie.

– 21 –

Restrictive Trade Practice (Sec 2 (41))

Definition of ‘Restrictive Trade Practice’ under Sec 2 (41)
also has two parts – definition and illustrations.
Sec 2 (41) of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 provides,
that “Restrictive Trade Practice” means a trade practice which
tends to bring about manipulation of price or its conditions of
delivery or to affect flow of supplies in the market relating to goods
or services in such a manner as to impose on the consumers
unjustified costs or restrictions.
Second part of Sec 2 (41) gives two examples of restrictive
trade practice –
1) Delay beyond the period agreed to by a trader in supply of
such goods or in providing the services which has led or is likely to
lead to rise in the price, and
2) Any trade practice which requires a consumer to buy, hire
or avail of any goods or, as the case may be, services as condition
precedent for buying, hiring or availing of other goods or services.
The first example is where the consumer has to pay –
1) the price of goods as on the date of delivery, or
2) Remuneration for service as on the date on which the
service is provided, and because of the delay on the part of
the trader, there is a rise in the price or remuneration.
The second example is called ‘bundling’ of goods or services.
That means unless some goods are purchased, the buyer cannot buy some
other goods. Similarly, unless some service is not taken the consumer
cannot get some other service. Bundling imposes upon the consumer some
goods or service, which he does not need, or in which he is not interested.

– 21 –

Defective Goods (Sec 2 (1) (10))

A consumer can make complaint when he come across
defective goods, i.e., whenever there is a defect in the goods bought
by him.
According to Sec 2 (10), ‘Defect’ means any fault,
imperfection or shortcoming in the quality, quantity, potency, purity
or standard which is required to be maintained by or under any law
for the time being in force or under any contract, express or implied
or as is claimed by the trader in any manner whatsoever in relation to
any goods or product and the expression ‘Defective’ shall be
construed accordingly.
This is definition is exhaustive. It means that the Act
recognises only those defects which are covered by the definition.
Any type of defect not mentioned here will not be entertained by
Consumer Commissions.
Reading the above definition by breaking it into elements, we
get –
1) “Defect” means (a) any fault, imperfection, shortcoming (b)
in the quality, quantity, potency, purity of the goods.
2) Such quality etc. of the goods should have been
(a) required to be maintained
(i) by or under any law for the time being in
force, or
(ii) under any express or implied contract between
the parties
(b) Claimed by the trader.

– 22 –

3) The defect has to be in relation to goods only, i.e., if an item

does not fall within the definition of ‘goods’, no defect can
be complained therein. However, the coverage of this
definition is very wide.
Example:
 A sold a stolen car to B. B wanted to sue A for defect in the
title of the car. Here B cannot sue A under the Consumer Protection
Act as the defect in title of goods would not constitute defective
goods as defined under the Act.
TTK (Pvt.) Ltd. Vs Akhil Bhartiya Grahak Panchayat;
A Pressure Cooker burst and caused injury to the user. It
was held to be a manufacturing defect.
Ramesh Chandra Vs Commercial Tax Officer;
Failure to handover registration book along with jeep
purchased by complainant is a defect.
Narayanan Vyankatkrishnan Iyengar Vs Shakti Foods
Where laboratory test report showed that soft drink was
not fit for human consumption, it was held defective.
Farooq Hazi Ismail Saya Vs Gavabhai Bhesania;
Electric household appliances which are not in accordance
with the standards prescribed by ISI, being unsafe are defective.
Chitranjan Sahu Vs N. C. Jain;
A supplied white marble to B. Later on the colour of the
marble changed. B sued A alleging supply of defective marble. It
was held that A should have expressly told B that the marble
would not retain its colour when polished. In the absence of such
assertion, it is deemed that A made B to understand that the marble
would retain its white colour and when the colour changed, it
comes within the scope of ‘defect’ in goods under the Act.

– 23 –

Deficiency in Services (Sec 2(11))

When a service is found deficient by a consumer, he can
make a complaint under the Act. The prime requirement is that the
matter must fall within the definition of service, and it must entail a
deficiency as per the norms given by the Act.
 Sec 2 (11) of the Act provides that, “deficiency” means any
fault, imperfection, shortcoming or inadequacy in the quality, nature
and manner of performance which is required to be maintained by or
under any law for the time being in force or has been undertaken to
be performed by a person in pursuance of a contract or otherwise in
relation to any service.
Under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019, two instances of
deficiency in service are given –
1) any act of negligence or omission or commission by such
person which causes loss or injury to the consumer; and
2) deliberate withholding of relevant information by such person
to the consumer.

Reading the above definition by breaking it into elements, we

get –
1) “Deficiency” means (a) any fault, imperfection,
shortcoming or inadequacy (b) in the quality, nature and manner of
performance.
Example: A booked a car for B and promised to deliver
it within one month of booking. The car was not delivered
even after four months. Here A could be held liable for
deficiency in service.

– 24 –

GM, South Eastern Railway Vs Anand Prasad Sinha;

A boarded a train. The compartment in which he and his
wife travelled was in a bad shape. Fans not working, shutters of
windows were not working, rexin of the upper berth was badly torn
and there were rusty nails which caused some injuries to the wife
 of A. A made a complaint against the railway department. It was
held that the complaint constituted ‘deficiency in service’ and the
compensation of Rs 1500/- was awarded to A.
Poonam Verma Vs Ashwin Patel;
A treated P under Allopathic system, though he himself
was a Homoeopathic practitioner. Later on P alleged A for wrong
treatment. The Commission held it as deficiency in service.

2) Such quality and manner of performance of service

should have been
(a) required to be maintained by or under any law for the time
being in force, or
(b) undertaken to be performed by a person in pursuance of a
contract or otherwise.

Lata Construction Vs Dr. Rameshchandra Ramniklal

Shah;
A, the builder, promised under written agreement to
provide a flat to B. Subsequently he expressed his inability to give
possession of the flat and entered into a fresh agreement to pay Rs
9,51,000/- to B in place of flat. A didn’t even pay this money. B
lodged a complaint against A.
The Commission held that since A had not even paid the
money as per subsequent contract, the rights of earlier contract can
be invoked by B. And that there was a deficiency of service on the
part of builders.

– 25 –

3) The deficiency must be in relation to a service – The

words ‘....in relation to any service’ in the definition signifies that the
deficiency is always in terms of service. Thus if the grievance
pertains to a matter which does not fall in the definition of service’,
the concept of deficiency would not apply.
Mangilal Vs Chairman District Rural Development
Agency;
A deposited Rs 100 with B as application fee and executed
bond for the purpose of drilling tube well. B did not drill the tube
well because it was not feasible. A alleged deficiency in service. It
was held that depositing Rs 100 as application fee and executing a
bond does not amount to hiring of services, thus the deficiency of
service cannot be complained of in the matter.

Product Liability
Introduction
What does it take to prove a product liability claim? Just
because a fire or flood emanates from a product, does it necessarily
follow that the manufacturer is liable for the damages that result?
This article provides an overview of the standards for proving
a claim of Product Liability against the seller or manufacturer of the
product, including a discussion of some of the emerging trends in
product liability law.
Theories of Liability
A products liability claim normally involves injury or
damage caused by a defective product. Proving the claim usually
involves one or more of three basic theories of liability: negligence,
breach of contract/warranty, and strict liability. The first two theories
of liability require proof of a defect in the product. In a strict liability
claim, the
– 26 –
Plaintiff must prove that the product was defective by virtue of being
“unreasonably dangerous” despite precautions taken by the
manufacturer in its manufacture or design.
Product
Sec 2 (33) - "Product" means any article or goods or
substance or raw material or any extended cycle of such product,
which may be in gaseous, liquid, or solid state possessing intrinsic
value which is capable of delivery either as wholly assembled or as a
component part and is produced for introduction to trade or
commerce, but does not include human tissues, blood, blood
products and organs;
Product Liability
Sec 2 (34) - "Product Liability" means the responsibility of
a product manufacturer or product seller, of any product or service,
to compensate for any harm caused to a consumer by such defective
product manufactured or sold or by deficiency in services relating
thereto;
Product Liability Action
Sec 2 (35) - "Product Liability Action" means a complaint
filed by a person before a District Commission or State Commission
or National Commission, as the case may be, for claiming
compensation for the harm caused to him;
Red Hill Hosiery Mill Vs Magnetek, Inc., 530 S.E.2d 321;
In the product liability context, the element of duty has
been more particularly described as a duty by the manufacturer “to
use reasonable care in the manufacturing process, including the
duty to make sure the product is free of any potentially dangerous
defect in manufacturing or design”.
– 27 –
Complainant
Meaning
Generally, the person, whose legal right is affected infringed
has a right to move the Court. Such right is called "Locus Standi".
He may approach the Court by filing a complaint, which contains an
allegation in writing. The person (aggrieved) who files the complaint
is called "The Complainant".
According to Oxford Dictionary, the word "Complainant is
one who enters a legal complaint against another".
Municipal Council, Jaipur Vs Prabhu Narayan,
AIR 1968 Raj. 297;
The Rajasthan High Court has explained the word
‘complainant' means "one who makes an allegation or an
accusation on a charge in order to prosecute a person is a
complainant.

The Act provides that, not only a consumer, but also any
voluntary Consumer Association which is registered under the
Companies Act, 1956 can maintain a complaint.
Definition
Sec 2 (5) & Sec 35 of the Act defines "complainant" as
meaning –
(i) a consumer; or
(ii) any voluntary Consumer Association registered under the
Companies Act, 1956 or under any other appropriate law; or
(iii) the Central Government or any State Government, who or
which makes a complaint; or
(iv) one or more consumers; where there are numerous consumers
having the same interest.
– 28 –
 To seek relief, the complainant is required to approach
appropriate Forum/Commission. The burden of proof lies on the
complainant.
Who can make a complaint?
According to Sec 2 (5) & Sec 35 of the Consumer
Protection Act, 2019, the following persons can make a complaint –
1. a consumer;
2. any voluntary Consumer Association registered under the
Companies Act, 1956;
3. the Central or State Government; and
4. One or more consumers, where there are numerous consumers
having the same interest (i.e. common interest).

Complaint
Meaning
Complaint means "an allegation against a person writing as
to the commission of an offence". It is a written Becusation
containing the name, description of the complaint and the pposite
party to seek relief by furnishing the facts supporting the documents,
if any.
Definition
Sec 2 (6) of the Act defines the complaint as, any allegation
in writing made by a complaint regarding / against Unfair and
Restrictive Trade Practice, Defective Goods, Deficient Services,
Excess Prices and Hazardous Goods.
The Consumer Court do not have 'suu motu' power to in the
proceedings. The consumer has to initiate the proceedings by
lodging / filing a complaint against the opposite party.
– 29 –
Limitation [Sec 69]
Sec 69 of the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 provides that
The District Commission, the State Commission or the National
Commission shall not admit a complaint unless it is filed within two
years from the date on which the cause of action has arisen.
Initially, under the Consumer Protection Act, 1986, there
was no provision relating to limitation to make a complaint under
that Act. The Consumer Forums were following the Limitation Act,
1963, which says that a suit can be filed within three years after the
cause of action arises.
The point of time when cause of action arises is an important
factor in determining the time period available to file a complaint.
There are no set rules to decide such time. It depends on the facts
and circumstances of each case.
Example
A house was allotted on 1-1-1999. Defects appeared
in the house on 10-1-1999. Here the cause of action will arise
on 10-1-1999.
It may be noted that these time frames are not absolute
limitations. Sec 69 (2) provides for condonation of delay in filing a
complaint. If the Consumer Commission is satisfied that there was
sufficient cause for not filing the complaint within the prescribed
period, it can entertain a complaint beyond limitation time. However,
the Commission must record the reasons for condonation of delay.

– 30 –
 Mukund Lal Ganguly Vs Dr. Abhijit Ghosh;
A got his eye operated by B in 1989. He got a certificate of
blindness on 18th December, 1989. He was still in hope of gaining
his sight and went from second operation in 1992 and was
discharged on 21-1-1992. He lodged a complaint against B on 11-
1-1994. B opposed on the ground that more than 2 years were over
after 18-12-1989, thus the complaint is not maintainable.
The Commission held that here the cause of action for
filing the complaint would arose after the second operation when A
lost entire hope of recovery. Thus the suit is maintainable.

Remedies Available (Sec 39)

A complainant can seek any one or more of the following
relief under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 –
1) to remove the defect pointed out by the appropriate
laboratory from the goods in question;
2) to replace the goods with new goods of similar description
which shall be free from any defect;
3) to return to the complainant the price, or, as the case may be,
the charges paid by the complainant along with such interest
on such price or charges as may be decided;
4) to pay such amount as may be awarded by it as compensation
to the consumer for any loss or injury suffered by the
consumer due to the negligence of the opposite party:
Provided that the District Commission shall have the
power to grant punitive damages in such circumstances as it
deems fit;
– 31 –
5) to pay such amount as may be awarded by it as compensation
in a product liability action under Chapter VI;
6) to remove the defects in goods or deficiencies in the services
in question;
7) to discontinue the unfair trade practice or restrictive trade
practice and not to repeat them;
8) not to offer the hazardous or unsafe goods for sale;
9) to withdraw the hazardous goods from being offered for sale;
10) to cease manufacture of hazardous goods and to desist from
offering services which are hazardous in nature;
11) to pay such sum as may be determined by it, if it is of the
opinion that loss or injury has been suffered by a large
number of consumers who are not identifiable conveniently:
Provided that the minimum amount of sum so payable
shall not be less than twenty-five per cent. of the value of
such defective goods sold or service provided, as the case
may be, to such consumers;
12) to issue corrective advertisement to neutralise the effect of
misleading advertisement at the cost of the opposite party
responsible for issuing such misleading advertisement;
13) to provide for adequate costs to parties; and
14) to cease and desist from issuing any misleading
advertisement.

– 32 –
 CONSUMER COMMISSIONS
The Consumer Protection Act provides for a three-tier
approach in resolving consumer disputes –
1) DCDRC: District Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission
(District Commission),
2) SCDRC: State Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission (State
Commission), and
3) NCDRC: National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission
(National Commission).

District Forum and State Commission are formed by States

while the National Commission is formed by the Central
Government. These Commissions have not taken away the
jurisdiction of the civil courts but have provided an alternative
remedy. Sec. 100 provides. “the provisions of this Act shall be in
addition to and not in derogation of the provisions of any other law
for the time being in force.” Thus the jurisdiction of the civil Courts
is not affected by the Consumer Protection Act.
District Commission (Sec 28)
The compositions of the District Forum is detailed out by the
Consumer Protection Act, 2019 most of the things regarding the
qualifications, appointment and conditions of service of the
Presidents and members of the Consumer Commissions are left to
the Central Government, to be prescribed through Rules.

– 33 –
Establishment of the District Commission (Sec 28(1))
Sec 28(1) provides that every state Government shall
establish a District Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission called
‘District Commission’ for each district in the state. Discretion is
also given to the state Governments to establish more than one
District Commission for a district, if the state Government finds it
necessary. In such cases one will be called the Principal District
Commission and the others Additional District Commissions.
For example, if a district has three District Commissions,
one will be the Principal District Commission, and the others will be
I-Additional and II-Additional District Commissions, respectively.

Constitution of the District Commission (Sec. 28(2))

Sec 28 (2) provides that each District Commission shall
consist of—
1) A President; and
2) Not less than two and not more than such number of
members as may be prescribed, in consultation with the Central
Government.
Qualifications of President and Members (Rule. 4)
Rule 4 of provides for the qualification and appointment of
President and members of the District Commission.
According to Sub-Rule (1), the President of the District
Commission shall be –
1) a sitting judge of a District Court;
2) a former judge of a District Court; or
3) a person qualified to be a judge of District Court.
– 34 –
 4) According to sub-Rule (2), the Member of the District
Commission shall be of at least 35 years of age;
5) graduate from a recognised University;
6) having ability, integrity and standing, and
7) having special knowledge and professional experience of not
less than fifteen years in consumer affairs, law, public affairs,
administration, economics, commerce, industry, finance,
management, engineering, technology, public health or
medicine.
If the President of the Commission is not a woman, at least
one of the members of the Commission shall be a woman.
Term of Office (Rule 10)
Every member of the District Commission is to hold office
for a term of 4 years or up to the age of 65 years, whichever is
earlier.
He shall be eligible for re-appointment for one more term of
4 years subject to the age limit of 65 years. Such reappointment is
made on the basis of the recommendation of the Selection
Committee.
Jurisdiction
A) Original Jurisdiction (Sec 34)
B) Pecuniary Jurisdiction (Sec 34(1))
District Commission has original jurisdiction to entertain
complaints where the value of claim is up to Rs 1 Crore.
Subject to the other provisions of this Act, the District
Commission shall have jurisdiction to entertain complaints where
the value of the goods or services paid as consideration does not
exceed one Crore rupees.
 Proviso to Sec 34 (1) empowers the Central Government to
alter the pecuniary jurisdiction of the District Commissions.
– 35 –

C) Territorial Jurisdiction (Sec 34(2))

Every District Commission has definite geographical
limits within which it can exercise its jurisdiction.
1) If –
(a) there is only one opposite party, he must
(b) there are more than one opposite party, all of them or
any one or more of them must
(i) ordinarily reside,
(ii) carry on business,
(iii) have a branch office, or
(iv)personally work for gain within the
jurisdiction of the District Commission.
If only one or some of the opposite parties, but not
all of them, reside, etc. within the jurisdiction of the
District Commission, complaint may be made to that
District Commission only with the prior permission of
that District Commission.
2) The cause of action, wholly or in part, must arise within
the jurisdiction of the District Commission.
3) The complainant resides or personally works for gain
within the jurisdiction of the District Commission.
D) Review Jurisdiction (Sec 40)
The District Commission has the power to review any of the
order passed by it if there is an error apparent on the face of the
record, either of its own motion or on an application made by any of
the parties within thirty days of such order.
– 36 –

State Commission (Sec 42)

In every State, a State Commission is established to decide
Consumer Disputes. The compositions of the State Commission is
detailed out by the Consumer Protection Act, 2019 most of the
things regarding the qualifications, appointment and conditions of
service of the Presidents and members of the Consumer
Commissions are left to the Central Government, to be prescribed
through Rules.

Constitution of the State Commission (Sec 42(3))

Sec 42 (3) provides that each State Commission shall consist
of –
1) a President; and
2) not less than four or not more than such number of members as
may be prescribed in consultation with the Central
Government.

Appointment and Tenure of the President and Members (Sec 43)

Sec 43 provides that the Central Government may, by
notification, make rules to provide for –
1) the qualifications,
2) method of recruitment,
3) procedure for appointment,
4) term of office,
5) Resignation and removal of the President and members of the
State Commission.
 In pursuance of the powers granted by Sec 29, the Central
Government has framed the Consumer Protection (Qualification for
Appointment, Method of Recruitment, Procedure of Appointment, Term
of Office, Resignation and Removal of the President and Members of the
State Commission and District Commission) Rules, 2020.
– 37 –

Jurisdiction (Sec 47)

A) Original Jurisdiction (Sec 47(1) (a) (i) & (ii))
B) Pecuniary Jurisdiction
Sec 47(1) (a) provides that subject to the other provisions
of this Act, the State Commission shall have jurisdiction to
entertain –
(i) complaints where the value of the goods or services paid
as consideration,
(ii) exceeds Rupees One Crore, but does not exceed rupees
ten Crore:
Proviso to Sec 47 (1) (a) (i) empowers the Central
Government to alter the pecuniary Jurisdiction of the
State Commissions if it deems it necessary so to, as it
deems fit.
(iii) Complaints against unfair contracts, where the value
of goods or services paid as consideration does not
exceed Ten Crore Rupees.
C) Territorial Jurisdiction (Sec 47(4))
The principles applicable for determining territorial
jurisdiction of State Commission are the same as those
applicable to District Commission.
 D) Appellate Jurisdiction (Sec 47(1) (a) (iii))
Sec 47 (1) (a) (iii) empowers State Commissions to hear
and decide appeals against the orders of any District
Commission within the State.

– 38 –

E) Revisional Jurisdiction (Sec 47(1)(b))

Under Sec 47(1) (b) State Commission has the power
to call for the records and pass appropriate orders in any
consumer dispute which is –
1) pending before, or
2) has been decided by any District Commission
within the State.
Grounds for Revision
Where it appears to the State Commission that such
District Commission –
(i) has exercised a jurisdiction not vested in it by law;
(ii) has failed to exercise a jurisdiction so vested; or
(iii) has acted in exercise of its jurisdiction illegally or
with material irregularity.
F) Review Jurisdiction (Sec 50)
The State Commission has the power, under Sec 50,
to review any of the order passed by it if there is an error
apparent on the face of the record, either of its own motion or
on an application made by any of the parties within 30 days
of such order.
Exercise of Jurisdiction through Benches (Sec 47(2) & (3))
 Sec 47 (2) provides that the jurisdiction, powers and
authority of the State Commission may be exercised by Benches
thereof. A Bench may be constituted by the President with one or
more members as the President may deem fit.

– 39 –

Proviso to Sec 47 (2) lays down that the senior-most member

shall preside over the Bench.
Where the members of a Bench differ in opinion on any
point, the points shall be decided according to the opinion of the
majority. If the members are equally divided, they shall state the
point or points on which they differ, and make a reference to the
President.
The President shall either hear the point or points himself or
refer the case for hearing on such point or points by one or more of
the other members, and such point or points shall be decided
according to the opinion of the majority of the members who have
heard the case, including those who first heard it.
Proviso to Sec 47 (3) requires that the opinion on reference
shall be given within a period of one month from the date of such
reference.
NATIONAL COMMISSION (Sec 53)
The National Commission is the top most layer in the three
level hierarchy of the Consumer Forums.
Establishment of the National Commission (Sec 53(1))
Sec 53 (1) provides that Central Government shall establish a
National Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission.
Constitution of the National Commission (Sec 54)
Sec 54 provides that the National Commission shall consist
of –
1) a President; and
2) not less than four or not more than such number of members as
may be prescribed in consultation with the Central
Government.

– 40 –

Appointment of the President and Members (Sec 55)

Sec 55 provides that the Central Government may, by
notification, make Rules to provide for –
1) the qualifications,
2) method of recruitment,
3) procedure for appointment,
4) term of office,
5) resignation and removal; and
6) other terms and conditions of service of the President and
members of the National Commission.

In pursuance of the powers granted by Sec 184 of the

Finance Act, 2017, the Central Government has framed the
Tribunal, Appellate Tribunal and other Authorities
(Qualifications, Experience and other Conditions of Service of
Members) Rules, 2017.
 Entry 16 in the Table given in the Schedule provides for the
qualifications, appointment, term of office and age of retirement of
the President and Members of the National Tribunal.
Qualifications of President and Members (Rule 3)
Rule 3 r/w Column 3 of Entry 16 of the Table in the
Schedule appended to the Tribunal, Appellate Tribunal Rules, 2017
provides for the qualifications and appointment of President and
members of the National Commission. Accordingly, the President of
the National Commission shall be –

– 41 –

(1) –
(a) sitting judge of the Supreme Court;
(b) a former judge of the Supreme Court; or
(c) a person qualified to be a Judge of the Supreme Court; or
(2) –
(a) sitting Chief Justice of a High Court; or
(b) a former Chief Justice of a High Court; or
(3) has, for a period not less than three years, held office of Member
or Judicial Member; or
(4) (a) is a person of ability, integrity and standing, and
(b) having special knowledge of, and professional experience of
not less than twenty-five years in economics, business, commerce,
law, finance, accountancy, management, industry, public
affairs, administration or any other matter which in the opinion
of the Central Government, is useful to the National
Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission.
A Member of the National Commission shall be –
 1. a person of ability, integrity and standing;
2. having special knowledge of, and professional experience of
not less than twenty years in economics, business, commerce,
law, finance, accountancy, management, industry, public
affairs, administration or any other matter which in the
opinion of the Central Government, is useful to the National
Consumer Disputes Redressal Commission.
There are two categories of members in a National
Commission –
1) Judicial Members, and 2) Non-Judicial Members.
– 42 –

A person to be qualified to be appointed as a Judicial

Member, shall be –
(1) –
(a) A sitting judge of a High Court;
(b) a former judge of a High Court; or
(c) is qualified to be, a Judge of a High Court; or
(2) a person who has, for at least ten years, held a Judicial
office in the territory of India.

If the President of the Commission is not a woman, at least

one of the members of the Commission shall be a woman.
Term of Office (Provisos to Sec 55(1))
The first proviso to Sec 55 (1) provides that the President and
members of the National Commission shall hold office for such term
as specified in the rules made by the Central Government but not
exceeding five years from the date on which he enters upon his
office and shall be eligible for re-appointment.
 Column 5 of the Schedule to the Tribunal, Appellate
Tribunal Rules, 2017 provides that the term of President and
Members of the National Commission is Three years.
Second proviso to Sec 55 (1) provides that no President or
members shall hold office as such after he has attained such age as
specified in the rules made by the Central Government which shall
not exceed –
(a) in the case of the President, the age of seventy years;
(b) in the case of any other member, the age of sixty-seven
years.
– 43 –

Column 6 of the Schedule to the Tribunal, Appellate

Tribunal Rules, 2017 provides that the age of retirement of
President and Members shall be 70 years. But as per the second
proviso to Sec 55 (1) restricts the age of retirement of a member of
National Commission to 67 years.

Jurisdiction (Sec 58)

A) Original Jurisdiction (Sec 58(1) (a) (i) & (ii))
B) Pecuniary Jurisdiction
Sec 58 (1) (a) provides that subject to the other
provisions of this Act, the National Commission shall have
jurisdiction to entertain –
1) complaints where the value of the goods or services paid as
consideration, exceeds Rupees Ten Crores;
 Proviso to Sec 58 (1) (a) (i) empowers the Central
Government to alter the Pecuniary Jurisdiction of the National
Commission if it deems it necessary so to, as it deems fit.
2) Complaints against unfair contracts, where the value of goods
or services paid as consideration exceeds Ten Crore Rupees.
C) Territorial Jurisdiction
The Territorial Jurisdiction of the National
Commission is whole of India.
However, the Consumer Protection Act is applicable
only if the cause of action arises in India. If the cause of
action arises out of India, National Commission has no
jurisdiction over the matter as it cannot be tried in India
under the Act.
– 44 –

Gulab Hotchand Bhagchandaney Vs Egyptian Airlines;

The complainant alleged that they were not properly
treated by the Egyptian Airlines authorities at Barcelona. It was
held that the cause of action arose at Barcelona, so the complaint
under the Act is not maintainable in India.
D) Appellate Jurisdiction (Sec 58 (1) (a) (iii) & (iv))
Sec 58 (1) (a) empowers National Commission to
hear and decide appeals against the orders of –
1) any State Commission; and
2) the Central Consumer Protection Authority.
E) Revisional Jurisdiction (Sec 58(1)(b))
Under Sec 58 (1) (b) National Commission has the
power to call for the records and pass appropriate orders in
any consumer dispute which is –
 1) pending before, or
2) has been decided by any State Commission.
F) Review Jurisdiction (Sec 60)
The National Commission has the power, under Sec
60, to review any of the order passed by it if there is an error
apparent on the face of the record, either of its own motion or
on an application made by any of the parties within 30 days
of such order.

– 45 –

Exercise of Jurisdiction through Benches (Sec 58 (2) & (3))

Sec 58 (2) provides that the jurisdiction, powers and
authority of the National Commission may be exercised by Benches
thereof. A Bench may be constituted by the President with one or
more members as the President may deem fit.
Proviso to Sec 58 (2) lays down that the senior-most member
shall preside over the Bench.
Where the members of a Bench differ in opinion on any
point, the points shall be decided according to the opinion of the
majority. If the members are equally divided, they shall state the
point or points on which they differ, and make a reference to the
President.
 The President shall either hear the point or points himself or
refer the case for hearing on such point or points by one or more of
the other members, and such point or points shall be decided
according to the opinion of the majority of the members who have
heard the case, including those who first heard it.
Proviso to Sec 58 (3) requires that the opinion on reference
shall be given within a period of two months from the date of such
reference.

– 46 –

Motor Vehicle Act

1. State the salient features of Motor Vehicle Act, 1988.

(Dec 2022, Dec 2021, Apr 2021, Dec
2019)
2. Explain the “liability without fault” and application for
compensation under Motor Vehicle Act, 1988. (Dec
2021)
3. Write a short note on Third Party Insurance (June
2019)

Introduction
 The Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 is a Central Act (an Act of the
Parliament of India) which regulates all aspects of road transport
vehicles. The Act came into force from 1st July 1989. It replaced
Motor Vehicles Act, 1939 which earlier replaced the first such
enactment Motor Vehicles Act, 1914.
In view of heavy casualty all over India, by motor accidents
which are, in a majority of cases, arising out of violation of traffic
rules, in 2019, sweeping amendments were brought to the Motor
Vehicles Act. The amendment introduced new traffic offences, and
sharply enhanced the penalties under the Act. Further, to save the
lives of the victims, it has made special provisions. Good Samaritans
have been given protection against Police harassment.

Adieu ceremony of the retiring judges of the madras high

court is very traditional and practising till date, by sharing this vedio
clip the young advocates may get cherished and admired our legal
practice and it vicinity.
ed long since from immemrorial