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Design Is A Job 2nd Edition Mike Monteiro Full Chapter
Design Is A Job 2nd Edition Mike Monteiro Full Chapter
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"schizogamy" makes its appearance in certain Syllidae, resulting in the formation
of two morphologically and physiologically distinct individuals which lead
independent lives. The appearance of a head and of a zone of proliferation leading
to the formation of a chain of sexual zooids is accompanied by a delay in the
appearance of the genital organs, for in Autolytus these arise during the formation
of the new individuals, as part of the general process of new formation; whilst in
Myrianida the delay is prolonged, and the generative elements do not make their
appearance till after the new individuals have reached some size.
More simple cases of the separation of the body into two parts, sexual and
asexual, occur also in some of the Serpulidae. Thus in Filigrana and Salmacina
the generative elements make their appearance in the hinder segments, as they
do throughout the Sabelliformia; and this hinder part of the body separates from
the anterior region after the formation of a new head between the two regions.[336]
Moreover, not only can new segments arise at the hinder end, but a new head
can be formed at the anterior end, as has been observed in worms belonging
to many families—in the less modified Syllidae,[338] in others of the
Nereidiformia, and even in Sabellids, where the greatly specialised gill
filaments can be reproduced. Thus Sir J. Dalyell[339] noted in Dasychone that
the crown of branchiae was regenerated in about a month in springtime, while
in winter the process occupied 116 days. He cut a Dasychone into three
pieces; the hindermost produced a head, the anterior piece developed an
anus, and the middle portion formed both a head and tail!
These regenerated heads are of course at first smaller than the rest of the
body, but soon grow to a normal size. Naturally this extensive power of
regeneration is of extreme value to the Polychaetes, for if a fish or other
enemy bites the head off a worm, a new one can form; and it is not difficult to
see in this the origin of the reproduction by fission as a normal process.
CHAPTER XI
All the many hundreds of species of Polychaetes are marine, with a very few
exceptions, which have been in recent years recorded from fresh (i.e.
drinkable) water, viz. a species of Nereis from a lake in Mingrelia, another
Nereis and a Lumbriconereis from running water in Trinidad,[340] a Sabellid,
Manayunkia speciosa,[341] from Philadelphia; and another Sabellid,
Coabangia,[342] from fresh water at Tonquin, which lives in borings in shells of
Melania; and it is by no means improbable that other fresh-water Polychaetes
exist in Lake Tanganyika in Africa, where a Medusa has recently been
discovered.
The majority of the Polychaetes occur "inshore," that is, between tide-marks
and in shallow water down to 20 fathoms; but they occur at all depths more or
less abundantly, and some have been dredged from depths of more than
3000 fathoms.
The nature of the soil composing the shore has a good deal to do with the
number of worms to be found there; thus in calcareous districts they are fewer
than in places where harder rocks, such as granite, form the shore line, for
the chalk or limestone wears away more quickly, and exposes to destruction
the worms which may have sheltered in its crevices: further, it does not give
so permanent a place of attachment to seaweeds, on which many
Polychaetes feed. The calcareous rocks, too, are more likely to be traversed
by springs of fresh water, which is not to the taste of the worms. The sand
resulting from the destruction of the rocks, whether hard or soft, is of itself
unsuitable to the majority of worms, which are most abundant where mud
containing decaying vegetable matter is mixed with the sand: this, which
gives a firmer consistency to the soil, so that the burrows retain their form
better, supplies food for the burrowers.
General Habits.—The division of the Polychaetes into the "Errantia" or free-
swimming and wandering forms, and "Sedentaria" or tubicolous and
sedentary forms, is a misleading mode of classification, for as a matter of fact
only a comparatively few forms are really free-swimming throughout life; the
majority, even if they do not form definite tubes, burrow galleries for
themselves in the soil, and these burrows are in many cases only rarely left;
this is true of both groups. Amongst the "errant" Polychaetes nearly all the
Eunicidae secrete a parchment-like tube, and some Polynoids form mud
tubes. Among the "sedentary worms" there are forms which merely burrow;
while Myxicola readily leaves its gelatinous tube and swims freely; Pectinaria
carries its house with it as it moves about, and Polycirrus, a Terebellid, does
not form any tube at all.
Amongst the rocks may be found loose stones of different sizes; on lifting
them up, various kinds of worms may be brought to light, according to the
locality, the time of year, the position with respect to the sea, and so on.
Polynoë is pretty sure to be present somewhere near low-tide mark; the
number of species is considerable, and their colouring very varied: but as the
worms have a habit of remaining still on the under surface of the uplifted
stone, the observer may easily overlook them.
Other worms occur below the stones, more or less buried in the sand or mud;
for instance, a small Nereis may be lying in its temporary burrow immediately
underneath, and will at once withdraw from the now injured part of the burrow;
while deeper in the mud or sand, especially in rather highly-smelling mud,
little red worms are abundant, such as Scoloplos, Nerine, Capitella, and
others. By digging near low water one may find Nephthys, Glycera, and
others burrowing or hiding in the soil.
In rock pools, or sandy stretches amongst rocks kept moist and cool by
abundant Fucus, one may see under stones the red or yellow gill filaments of
Cirratulus and of Terebellids protruding from their burrows and tubes, while
other worms are to be met with in clefts of the rocks, and amongst the roots of
Laminaria.
Still farther out, below low-water mark, where one must wade, can be seen
the beautiful branchial crowns of various Sabellids protruding from their tubes;
but care is necessary on approaching these worms, as eyes are, in many
cases, present on the branchiae and a shadow is readily perceived; then the
brightly-coloured tuft disappears, and only a piece of sandy or muddy
cylindrical tubing remains to tell where the Sabella has withdrawn. In order to
obtain the worms one must dig quickly and deeply before they have been
disturbed; for the tube is of considerable length, and the inhabitant withdraws
to the bottom of it. Some of these soft-skinned worms have the power of
boring into hard rocks,[343] though by what means they do so is uncertain.
[344] Polydora ciliata makes a tube of mud projecting from the mouth of U-
shaped galleries in chalk, limestone, shells, and even shale; it has no hard
jaws or other structures sufficient to account for the holes, but it is possible
that the specially strong chaetae on the sixth segment may be of some use in
this work. Other lithodomous worms are Sabella saxicava and Dodecaceria
concharum, which is a common little borer, forming galleries in oyster-shells,
etc.
But the process of tube-making is not a simple one, for in many cases, at
least, the worms exhibit definite powers of choice. Thus some species of
Sabella choose only the very finest particles of mud; Terebella conchilega
chooses fragments of shell and grains of sand; Onuphis conchylega employs
small stones more or less of a size; Sabellaria makes use only of sand grains.
Whilst some worms, like Terebella, Nicomache, and others, make a very
irregular tube, Pectinaria builds a most remarkably neat house, open at each
end, which it carries about with it, the narrow end uppermost (Fig. 152); the
grains of sand are nearly all of the same size and only one layer in thickness,
embedded in abundant "mucus," and with the outer surface quite smooth.
Fig. 153.—The upper end of the tube of Terebella conchilega. Slightly enlarged.
(From M‘Intosh.)
"Let a tall and ample crystal jar containing a Sabella be emptied of its
contents and speedily replenished with sea-water; the animal, if in view, has
retreated during the short interval; the orifice of the tube is closed, all is at
rest. But soon after replenishment it rises, to display its branchial plume still
more vigorously than before, and remains stationary, as if enjoying the
freshness of the renovated element, always so grateful—the harbinger of
health and strength to those whose dwelling is there. The passing spectator
would conclude that he now beholds only a beautiful flower, completely
expanded, inclining towards the light like some of those ornaments of nature
decorating our gardens. He pauses in admiration. But if a drop of liquid mud
falls amidst the element from above, disturbing its purity, then, while the
plume unfolds to its utmost capacity, does the animal commence a slow
revolution, the body also passing around within the tube. Now are the
thousands of cilia fringing the ribs [i.e. the secondary filaments] of the
branchiae discovered to be in vigorous activity, and their office to be
wondrous. A loose muddy mass is soon afterwards visibly accumulating in the
bottom of the funnel; meantime the neck or first segment of the body, rising
unusually high above the orifice of the tube, exhibits two trowels beating down
the thin edge as they fold and clasp over the margin, like our fingers pressing
a flattened cake against the palm of the hand. [This refers to the lappets of
the peristomial collar.] During these operations muddy collections are seen
descending between the roots of the fans [right and left gills] towards the
trowels, while another organ, perhaps the mouth, is also occupied, it may be,
in compounding the preparation with adhesive matter. Still does the partial or
complete revolution of the plume above, and of the body within the tube,
continue; the bulk of the muddy mass diminishes, activity abates; it is
succeeded by repose, when the tube is found to have received evident
prolongation."
Fig. 154.—Terebella conchilega Pall. Upper end of the tube (s) showing the
anterior end of the worm. h, Its head; t, tentacles collecting sand grains (y)
in their grooves; x, sand grains in mouth of worm; f, filamentous fringe of
tube. (After Watson.)
The majority of worms are solitary, but there are a few instances of social
worms—not that there is any co-operation or distribution of labour amongst
the individuals, but they merely occur together in quantities; thus the sandy
tubes of Sabellaria may form compact masses of several cubic feet, which,
left uncovered by the receding tide, look like rocks upon the shore; as, for
instance, at Paignton and Torquay. Filigrana implexa and Serpula uncinata
similarly intertwine their calcareous tubes to form masses.
Whereas most worms live at the bottom of the sea, at various depths, a few
are to be found at the surface. Purely pelagic habits are confined to a few
families, viz. Tomopteridae, Typhloscolecidae, and the Alciopids and others
amongst the Phyllodocidae; though Nectochaeta, one of the Polynoidae, and
Ophryotrocha, one of the Eunicidae, are modified for this mode of life.[349]
Several genera become pelagic during the breeding season. All these forms
are excellent swimmers, and many of them are transparent.
When seen in the living and healthy condition, however, these Polychaete
worms vie with the very butterflies in their brilliant and beautiful colourings,
and though our own worms are not lacking in beauty, many tropical and
southern forms exceed them in gayness of tint. Bright reds, orange, yellows,
greens, blues, rich violets, and sombre browns are all displayed.[351]
The handsome Terebella nebulosa of our own coasts is coloured bright red,
sprinkled with white spots. Nicomache lumbricalis is pink, with red girdles.
Eunicids are frequently red or brown, and the red gills along each side,
together with a brilliant iridescence, render these worms very beautiful.
Nereids present a great range of coloration, from light green to sundry tints of
brown and red in various combinations. Amongst the Serpulids our common
S. vermicularis is a very showy little worm, with its orange body, its red gills
splashed with orange, and its orange operculum streaked with red; and a
Southern form, Placostegus coeruleus, occurring at the Cape of Good Hope,
is provided with beautiful lavender-blue gills. Our own Sabellids present
examples of beautiful markings on the gills, in different colours or in different
shades of the same colour. Amongst Polynoids, P. leucohyba, from the
Antilles, has blue elytra; Hemilepidia erythrotaenia, a long worm from the
Cape of Good Hope, has the anterior end of its body covered with light blue
elytra, whilst the uncovered part is orange, with a broad magenta-red band
along the dorsal surface.
The Phyllodocids are mostly very brightly coloured. The common P.
lamelligera of our coast has a bluish-green body, with olive-green parapodia;
but Lopadorhynchus erythrophyllum, from Jamaica, has a blue body with red
parapodia; whilst Notophyllum myriacyclum has a brown body with
longitudinal dark-brown stripes and yellow parapodia. Both these worms live
in coral reefs, where brilliancy of colour is one of the characteristic features of
the fauna. Other worms are of various shades of green: the dark green
Arenicola with red gills; the bright green Eulalia viridis; the deep green
Amphinome smaragdina, from Jamaica; Gnathosyllis diplodonta, with its
green and yellow body, serve as examples.
The production of the light in these various forms is apparently due to two
different processes. In some cases, e.g. Chaetopterus, Syllids, Terebellids, it
appears to be due to the oxidation of certain cell contents which are
discharged more or less freely on irritation of the nerves; whilst in Polynoids
the phenomenon is due to some purely nervous process, for the elytra have
no glands, but are provided with ganglia and a nervous network.
In the case of deep-sea forms, it is an interesting fact that the intestines are
not unfrequently crammed with Radiolaria and Foraminifera in a fairly fresh,
uninjured condition, indicating that these Rhizopods do not merely sink to the
bottom, but must actually live there.[355]
The economic purposes to which Polychaetes are put are few; they are
used either as bait for fishes or as food for man.
One of the commonest baits used for certain fish, as all who have done any
sea-fishing off the piers of our coasts know, is the common lug-worm
(Arenicola marina), whilst Nephthys caeca and Nereis fucata are also used in
some places; and for whiting Nereis cultrifera and N. diversicolor. Marphysa
sanguinea, known to the fishermen in some parts as "varme," is less
frequently used.
As for species, it can be said generally that the different oceanic areas and
even different coasts present different species, but we know practically
nothing of variation amongst Polychaeta, and many so called species may be
mere local varieties, for frequently the descriptions of "new species" are
scarcely intelligible. At any rate we know that certain species occur at widely
separated localities, for two or three species of Polynoids occur in Japan, and
again at Dinard on the French coast. A considerable number of species are
common to both sides of the North Atlantic ocean, having been obtained off
Norway and in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. A few of these which are
common on our coasts may be enumerated:—Nereis pelagica, Nicomache
lumbricalis, Glycera capitata, Thelepus cincinnatus, Scoloplos armiger,
Sabella pavonia, Ophelia limacina, Aphrodite aculeata, Trophonia plumosa,
Polynoë squamata, Capitella capitata, Sthenelais limicola.
The "deep-sea" forms are chiefly tubicolous, and since these tubes are fixed
and partially embedded in the bottom, probably comparatively few are
brought up. Some genera occur at very great depths; thus the Terebellid
Leaena abyssorum and the Serpulid Placostegus benthalianus were brought
up from 3125 fathoms—the greatest depth from which Polychaetes were
obtained by H.M.S. "Challenger"; and it is interesting to note that species of
each of these two genera occur in shallow water, the Serpulid being
represented in our own coast fauna by P. tricuspidata.
Amongst our own fauna, a few examples may be given of the "replacement of
species."[361] The littoral Sthenelais boa is represented by S. limicola in
deeper water; Sabellaria alveolata by S. spinulosa; Polynoë imbricata by
several deep-water species. Similarly with genera: the littoral Pomatoceros is
replaced by Serpula in deeper water; and the Hesionid Psamathe by Castalia.
Fig. 159.—Eunicites avitus Ehl. A fossil worm from the lithographic slate of
Solenhofen: the jaws are seen in front, and the acicula along each side.
(From Ehlers.) Natural size.
Amongst the Nereidiformia the remains are fewer, but the acicula and the
hard jaws are preserved in certain rocks, and can be referred to existing
families. Eunicites avitus[363] is represented by a double series of acicula,
indicating the parapodia of the two sides; and by remains of both upper and
lower jaws (Fig. 159). Four different species of the worm have been described
from the lithographic slate of Bavaria, of Jurassic age; and several upper jaws
of other Eunicids have been discovered in the Palaeozoic beds of Canada
and Scotland, and have received the names Lumbriconereites, Oenonites,
and Arabellites, in reference to their nearest allies amongst living genera.
There are, however, numerous remains, in the forms of tracks or casts, in the
earlier rocks, which have been referred to the Polychaeta. The names
Crossopodia, Myrianites, Nereites, Phyllodocites, have been given to some of
these traces, though they are open to numerous other interpretations. Some
of the "tracks" are similar to those made by living Crustacea in walking over
wet sand; others appear to be the casts of some animals. Tubular burrows in
rocks or fossils, some straight, others U-shaped, have received such names
as Arenicolites, Scolithus, Histioderma; whilst under the name Lumbricaria
certain cylindrical, coiled structures, resembling worm "castings," are met with
in this same lithographic stone of Solenhofen. Many of the tubes referred to
Polychaetes by the earlier palaeontologists have been transferred to other
groups; thus Cornulites is now believed to be a Pteropod shell.
This very meagre geological record is quite insufficient to form any basis for a
phylogeny of the group. And this poor supply of remains is not surprising,
when we consider the soft nature of the tissues, the absence, in the majority
of families, of skeleton and of other parts which could have been fossilised;
yet we might have expected a greater abundance of fossilised jaws than is
represented at present. But it must be borne in mind that the conditions of life
of these soft-bodied animals are not conducive to their leaving abundant
fossilised remains.
CHAPTER XII